Bsit sem 2 english (version last)

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FUNCTIONAL ENGLISH

An Anthology of Basic English Grammar and Study Skills

FUNCTIONAL ENGLISH


Aasma Naseer

Basic English Grammar with a description of traditional parts of speech in English along with Exercises to test the comprehension of the subject.

Aasma Naseer BSIT Sem II (English Composition & Comprehension)

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ContentsContents...........................................................................................................2

SECTION I: USE OF GRAMMAR....................................................................6

CHAPTER 1: PHRASES, CLAUSES AND SENTENCE............................................6

PHRASES..................................................................................................................................................................... 6

KINDS OF PHRASES...................................................................................................................................... 6

CLAUSES..................................................................................................................................................................... 7

Types of clauses............................................................................................................................................. 7

SENTENCE................................................................................................................................................................. 8

PARTS OF A SENTENCE............................................................................................................................. 8

TYPES OF SENTENCES................................................................................................................................ 9

EXERCISES: TYPES OF SENTENCES................................................................................................... 10

EXERCISE: TYPES OF SENTENCES...................................................................................................... 11

CHAPTER 2: Nouns.........................................................................................12

Number of Nouns.............................................................................................................................................. 13

HOW TO MAKE PLURALS....................................................................................................................... 13

GENDER.................................................................................................................................................................... 15

FORMING NOUNS.............................................................................................................................................. 15

EXERCISES.....................................................................................................20

( 1.1) EXERCISE - COMMON NOUNS.................................................................................................20

( 1.2) EXERCISE - PROPER NOUNS..................................................................................................... 20

( 1.3) EXERCISE - ABSTRACT NOUNS..............................................................................................21

( 1.4) EXERCISE - COLLECTIVE NOUNS..........................................................................................21

( 1.5) EXERCISE - COUNTABLE & UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS.............................................22

( 1.6) EXERCISE - GENDER........................................................................................................................ 22

( 1.7) EXERCISE - FORMING NOUNS FROM NOUNS.............................................................24

CHAPTER 2: Pronouns....................................................................................25

Personal Pronouns........................................................................................................................................... 25

Interrogative Pronouns................................................................................................................................ 25


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Relative Pronouns............................................................................................................................................ 27

CASE............................................................................................................................................................................ 29

OTHER MINOR KINDS.................................................................................................................................... 29

CHAPTER 3: Verbs..........................................................................................32

COMPLEX CLASSIFICATION...........................................................................33

Stative and Dynamic Verbs..................................................................................................................... 33

Dynamic verbs.................................................................................................................................................... 34

Stative verbs........................................................................................................................................................ 35

Functional Classification............................................................................................................................. 37

1. Helping Verbs........................................................................................................................................... 38

2. Main Verbs.................................................................................................................................................. 39

Linking verbs................................................................................................................................................... 40

Regular and irregular verbs............................................................................................................... 40

ENGLISH VERB TENSES -- TIME and ASPECT = MEANING...............................41

TIME........................................................................................................................................................................ 41

ASPECT................................................................................................................................................................. 41

MEANING............................................................................................................................................................. 42

ENGLISH VERB TENSES -- FORMS of the VERB...............................................42

FORMS OF THE VERB and AUXILIARIES.........................................................................................43

EXERCISES.....................................................................................................43

(1.1) Verb Classification Quiz................................................................................................................. 43

Identify the verb type.....................................................................................43

(1.2) Can, Could, Be able to Quiz.................................................................................................... 44

(1.3) EXERCISE - AUXILIARY VERBS................................................................................................44

(1.4) EXERCISE - SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE.................................................................................46

(1.5) EXERCISE - PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE.................................................................46

(1.6) EXERCISE - PRESENT PERFECT TENSE............................................................................46

(1.7) EXERCISE - PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE.........................................47

( 1.8) EXERCISE - PAST SIMPLE TENSE.........................................................................................47

( 1.9) EXERCISE - PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE.........................................................................47

( 1.10) EXERCISE - PAST PERFECT TENSE..................................................................................48


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( 1.11) EXERCISE - PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE..............................................48

(1.12) EXERCISE - AUXILIARY VERBS.............................................................................................49

(1.13) EXERCISE AUXILLIARY VERBS..............................................................................................49

CHAPTER 4: ADJECTIVES................................................................................51

KINDS OF ADJECTIVE..................................................................................................................................... 51

ADJECTIVE FORMATION............................................................................................................................... 52

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES................................................................................................................ 53

FORMING ADJECTIVES.................................................................................................................................. 54

ADJECTIVE ORDER........................................................................................................................................... 57

( 1.1) EXERCISE - COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES............................................59

Order of Adjectives......................................................................................................................................... 59

CHAPTER 5: ADVERBS...................................................................................61

Types of Adverbs.............................................................................................................................................. 61

Comparison of Adverbs............................................................................................................................... 63

FORMING ADVERBS........................................................................................................................................ 64

EXERCISE - TYPES OF ADVERBS.......................................................................................................... 67

CHAPTER 6: PREPOSITIONS............................................................................69

TYPES OF PREPOSTION................................................................................................................................ 69

1.1 EXERCISE - PREPOSITIONS.............................................................................................................. 69

1.2 EXERCISE - PREPOSITIONS............................................................................................................ 70

CHAPTER 7: CONJUNCTIONS..........................................................................72

EXERCISE - CONJUNCTIONS..................................................................................................................... 73

CHAPTER 8: INTERJECTION.............................................................................74

PART II: STUDY SKILLS .............................................................................76

Chapter 9: LISTENING SKILLS.........................................................................76

What does it mean to really listen?..................................................................................................76

STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE LISTENING SKILLS...........................................................................77

TEN BAD LISTENING HABITS................................................................................................................... 80

Chapter 10: READING SKILLS.........................................................................85

ACTIVE READING............................................................................................................................................... 89

FOUR READING STRATEGIES..........................................................................92


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STEPS TO FOLLOW IN SKIMMING FOR THE MAIN IDEAS..................................94

CHAPTER 10: SKILLS FOR TAKING LECTURES & NOTES..................................96

1. Making the most of Lectures............................................................................................................ 96

2. Taking notes................................................................................................................................................... 98

CHAPTER 11: TEN TIMELESS PERSUASIVE WRITING TECHNIQUES................104

CHAPTER 12: SKILLS FOR EXAMS.................................................................108

Revising for Exams....................................................................................................................................... 108

Taking exams.................................................................................................................................................... 113

CHAPTER 13: SKILLS FOR READING COMPREHENSION................................115

What is reading comprehension....................................................................................................... 115

Recognizing Organizational Patterns............................................................................................115

Levels of Comprehension....................................................................................................................... 116

Level One......................................................................................................................................................... 116

Level Two......................................................................................................................................................... 117

Level Three.................................................................................................................................................... 117

Comprehension Skill Strategies........................................................................................................ 117

Comprehension Skill Strategies: While You Are Reading.......................................118

Comprehension Skill Strategies: After You Read...........................................................118

Comprehension Skill Strategies: Summary........................................................................118

Exercise............................................................................................................................................................. 122

COMPREHENSION PRACTCE.................................................................................................................. 122

SECTION I: USE OF GRAMMARAasma Naseer BSIT Sem II (English Composition & Comprehension)

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PART 1: SENTENCE

CHAPTER 1: PHRASES, CLAUSES AND SENTENCE

PHRASES

English phrases are groups of words, without both a subject and a verb, functioning as a single part of speech.

This means that while an English phrase is made up of multiple words (all of which have their own function), all of the words work together to perform one larger function.

Example: We walked through the park.

Through the park is a prepositional phrase. As a whole, the phrase is functioning as an adverb modifying the verb walked.

Each word in the phrase has its own job too. ‘Through’ is a preposition, ‘the’ is an adjective, and ‘park’ is a noun (the object of the preposition). But the important thing to note is that all of the words come together to work as one part of speech, an adverb.

KINDS OF PHRASES

Below are discussed a few very common kinds of English phrases.

1. VERB PHRASES:

A verb phrase is a group of words that works as a verb in a sentence. To be a verb phrase, the verb must be made up of a main verb and at least one helping verb.

Example: Now I must jump into the muck.

1. NOUN PHRASE

A noun phrase is a group of words that works as a noun in a sentence.


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Example: we enjoy playing cricket.

The boy wants to go home.

2. ADVERB PHRASE

An adverb phrase is a group of words that works as an adverb in a sentence.

Example: Nothing can live on the moon. (tells Where?)

He has painted her in the brightest colors. (tells How?)

3. ADJECTIVE PHRASE

An adjective phrase is a group of words that works as an adjective in a sentence.

Example: He dwelt in a hut made of Wood. (He dwelt in a wooden hut.)

The Rajput leader was a soldier full of hope and free from fear.

(The Rajput leader was a hopeful and fearless soldier.)

CLAUSES

Clauses are groups of words with a subject and a verb.

Example: They rested at sunset. (when: adverb phrase )

They rested when the evening came. (when: adverb clause)

You may on the chair. (where: adverb phrase)

You may sit wherever you like. (where: adverb clause )

Types of clauses

There are two main types of clauses:

Independent (principal or Main Clause)

Dependent (Subordinate clause)


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1. Independent

These can stand alone. They express a complete thought.

Example: They rested. (contains a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought)

2. Subordinate

These clauses cannot stand alone. They don't express a complete thought.

They cannot stand alone as a sentence because they make up only a part of a sentence. They are sentence fragments.

Example: when the evening came. (contains a subject and a verb but doesn’t express a complete thought)

SENTENCE

A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought and makes complete sense.

Examples:

The boy is sitting in the corner of the room.

Stone walls do not make a prison.

PARTS OF A SENTENCE

Every sentence is made of at least two parts:

1. A subject (someone or something)

2. A predicate (what someone is doing or what something is being done)

Examples:

SUBJECTS PREDICATES

The boy is sitting in the corner of the


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room.

Stone walls do not make a prison.

TYPES OF SENTENCES

We use different sentence types each day because we have different purposes for our sentences.

When we categorize sentences based on their purpose, there are four different types of sentences.

1. Declarative or Assertive2. Interrogative3. Imperative4. Exclamatory

1. Declarative or Assertive

A declarative sentence makes a statement, declaration or assertion. It is the most common type of sentence.

Example:

Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall. Every man has hid duties

2. Interrogative

An Interrogative sentence makes a question. It ends in a question mark (?).

Example:

Where do you live?

What is your favorite sport?

3. Imperative

An imperative sentence expresses a command, request, appeal, suggestion or direction. Imperatives begin with a verb.


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Example:

Be quiet.

Have mercy upon us.

4. Exclamatory

A sentence that expresses a strong feeling is called as An Exclamatory sentence. They end on an Exclamation mark (!).

Example:

How cold the night is!

I just love Cats!

EXERCISES: TYPES OF SENTENCES

Identify and label each sentence as declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory.

1. Where is my shovel?

2. This is the most beautiful lawn I have ever seen.

3. Please pass the lemonade.

4. My arms ache from digging the flower beds!

5. It takes hard work to plant all of these flowers.

6. Could you please give me the hose?

7. I am going to climb that tree.

8. The view from the top of this tree is amazing.

9. I can't get down!


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10. Please help me to climb down this tree.

EXERCISE: TYPES OF SENTENCES

Identify and label each sentence as declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory. Write the correct punctuation mark after each sentence.

1. This summer, my family will travel to Greece

2. I am so excited

3. Do you know where Greece is

4. Greece is home to many archaeological monuments

5. You should read Greek mythology

6. Greek mythology is full of adventures and legends

7. Hercules, Achilles, and Peruses are all heroes found in Greek mythology

8. Ready mythology will get you excited about traveling

9. Would you enjoy a trip to Greece

10. Come with us


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PART2: PARTS OF SPEECH

CHAPTER 2: Nouns

A noun is the name of a person, place, thing, idea or a state.

Nouns are divided into five different kinds : --

Proper Nouns

Common Nouns

Collective nouns

Material Nouns

Abstract Nouns

A Proper Noun is the name of a particular person, place, or thing.

eg : John ( person ); Palm Beach County ( place ); The Chinese ( people ); Books ( thing )

A Common Noun is a name that can be given to any person or thing of the same kind.

eg : Man, boy, table, dog

A Collective Noun is singular in form though denoting more than one.

eg : Herd, army, flock.Aasma Naseer BSIT Sem II (English Composition & Comprehension)

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A Material Noun is the name of a substance.

eg : Milk, iron, wood.

An Abstract noun is the name of a quality.

eg : Love, truth, color.

Number of Nouns

1. Number shows whether one is meant, or more than one. 2. There are two Numbers : --

The Singular Number

The Plural Number

The Singular number denotes only one object.

boy, girl

The Plural number denotes more than one object.

boys, girls.

HOW TO MAKE PLURALS

The Plural is generally formed by adding s to the Singular :

pen pens chair chairs


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book books garden gardens

When the noun ends in s, x, ch, or sh, the Plural is formed by adding es to the Singular : -

glass glasses watch watches

box boxes dish dishes

If the noun ends in y, and the y has consonant going before it, the Plural is formed by changing y into ies : -

duty duties army armies

fly flies lady ladies

But if the y has vowel going before it, the Plural is formed by simply adding s : --

day days key keys

boy boys monkey monkeys

Most nouns ending in f or fe form the Plural by changing f or fe into ves

calf calves life lives

knife knives wife wives

leaf leaves thief thieves

If the noun ends in o, and the o is preceded by a consonant, the Plural is generally ( not always ) formed by adding es to the Singular : --

cargo cargoes negro negroes

hero heroes potato potatoes


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But if the o is preceded by a vowel, the Plural is formed by simply adding s to the singular : --

bamboo bamboos curio curios

cuckoo cuckoos studio studios

Some nouns from their Plurals irregularly :

man men tooth teeth

woman women mouse mice

foot feet ox oxen

goose geese child children

Some Nouns have the same form in the Plural as in the Singular :

deer deer fish fish

sheep sheep dozen dozen ( dozens )

GENDER

Nouns have two major types of genders:

1. Masculine Gender – The masculine gender is used for all males. Example: boy, man

2. Feminine Gender – The feminine gender is used for all females. Example: girl, woman

FORMING NOUNS

Nouns can be formed from nouns, verbs and adjectives. They are


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formed by adding certain letters to them.

Nouns NounsWidow WidowhoodFriend FriendshipKing Kingdom

Verbs NounsAdd AdditionFail FailureGive Gift

Adjectives NounsClean CleanlinessSad SadnessBeautiful Beauty

NOUNS VERBS ADJECTIVES NOUNSabsent absence

act actionadd additionagree agreement

angry angerarrive arrivalattend attention

bad badnessbeautiful beauty

begin beginningbehave behavior

brave braverybreathe breath

bright brightnessbroad breadth

brother brotherhoodbusy business

child childhoodchoose choice

clean cleanliness


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collect collectioncorrect correction

cruel crueltydark darknessdeep depth

describe descriptiondie deathdivide divisiondo deeddraw drawing

dry drynessenjoy enjoymententer entranceexplain explanationfail failure

fat fatnessfeed food

fit fitnessfoolish foolishnessfree freedom

friend friendshipgive gift

glad gladnessgood goodnessgreat greatness

grow growthhappy happiness

hate hatredheal health

high heighthonest honestyhungry hunger

imagine imaginationinstruct instructioninvent inventioninvite invitationjudge judgement


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kind kindnessking kingdom,

kingshipknow knowledgelaugh laughter

lazy lazinessleader leadership

lend loanlike likenesslive life

long lengthlose loss

mad madnessman manhood

marry marriageMember membership

mix mixturemother motherhood

move movementmultiply multiplication

neighbor neighborhoodnew newness

obey obedienceoccupy occupationpermit permissionplease pleasure

poet poetryproud pride

prove proofpunish punishment

ready readinessremember remembrance

sad sadnesssafe safety

scholar scholarshipsee sightsell sale


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sharp sharpnesssick sickness

sit seatslow slownesssoft softness

speak speechstrong strength

succeed successsweet sweetness

teach teachingtell tale

thick thicknessthink thought

thirsty thirsttight tightnesstrue truthvaluable valuewarm warmthweak weakness

wed weddingweigh weight

wide widthwise wisdomyoung youth

EXERCISES


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( 1.1) EXERCISE - COMMON NOUNS

Identify the Common Nouns in the following sentences.

1. We arrived early at the station.2. There are different species of fish.3. The man was trying to steal his car.4. They have gone to the zoo.5. The baby is crying.6. My mother is in the kitchen.7. He threw some nuts to the monkeys.8. The children are playing in the field.9. That temple was built before I was born.10. He has bought a new car.11. My father likes to swim.12. She won a trophy in a competition.13. I like to ride on a camel.14. Do birds eat meat?15. He went to visit his uncle.16. My brother wants to play with us.17. Let me have a look at your puppy.18. The taxi broke down.19. The boys are playing noisily.20. She is hanging out the clothes to dry.

( 1.2) EXERCISE - PROPER NOUNSUse capital letters for Proper Nouns in the following sentences.

1. paris is the capital of france.2. william shakespeare is a famous english author.3. ‘war and peace' was written by leo tolstoy.4. the university of oxford offers degree courses at the highest level.5. john's two dogs are named rover and boxer.6. david will travel to france to do a degree course on the French revolution.7. suez canal joins the red sea and the mediterranean sea.


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8. republic of liberia is on the west coast of africa.9. mick jagger is the lead singer of rolling stones10. mount kilimanjaro is the highest mountain in africa.

( 1.3) EXERCISE - ABSTRACT NOUNS

Form Abstract Nouns from the following.

man, scholar, king

know, sell, think

long, strong, wise

brother, lose, great

( 1.4) EXERCISE - COLLECTIVE NOUNS

Fill in the blank s with suitable collective nouns.

1. A _____ of birds flew high in the sky.

2. They saw a _____ of lions at the zoo.

3. The farmer has a _____ of cattle on his farm.

4. He ate a _____ of grapes today.

5. Our friend shows us a _____ of stamps.

6. We saw a _____ of sheep on our way home.

7. Police have arrested a _____ of thieves.

8. She bought a _____ of bananas from the market.

9. The _____ of pupils are listening attentively to their teacher.

10. You can put the _____ of tools in that box.

( 1.5) EXERCISE - COUNTABLE & UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS


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Complete each sentence by choosing the correct word.

1. There is so (many, much) smoke coming out of the chimney.

2. There are (plenty of, a large amount of) fish in the pond.

3. (A little, A few) minutes is all it takes for him to shave.

4. The postman put (a great deal of, a lot of) letters into the bag.

5. He threw (a little, some) nuts to the monkeys.

6. She uses only (a few, a little) cooking oil in her cooking.

7. My hens lay (a large amount of, several) eggs very day.

8. (A great deal of, A large number of) dust has collected on the

desk.

9. We saw (a large amount of, many) cows grazing in the field.

10. The butcher sells (a large amount of, a large number of) meat.

( 1.6) EXERCISE - GENDER

Change the nouns in bold from the feminine to the masculine.

1. My aunt visits her niece every week-end.

2. The lady has several mares on her farm.

3. The daughter is more talkative than her mother.

4. Does any actress like to play the role of the princess?

5. Their queen is a widow.

6. The manageress is still a spinster.


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7. In the movie, the tigress was killed by the heroine.

8. His daughter-in-law is a postmistress.

9. The countess has one sister.

10. The authoress is writing a book about the empress.

Change the nouns in bold from the masculine to the feminine.

11. The bridegroom thanked the priest.

12. His brother works as a waiter.

13. The dog barked at the milkman.

14. A cock was killed by a fox.

15. The manservant has worked many years for the duke.

16. Her husband is a conductor.

17. He was a postman before he became a postmaster.

18. The lad wants to be a monk.

19. The sultan owns a stallion.

20. Her father-in-law is a landlord.

( 1.7) EXERCISE - FORMING NOUNS FROM NOUNS

Fill in the blanks with abstract nouns from the nouns in brackets.

1. I had a very happy ______ (child).

2. I forgot to renew my _____ (member) in the sailing club.


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3. We formed a deep and lasting _____ (friend).

4. He hopes to take over the _____ (leader) of the party.

5. There are lots of nice people in the _____ (neighbor).

6. In the _____ (king) of Thailand, the king commands the respect

of every citizen.

7. She seems to be enjoying _____ (mother).

8. He had barely reached _____ (man) when he married.

CHAPTER 2: Pronouns

Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun.

Pronouns are divided into following major kinds:

a) Personal Pronouns b) Interrogative Pronouns c) Relative Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

The Personal Pronouns are used to distinguish the three persons.

a. The First Person denotes the person speaking .


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I we

me us

myself ourselves

The second Person denoted the person spoken to

you you

yourself yourselves

The third Person denotes the person or thing spoken of

he she it they

him her it them

himself herself itself themselves

Interrogative Pronouns

1. Interrogative Pronouns ask questions.

2. The interrogative pronouns are : -- who, whose, whom which and what.

a) Who, whose, and whom refer to person.

Examples : -

Who said so ?

Whose book is this ?

Whom do you love ?

b) Which refers to persons or thingsAasma Naseer BSIT Sem II (English Composition & Comprehension)

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Examples :-

Which of these boys will win the prize ?

Which of these books do you like best ?

c) What refers to lower animals and things.

Examples :-

Q : What have you seen in the mountain?

A : I have seen a tiger.

Q : What did he buy ?

A : He bought a house.

Note -- All interrogative pronouns have the same form for the plural as for the singular

Relative Pronouns

A Relative Pronouns represents a preceding word.

This preceding word is called the Antecedent.

eg : The man who is in the garden is my uncle.

In this sentence, the word " who " is a relative pronoun, because it represents the preceding word " man ". Therefore, " man " is the Antecedent of " who ".

The relative Pronouns are : -- who , whose, whom , which that, and what.

Who and whom refer persons.


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The man who came is a doctor.

The man whom you love is kind.

Whose refers both to persons and things.

The lady whose box is lost is her daughter.

The book whose cover is red is mine.

Which refers to lower animals and thing.

That is often used for " who, " " whom " or " which " but never for ' whose. "

The boy that ( or who ) won the prize is clever.

The man that ( or whom ) you saw is my brother.

This is the house that ( or which ) Chang bought.

What is equal to " that which " or " the thing which " . It contains the meaning of both the relative pronoun and its antecedent.

I do not know what ( that which ) he bought.

I do not know what ( the thing which ) he bought.

Note : - All relative pronouns have the singular and plural alike.


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CASE

Personal Pronouns

Possessive Adjectives and Pronouns Reflexive

Pronounssubject form

object form

possessive adjective

possessive pronoun

I me My Mine Myself

you you Your Yours Yourself

he him His His Himself

she her Her Hers Herself

It it Its Its Itself


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we us Our Ours Ourselves

you you Your Yours Yourselves

they them Their Theirs Themselves

OTHER MINOR KINDS

DEMONSTRATIVE pronouns refer to a thing already noted by the speaker, or to indicate a thing clearly.

this, that, these, those

POSSESSIVE pronouns declare the ownership of a person or thing.

hers, mine, your, our, their, thine, his, its

REFLEXIVE pronouns are formed by adding -self or -selves to certain pronouns.

myself, yourself, itself, themselves, himself, herself, ourselves, yourself

EMPHATIC pronouns are used to mark an emphasis. They are similar to the set of reflexive pronouns.

Myself, yourself, itself, themselves, himself, herself, ourselves, yourselves, yourselves, itself.

The distinction between RELATIVE and INTERROGATIVE pronouns is shown in this example.

'WHO walked over the grass?' ... INTERROGATIVE pronoun

'The man WHO walked over the grass' ... RELATIVE pronoun


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The distinction between REFLEXIVE and EMPHATIC pronouns is shown in this example.

'The boy saw HIMSELF in the mirror.' ... REFLEXIVE pronoun

'I know the boy HIMSELF.' ... EMPHATIC pronoun

Remember that a pronoun always replaces a noun. If the word is attached to a noun, as in 'THIS book' it is being used as an adjective.

An INDEFINITE PRONOUN refers to something that is not definite or specific or exact.

all, another, any, anybody, anyone, anything, each, everybody, everyone, everything, few, many, nobody, none, one, several, some, somebody, someone.

These indefinite pronouns can also be used as indefinite adjectives in some cases.

Examples

All are welcome to attend the concert.

Mary gave the book to another.

I don't have any.

Does anybody have a clue?

Anyone can play that game.

Peter didn't see anything suspicious.

Each brought a dish to pass.

Everybody left town for the weekend.

Everyone enjoyed the movie.

Everything is taken care of.Aasma Naseer BSIT Sem II (English Composition & Comprehension)

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Few visited that park.

Many called for information.

Jennifer told nobody her secret.

None came forward to claim the prize.

One could see the mountains from miles away.

Several signed the card.

The room is too gloomy for some.

Somebody called the store.

Joe gave the form to someone.

CHAPTER 3: Verbs

A Verb says something about a person or thing.

Verbs are divided into three different kinds :

(structurally)

a. Transitive Verbs

b. Intransitive Verbs

c. Auxiliary Verbs

An Intransitive Verb does not require an object to complete its meaning.

Examples : --


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( a ) He sleeps

( b ) We go.

No object can come after such verbs as " sleep ", " go " etc

A Transitive Verb requires an object to complete its meaning.

Examples : --

a. The hunter killed a bear.

b. The scholar learned his lesson.

In ( a ) " bear " is the object of " killed ".

In ( b ) " lesson " is the object of " learned ".

Transitive Verb has two voice : --

a The Active voice

b. The Passive voice

Note : - An Intransitive verb from its nature cannot have voices.

An Auxiliary Verb is used to help another verb.

( a ) I shall go.

( b ) We have come.

Note : A verb that is helped by an auxiliary verb is called a Principal verb

In a. " shall " is an auxiliary verb used to help the verb " go " to form a future time.


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In b. " have " is an auxiliary verb used to help the verb " come " to express a time partly past and partly present.

COMPLEX CLASSIFICATION

Stative and Dynamic Verbs

Verbs in English can be classified into two categories: stative verbs and dynamic verbs. Dynamic verbs (sometimes referred to as "action verbs") usually describe actions we can take, or things that happen; stative verbs usually refer to a state or condition which is not changing or likely to change. The difference is important, because stative verbs cannot normally be used in the continuous (BE + ING) forms. This will explain the differences between the two types of verb, and give lots of examples of each kind.

Dynamic verbs

There are many types of dynamic verbs, but most of them describe activities or events which can begin and finish. Here are some examples: (action verbs)

Dynamic Verb

Type Examples

play ActivityShe plays tennis every Friday.She's playing tennis right now.

melt ProcessThe snow melts every spring.The snow is melting right now.


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hitmomentary

action

When one boxer hits another, brain damage can result. (This

suggests only ONE punch.)When one boxer is hitting

another, brain damage can result. (This suggests MANY

repeated punches.)

Dynamic verbs, as you can see from the table above, can be used in the simple and perfect forms (plays, played, has played, had played) as well as the continuous or progressive forms (is playing, was playing, has been playing, had been playing).

Stative verbs

Stative verbs usually refer to a state or condition which is quite static or unchanging.

They can be divided into verbs of perception or cognition (which refer to things in the mind), or verbs of relation (which describe the relationships between things). Here are some examples:

Stative Verb Type Examples

hate perception I hate chocolate.

believe perception She believes in UFOs.

contain relationThe box contains 24 cans of

soda.


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own relation Yong owns three motorbikes.

Note that we CANNOT use these verbs in the continuous (progressive) forms; you CAN'T say "*Yong is owning three cars." Owning is a state, not an action, so it is always in the simple form.

Example verbs

Here some common stative and dynamic verbs. The lists may help you to understand what types of verbs are likely to be stative and what types are commonly dynamic.

Stative Verbs Dynamic Verbs

lovehatelikeseehear

soundthink (meaning "have an opinion")

mind (meaning "care about")recognize

seemhave (meaning "own")

preferdoubt

consist ofmean

eatdrink

gotypereadwritelistenspeakwatch

saygrowworksleepcooktalk


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Functional Classification

Referring to functions a verb can perform we also divide verbs into two broad classifications:

1. Helping verbs2. Main verbs

In the following table we see example sentences with helping verbs and main verbs. Notice that all of these sentences have a main verb. Only some of them have a helping verb.

helping verb main verb

John likes coffee.

You lied to me.

They are happy.

The children Are playing.

We Must go now.

I Do not want any.


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1. Helping Verbs

Helping verbs have no meaning on their own. They are necessary for the grammatical structure of a sentence, but they do not tell us very much alone.

We usually use helping verbs with main verbs. They "help" the main verb (which has the real meaning). There are only about 15 helping verbs in English, and we divide them into two basic groups:

I. Primary helping verbII. Modal helping verbs

Primary helping verbs (3 verbs)

These are the verbs be, do, and have. Note that we can use these three verbs as helping verbs or as main verbs. On this page we talk about them as helping verbs. We use them in the following cases:

be o to make continuous tenses (He is watching TV.) o to make the passive (Small fish are eaten by big fish.)

have o to make perfect tenses (I have finished my homework.)

do o to make negatives (I do not like you.) o to ask questions (Do you want some coffee?) o to show emphasis (I do want you to pass your exam.) o to stand for a main verb in some constructions (He speaks

faster than she does.)


Helping verbs are also called

"auxiliary verbs".

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Modal helping verbs (10 verbs)

We use modal helping verbs to "modify" the meaning of the main verb in some way. A modal helping verb expresses necessity or possibility, and changes the main verb in that sense. These are the modal verbs:

can, could may, might will, would, shall, should must ought to

Here are examples using modal verbs:

I can't speak Chinese. John may arrive late. Would you like a cup of coffee? You should see a doctor. I really must go now.

2. Main Verbs

Main verbs have meaning on their own (unlike helping verbs). There are thousands of main verbs, and we can classify them in several ways.


Main verbs are also called "lexical verbs".

Semi-modal verbs (3 verbs)

The following verbs are often called "semi-modals" because they are partly like modal helping verbs and partly like main verbs:

need dare used to

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Linking verbs

A linking verb does not have much meaning in itself. It "links" the subject to what is said about the subject. Usually, a linking verb shows equality (=) or a change to a different state or place (>). Linking verbs are always intransitive (but not all intransitive verbs are linking verbs).

Mary is a teacher. (mary = teacher) Tara is beautiful. (tara = beautiful) That sounds interesting. (that = interesting) The sky became dark. (the sky > dark) The bread has gone bad. (bread > bad)

Regular and irregular verbs

This is more a question of vocabulary than of grammar. The only real difference between regular and irregular verbs is that they have different endings for their past tense and past participle forms. For regular verbs, the past tense ending and past participle ending is always the same: -ed. For irregular verbs, the past tense ending and the past participle ending is variable, so it is necessary to learn them by heart.

regular verbs: base, past tense, past participle

look, looked, looked work, worked, worked

irregular verbs: base, past tense, past participle

buy, bought, bought cut, cut, cut do, did, done


One verb could be irregular, transitive and dynamic; another verb could be regular, transitive and

stative.

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ENGLISH VERB TENSES -- TIME and ASPECT = MEANING

TIME

1. There are three times that can be indicated by verb tenses in English:

present (or "non-past" -- the "default" time) past future

These times refer to the relationship of the "story" to the speaker (or writer).

ASPECT

2. There are three "aspects" that can be expressed:

simple (the "default" aspect -- the time of focus) perfect (completion -- before the time of focus) progressive (or continuous) (duration -- in progress at the time

of focus)(one verb phrase can indicate both perfect and progressive aspect)

These aspects refer to the relationship between the events inside the "story."

MEANING


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These three times and three aspects (four, including perfect progressive) can be combined to express 9 (or 12) "verb tenses:"

ENGLISH VERB TENSES -- FORMS of the VERB

There are theoretically 6 forms of the verb in English:

V ("no-s" form)

We like pizzaI eat pizzaI am/ they are hungry. (simple present)

Vs ("s"-form)He likes pizza.She eats pizza. He is hungry.

Ved ("past" form)

They liked pizza.She ate pizza. He was/they were hungry.

(simple past)

V(simple or "dictionary"

form)

likeeat be

(require auxiliaries

to form finite verb phrases)

Ving( "-ing form" or present

participle)

likingeatingbeing

Vd/tn ( past participle)likedeatenbeen

FORMS OF THE VERB and AUXILIARIES


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Simple negatives and questions and all passive, progressive, and perfect verb phrases are formed by combining one of the following three auxiliary verbs or a modal auxiliary verb with a simple verb form, a present participle, or a past participle. The auxiliary shows the time (and number) and the combination of the auxiliary and the verb form show the aspect:

BE

(main verb)

+ adj+noun+ prep.phrase (or place)

DO

(main verb)

+ noun H

A

V

E

(main verb)

+ noun

(auxiliary)

+ Ving (pres.particip.)

= progressive

(auxiliary) + V= simple tenses

(auxiliary)

+ Vdtn (past part.)

= perfect

+ Vdtn (past particip.)

= passive

EXERCISES

(1.1) Verb Classification Quiz

Identify the verb type.

1. The grocery clerk will carry your bags out for you.2. The mail arrived after I left. 3. I have already done my homework.4. That book you recommended sounds interesting.5. I prefer cream rather than milk.6. Jerry studies for three hours every day.7. We looked at all of the art in the museum.8. Would you take a picture for us?9. I don't want to fight about who gets the car.10. She seemed like an interesting person.


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(1.2) Can, Could, Be able to Quiz

1. _____ He understand what you were talking about?2. My sister _____ play tennis now.3. I _____ walk when I was less than a year old.4. (Polite) _____ you tell me what time it is, please?5. My grandfather _____ walk without any help last night. 6. How long have you _____ drive?7. I'll _____ help you later.8. Can you help me? I _____ never understand this.9. Will Man _____ live forever one day?

(1.3) EXERCISE - AUXILIARY VERBS

Fill in the blanks with ‘is' or ‘are'. 1. The rose _____ a beautiful flower.

2. His two sons _____ still small.

3. My brother _____ doing his degree at that university.

4. Dogs _____ the most faithful animals.

5. There _____ a lot of ants on the tree.

6. That chair _____ comfortable to sit on.

7. The equator _____ an imaginary line round the earth.

8. The natives of this island _____ a friendly people.

9. We _____ waiting for the bus.

10. _____ your mother sleeping now?

Fill in the blanks with ‘does' or ‘do'. 11. _____ you know him?

12. That _____ not mean I _____ not like her.

13. Please _____ not smoke here.

14. _____ anybody know the answer?Aasma Naseer BSIT Sem II (English Composition & Comprehension)

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15. They _____ not want to play.

16. It _____ not matter where you put it.

17. He _____ the measuring and we _____ the cutting.

18. Those sheep _____ not belong to that farmer.

19. My feet _____ not get tired easily.

20. Everyone here _____ not know about it.

Fill in the blanks with ‘has' or ‘have'. 21. He _____ a law degree.

22. They _____ gone to the cinema.

23. Only one of the students _____ failed the test.

24. I _____ come here to borrow your book

25. "_____ you ever done online banking?"

26. "We _____ not done our homework yet."

27. Each of you _____ to pay a dollar.

28. There _____ been no complaint so far.

29. Does he _____ a bicycle?

30. What _____ she got to say about this?

Choose the correct word for each sentence. 31. The earth _____ (go, goes) round the sun.

32. He _____ (go, goes) to school by bus.

33. I often _____ (go, goes) to the library.

34. She wants to _____ (go, goes) to the library?

35. She does not _____ (go, goes) to the library?


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36. Oh, she does _____ (go, goes) to the library.

37. He often _____ (go, goes) to the cinema.

38. Every one of us must _____ (go, goes) to school.

39. Every one of us usually _____ (go, goes) to school early.

40. He too has to _____ (go, goes) to school.

Choose the correct word for each sentence. 41. She _____ (read, reads) every day.

42. I _____ (drink, drinks) milk every day.

43. We _____ (like, likes) to swim.

44. My neighbours _____ (talk, talks) to us every day.

45. He _____ (speak, speaks) good English.

46. They _____ (work, works) in that factory.

47. One of us _____ (live, lives) near the hospital.

48. Those deer in the zoo _____ (look, looks) hungry.

49. Everyone of the postmen _____ (ride, rides) a bicycle.

50. The black dog can _____ (bark, barks) very loudly.

(1.4) EXERCISE - SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

Use the Simple Present tense of the words in brackets.

1. It _____ (hurt) to know what he said.2. I sometimes _____ (play) football with my friends.


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3. My sister _____ (want) to be a teacher.

4. We _____ (like) to do our homework together.

5. His father _____ (smoke) a pipe.

6. Does your mother _____ (cook) every day?

7. The train _____ (leave) in an hour.

8. He _____ (wash) his car on Sundays.

9. My friend _____ (ride) a bike to work.

10. They often _____ (swim) in the river.

(1.5) EXERCISE - PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE

Use the Present Continuous tense of the words in brackets. 1. We are too late. The train _____ (leaving).

2. Look at what he _____ (do).

3. My father _____ (go) to Paris next month.

4. She says she _____ (cook) for dinner this evening.

5. I think she _____ (write) a letter at the moment.

6. Why _____ he _____ (break) up those boxes?

7. He _____ (come) on the one o'clock train tomorrow.

8. They _____ (widen) the road.

9. One of you _____ always _____ (complain) about something.

10. Do you not understand what I _____ (say)?

(1.6) EXERCISE - PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

Use the Present Perfect tense of the words in brackets. 1. We _____ (not see) her since we last met her.

2. He _____ (teach) us for two years and is still teaching us.


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3. She _____ (already throw) away her old dresses.

4. I _____ already _____ (tell) them to hurry up.

5. _____ you _____ (be) to see your old uncle recently?

6. My parents _____ (never be) to London.

7. They _____ (just meet) your brother.

8. Our baby _____ (sleep) for more than eight hours.

9. I _____ not _____ (choose) the one I want yet.

10. You _____ (not eat) your dinner yet.

(1.7) EXERCISE - PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

Use the Present Perfect Continuous tense of the words in brackets.

1. They _____ (visit) their parents since they shifted out.2. She _____ (talk) for an hour and when is she going to stop?

3. His friends _____ (wait) for him since 7 o'clock.

4. What _____ you _____ (do) since this morning?

5. I have found it. I _____ (search) for it for two days.

6. He _____ (eat) here for one week and he is not coming back.

7. We _____ (see) each other regularly since we became friends.

8. Why _____ you _____ (keep) this matter a secret?

9. Her mother _____ (pray) for good luck at that temple.

10. My sister _____ (try) to write a book since last year.

( 1.8) EXERCISE - PAST SIMPLE TENSE


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Use the Past Simple tense of the words in brackets. 1. She _____ (cut) her finger last night.

2. We _____ (go) for a ride and _____ (come) home late.

3. Her former husband always _____ (drink) heavily.

4. He _____ (lend) me some money last week.

5. There _____ (are) lots of people at the party.

6. My father _____ (lose) his car keys this morning.

7. She often_____ (quarrel) with her neighbour.

8. The vagrant _____ (lay) a mat on the pavement and _____ (sleep) on it.

9. I _____ (meet) my uncle on Sunday afternoon.

10. _____ (can) you please help me carry this?

( 1.9) EXERCISE - PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE

Use the Past Continuous tense of the words in brackets. 1. While I _____ (wait) for you, I fell asleep.

2. He _____ (swim) at 4 o'clock yesterday.

3. Some students _____ (not listen) while the teacher _____ (speak).

4. We _____ (play) football when it started to rain.

5. When I _____ (walk) home, I saw a dog barking at the postman.

6. She and her friends _____ (shop) yesterday evening.

7. When they arrived, I _____ (bathe).

8. While one worker _____ (paint), another _____ (mix) some paint.

9. What _____ you _____(do) when I was not at home?

10. They _____ (jog) early this morning.


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( 1.10) EXERCISE - PAST PERFECT TENSE

Use the Past Perfect tense of the words in brackets. 1. After we _____ (see) the movie, we went for a ride.

2. He _____ already _____ (leave) when we arrived.

3. I _____ just _____ (shut) the door when the telephone rang.

4. They ate the food that I _____ (buy).

5. She _____ (eat) her lunch when I reached home.

6. My father _____ (drink) a glass of milk before he slept.

7. "I fell down". He said that he _____ down.

8. "I cut my finger". She said that she _____ her finger.

9. I arrived at the cinema after the film _____ (start).

10. The train _____ already _____ (go) when we reached the station.

( 1.11) EXERCISE - PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

Use the Past Perfect Continuous tense of the words in brackets.

1. She _____ (sleep) before she was woken by the loud thunder.2. The patient _____ (groan) when the doctor arrived.

3. The little boy _____ (play) with fire before he was burnt.

4. _____ you _____ (try) to get me before I called?

5. What _____ the child _____ (do) before she was scolded by her other?

(1.12) EXERCISE - AUXILIARY VERBS Aasma Naseer BSIT Sem II (English Composition & Comprehension)

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Fill in the blanks with ‘was' or ‘were'. 1. He _____ here five minutes ago.

2. This _____ the dress she wore last week.

3. They _____ still young when their parents died.

4. One of the eggs _____ broken.

5. There _____ some oranges on the table.

6. _____ you tired after the game?

7. She _____ not at home when I called.

8. Yesterday I saw a rainbow as I _____ driving home.

9. We _____ supposed to arrive early but the train was late.

10. Those _____ people who helped the victims.

(1.13) EXERCISE AUXILLIARY VERBS

From the choices provided after each sentence select the verb that would correctly complete the sentence.

1. You seem to be having trouble there. _________ I help you? a) Wouldb) Willc) Shall

2. I don't have enough money to buy lunch. __________ you lend me a couple of dollars?

a) Mayb) Couldc) Shall

3. That ice is dangerously thin now. You ________ go ice-skating today.

a) mustn'tb) might notc) would mind not to

4. It's way past my bedtime and I'm really tired. I ________ go to bed.


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a) shouldb) oughtc) could

5. He ______________ have committed this crime. He wasn't even in the city that night.

a) mightb) shouldn'tc) couldn't

6. John is over two hours late already, He ___________ missed the bus again.

a) should haveb) must havec) will have

7. I'm really quite lost. _______________ showing me how to get out of here?

a) Would you mindb) Would you bec) Must you be

8. That bus is usually on time. It _________ to be here any time now.

a) mightb) hasc) ought

9. I read about your plane's near disaster. You ____________ terrified!

a) might have beenb) must have beenc) shall have been

10. It's the law. They ____________ have a blood test before they get married.

a) mightb) couldc) have to

11. Professor Villa, we've finished our work for today. _________ we leave now, please?

a) Mayb) Can


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c) Must

CHAPTER 4: ADJECTIVES

An adjective is a word that tells us something about a noun, that is, about a person, an animal, a thing or a place.For example:

She is a pretty girl.A giraffe has a long neck.The table is round.That is an old temple.

KINDS OF ADJECTIVE

There are various kinds of adjectives:

1. An adjective which tells us about the quality of the noun.For example: the blue sky, a big house, a square table, a cold morning.

2. An adjective which tells us about the quantity of the noun.For example: The zoo has many animals.The pen has not much ink left.

3. An adjective which tells us about the ownership of the noun.For example: That is my dog.Those are their bicycles.

4. An adjective which poses question in an ‘interrogative’ manner.For example: Which school do you go to?Whose car is this?

5. An adjective which specifies a noun.For example: This boy is a member of the club.That girl is my sister.

6. Adjectives which end in ‘-ing’, e.g. an interesting film, an amazing player, an annoying habit,

7. Adjectives which end in ‘-ed, e.g. the damaged goods, the escaped prisoners, improved version


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ADJECTIVE FORMATION

Adding ‘y’.Drop ‘e’.

Add ‘ful’.* Change ‘y’ to ‘i’.

Add ‘ous’ or ‘ious’. *Drop ‘y’.

Add ‘less’.

Anger care mountain aimease* doubt danger endGreed peace industry harmice* beauty* mystery* senseOil pity* glory* use

Add ‘al’. * Drop ‘e’.

Add ‘able’. Add ‘ic’.*Drop ‘y’.

Add ‘ive’.

music accept acrobat attractnation comfort artist effectperson enjoy photograph actnature* fashion sympathy* instruct

agriculture* respect robot progressAdjectives can be formed from Nouns.

Noun Adjectiveaccident accidentaldanger dangerouslength longstar starrywind windy

Adjectives can be formed from Verbs.

Verb Adjectiveenjoy enjoyablehelp helpfulobey obedientplay playfultalk talkative

Adjectives can be formed from Adjectives.

Adjective Adjective


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comic comicalCorrect correctiveElder elderlyRed reddish

Comparison of adjectives

We use the Positive degree to compare two equal nouns. For example: His house is as big as my house.

We use the Comparative degree to compare two unequal nouns. For example: His house is bigger than my house.

We use the Superlative degree to compare three or more Nouns. For example: His house is the biggest in the neighbourhood.

Positive Comparative Superlative

Bold bolder boldest

Deep deeper deepest

Near nearer nearest

Rich richer richest

Tall taller tallest


careful more careful most careful

enjoyable more enjoyable most enjoyable

forgetful more forgetful most forgetful

useful more useful most useful


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wonderful more wonderful most wonderful


bad worse worst

good better best

little less least

FORMING ADJECTIVES

NOUNS VERBS ADJECTIVESAccident accidental

adventure adventurous

Boy boyish

Care careful

Caution cautious

centre central

child childish

choose choosy

circle circular

collect collective

comfort comfortable

coward cowardly

danger dangerous

describe descriptive

distance distant

enjoy enjoyable

faith faithful

fame famous

father fatherly

fool foolish


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forget forgetful

fortune fortunate

friend friendly

girl girlish

gold golden

harm harmful

hate hateful

height high

help helpful

hero heroic

hope hopeful

imagine imaginary

joy joyful

law lawful

length long

love lovable

man manly

mercy merciful

mine my

mischief mischievous

mountain mountainous

music musical

nation national

nature natural

noise noisy

north northern

obey obedient

parent parental

peace peaceful

person personal

pity pitiful

please pleasant

poison poisonous

pride proud

prosper prosperous


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quarrel quarrelsome

science scientific

sense sensible

silk silky

skill skilful

smoke smoky

sorrow sorrowful

south southern

storm stormy

strength strong

study studious

success successful

sun sunny

talk talkative

terror terrible

thirsty thirsty

thought thoughtful

trouble troublesome

truth truthful

value valuable

victory victorious

war warlike

water watery

wave wavy

west western

winter wintry

wisdom wise

wood wooden

wool woolen

year yearly

youth young

Adjective Order Aasma Naseer BSIT Sem II (English Composition & Comprehension)

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In English, it is common to use more than one adjective before a noun -- for example, "He's a silly young fool," or "she's a smart, energetic woman." When you use more than one adjective, you have to put them in the right order, according to type. This page will explain the different types of adjectives and the correct order for them.

The basic types of adjectives

Opinion

An opinion adjective explains what you think about something (other people may not agree with you). Examples:silly, beautiful, horrible, difficult

SizeA size adjective, of course, tells you how big or small something is. Examples:large, tiny, enormous, little

AgeAn age adjective tells you how young or old something or someone is. Examples:ancient, new, young, old

ShapeA shape adjective describes the shape of something. Examples:square, round, flat, rectangular

ColourA colour adjective, of course, describes the colour of something. Examples:blue, pink, reddish, grey

Origin An origin adjective describes where something comes from. Examples:


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French, lunar, American, eastern, Greek

MaterialA material adjective describes what something is made from. Examples:wooden, metal, cotton, paper

Purpose

A purpose adjective describes what something is used for. These adjectives often end with "-ing". Examples:sleeping (as in "sleeping bag"), roasting (as in "roasting tin")

Some examples of adjective order

Opinion Size Age Shape Colour Origin Material Purpose

a silly young English

a huge round metal

a small red sleeping

( 1.1) EXERCISE - COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

Pick the correct words in the brackets. 1. My father is as (strong, stronger, strongest) as his father.

2. She is (pretty, prettier, prettiest) than her sister.


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3. You are not as (tall, taller, tallest) as your brother.

4. That pond is the (shallow, shallower, shallowest) in this area.

5. That has to be the (interesting, more interesting, most interesting) film I have seen.

6. Which university offers (the good, the better, the best) degree courses?.

7. This clown is not as (funny, funnier, funniest) as the other one.

8. He is easily the (bad, worse, worst) player in the team.

9. The second half of the play was (little, less, the least) interesting.

10. What is (far, farther, the farthest) distance you have ever run?

Order of Adjectives

Add adjectives to the following sentences. Use at least two of the adjectives in the list...or use your own.

1. The (ferocious, big, black, angry) bear threatened our hiking party.

________________________________________________________

2. Seamus came from a (quiet, peaceful, Canadian) town.

_______________________________________________________3. My father was a (tall, honest, skinny) Norwegian.

________________________________________________________

4. Geoff arrived in (running, ugly, ancient) a pair of shoes.

________________________________________________________5. Renata was holding a(chubby, new-born, pink) baby.


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________________________________________________________6. Steve hated the (glass, enormous, souless) buildings in the city.

________________________________________________________7. Vincent loves his (lovely, woolen, warm) gloves.

________________________________________________________8. The custodian was proud of his (linoleum, clean, beautiful) floor.

________________________________________________________9. Bartholomew was surprised by a(ugly, tiny, quick-footed) mouse.

________________________________________________________ 10.We laughed when Lou arrived wearing (polyester, orange, tight) pants.

________________________________________________________

CHAPTER 5: ADVERBS

An adverb adds more to the meaning of a verb, an adjective or another adverb.

EXAMPLES

1. I called you last night. (called=verb; last night=adverb)2. Your dress is very beautiful. (beautiful=adjective; very=adverb)3. The rain stopped quite suddenly. (suddenly=adverb;

quite=adverb)4.

Types of Adverbs

1. Adverb of Time

This shows when an action or something is done or happens. It


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answers the question “When?” It is either placed at the beginning or at the end of a sentence.

Example: I phoned you yesterday. / I saw her walking along the river last week.

2. Adverb of Place

This shows where an action or something is done or happens. It answers the question “Where?” It is placed after the verb.

Example: I live here. / He fell down.

3. Adverb of Manner

This shows how an action or something is done. It answers the question “How?” It is usually placed just after the verb.

Example: She sleeps soundly. / He drives quickly.

4. Adverb of Degree or Quantity

This answers the questions, “To what degree?” or “How much?” It is usually placed before the adjective and the adverb.

Example: It is too dark for us to see anything. / Last night it rained very heavily..

5. Adverb of Frequency

This answers the question “How often?”

Example: He will never have finished in time. / We always go to school by bus.


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6. Affirmative Adverb (yes) and Adverb of negation (No)

Example: yes, surely, certainly, indeed, by all means, no, not at all, by no means.

7. Interrogative Adverb

(Question) For example: When? Where? How? Why? How much/often?

8. Relative Adverb

when, where, how, why These words are the same in form as Interrogative Adverbs; but they are not questions.

Example: The time when he arrived. / The scene where the accident occurred. / He knows how to do it. / The reason why he left.

Comparison of Adverbs

Similar to the comparison of adjectives, adverbs have three degrees of comparison – the Positive, the Comparative and the Superlative. Most adverbs which end in ‘-ly’ form the Comparative with ‘more’ and the Superlative with ‘most’.

Positive Comparative SuperlativeComfortably more comfortably most comfortably

Happily more happily most happilyKindly more kindly most kindlyLoudly more loudly most loudlyNoisily more noisily most noisily

Forming Adverbs

Adverbs can be formed from nouns, adjectives and verbs. Most Aasma Naseer BSIT Sem II (English Composition & Comprehension)

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adverbs end in ‘-ly’.

Nouns Adjectives Verbs AdverbsBeauty beautifully

Success successfully

angry angrily

foolish foolishly

continue continually

know knowingly

FORMING ADVERBS

NOUNS VERBS ADJECTIVES ADVERBSaccident accidentally

actual actually

angry angrily

annual annually

attention attentively

bad badly

beauty beautifully

boast boastfully

brave bravely

brief briefly

bright brightly

busy busily

careful carefully

careless carelessly

cheer cheerfully

clean cleanly


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clear clearly

clever cleverly

comfort comfortably

complete completely

continue continually

cruel cruelly

dangerous dangerously

day daily

dear dearly

dim dimly

dirty dirtily

double doubly

dull dully

easy easily

enjoy enjoyably

entire entirely

faith faithfully

fatal fatally

fear fearfully

fierce fiercely

first firstly

foolish foolishly

forget forgetfully

free freely

fright frightfully

general generally

glad gladly

grace gracefully

gradual gradually

happy happily

hard hardly

hate hatefully

heavy heavily

help helpfully

hope hopefully


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horror horribly

hurry hurriedly

infect infectiously

joy joyfully

kind kindly

know knowingly

last lastly

late lately

lazy lazily

light lightly

loud loudly

luck luckily

mad madly

magic magically

merry merrily

month monthly

natural naturally

near nearly

neat neatly

needless needlessly

nice nicely

night nightly

noise noisily

obey obediently

one once

open openly

pain painfully

part partly

patient patiently

peace peacefully

please pleasantly

polite politely

pretty prettily

proud proudly

pure purely


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quick quickly

quiet quietly

rare rarely

ready readily

rough roughly

sad sadly

safe safely

shake shakily

shame shamefully

silent silently

simple simply

sincere sincerely

skill skilfully

sleep sleepily

slow slowly

sound soundly

special specially

success successfully

sudden suddenly

sweet sweetly

swift swiftly

terrible terribly

true truly

truthful truthfully

wise wisely

year yearly

EXERCISE - TYPES OF ADVERBS

Choose the most suitable adverb in bold to fill each blank:

angrily, enough, never, outside, yesterday

1. She left _____ for the university where she is doing a degree course.

2. We are standing _____ his house waiting for him. Aasma Naseer BSIT Sem II (English Composition & Comprehension)

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3. He told us _____ not to walk on the grass.

4. I am not strong _____ to help him carry that box.

5. She will _____ be happy in that job.

down, last week, often, quickly, rarely

6. _____, I saw him walking to the church.

7. My father is _____ late for work.

8. He drove _____ to avoid being late.

9. I _____ play badminton with my sister.

10. This is the place where he fell _____.

always, just, nearly, online, unusually

11. It took _____ two hours to get here.

12. They were _____ very friendly.

13. He has _____ strong hands.

14. She has _____ completed her degree course.

15. This dictionary went _____ in 2003.


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CHAPTER 6: PREPOSITIONS

Prepositions are words placed before Nouns and Pronouns. They are used to show time, position and direction.

TYPES OF PREPOSTION

Examples of Prepositions showing time:My birthday falls in September. Most shops are closed on Sunday. I have an appointment at 9 o'clock.

Examples of Prepositions showing position:He is standing at the door. The glass is on the table. The cat is sleeping under the chair.

Examples of Prepositions showing direction:She got into the taxi. The girl is walking towards her mother. I have to go to town. Other examples of expressions using prepositions:

The picture was drawn by his brother. She likes to go out with her friends. They say I walk like my father. Her parents give her a box of sweets.

1.1 EXERCISE - PREPOSITIONS


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Fill in the blanks with these words: against, at, by, for, from, in, like, near, of, on, to, up, with.

1. She is doing a degree course _____ a university. 2. His trousers were washed _____ the washing machine.

3. We had to climb slowly _____ the hill.

4. His house looks _____ a temple.

5. How many _____ the members will join the trip?

6. Don't lean that ladder _____ the wall.

7. I don't usually feel tired _____ the morning.

8. Have you heard anything _____ him yet?

9. My house is quite _____ to your school.

10. Put this _____ your drawer and do not let anyone see it.

11. A university is where you study _____ a degree.

12. Which of these roads will lead _____ the church?

13. He sometimes quarrels _____ the neighbour.

14. I think there is a salesman _____ the door.

15. Her next birthday will be _____ a Sunday.

16. Even the new drug could not cure him _____ his illness.

17. He was given a ten-year prison sentence _____ armed robbery.

18. The cat likes to rub its head _____ my legs.

19. The store was robbed because there was no guard _____ duty.

20. My father has a car _____ yours.

21. His sister holds a degree _____ physics _____ Oxford.

22. The new factory is expected to come online _____ May.

23. If you go _____ a river you go towards its source.


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24. Many of us eat _____ fork and spoon.

25. The mob stoned her _____ death.

1.2 EXERCISE - PREPOSITIONS

Fill in the blanks with these words: about, across, after, along, among, behind, beside, off, since, through, under, without.

1. The referee ordered two players _____ the field.2. I could see her _____ the window.

3. He sings whenever he is _____ the influence of alcohol.

4. We have not met _____ early last year.

5. She came up and sat _____ me.

6. Police want to know all _____ it and are calling for witnesses.

7. Innocent civilians were _____ the casualties.

8. Please shut the door _____ you.

9. How long can you survive _____ light or heating?

10. Who is looking _____ you when your parents are not in?

11. She was carrying her handbag _____ her arm.

12. We parked the car _____ the fence.

13. He had to push his way _____ the crowd to get in. 14. The robbers jumped _____ the train while it was still moving. 15. We enjoy driving _____ the highway.

16. Books were scattered _____ the room.

17. We are not allowed to talk _____ ourselves

18. He has completed this degree course _____ too much trouble.

19. There is only one bridge _____ this river.

20. Do you believe in life _____ death?Aasma Naseer BSIT Sem II (English Composition & Comprehension)

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CHAPTER 7: CONJUNCTIONS

Conjunctions are words that connect words, sentences, phrases, or clauses.

Examples of conjunction are: 'and', 'but', 'or', 'while', 'because', 'since', 'unless', 'although', and many more.

Conjunctions joining words:

Example: I have a car and a house.

Conjunctions joining phrases:

Example: The fisherman is happy walking along the beach and carrying a bucket full of fish.


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Conjunctions joining sentences:

¨ He walked to his car. He got into it..

He walked to his car and got into it.

¨ Will you have tea? Will you have coffee?

Will you have tea or coffee?

¨ She is tired. She cannot sleep.

She is tired but she cannot sleep.

Conjunctions can join nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs.

Example:

I have a pen and a book. (Joining two nouns)

He joked and we laughed. (Joining two verbs)

She is beautiful and tall. (Joining two adjectives)

He eats quickly and noisily. (Joining two adverbs)

EXERCISE - CONJUNCTIONS

Fill in the blanks with these words: although, and, because, but, or, since, so, unless, until, when.

1. Things were different _____ I was young.

2. I do it _____ I like it.

3. Let us wait here _____ the rain stops.

4. You cannot be a lawyer _____ you have a law degree.

5. That was years _____ years ago.Aasma Naseer BSIT Sem II (English Composition & Comprehension)

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6. She has not called _____ she left last week.

7. I saw him leaving an hour _____ two ago.

8. This is an expensive _____ very useful book.

9. We were getting tired _____ we stopped for a rest.

10. He was angry _____ he heard when happened.

11. Walk quickly _____ you will be late.

12. He had to retire _____ of ill health.

13. We will go swimming next Sunday _____ it's raining.

14. I heard a noise _____ I turned the light on.

15. Would you like a coffee _____ tea?

16. Do you know _____ she will arrive?

17. _____ the car is old it still runs well.

18. Do you want a pen _____ a bit of paper?

19. I would like to go _____ I am too busy.

20. She will die _____ the doctors operate immediately.

CHAPTER 8: INTERJECTION

Hi! That's an interjection.

An interjection is a word that shows emotion. It is not grammatically related to the rest of the sentence. Interjections are usually one to two words that usually come at the beginning of a sentence. They can show happiness , sadness , anger, surprise, or any other emotion.

Interjection is a big name for a little word.

EXAMPLES:

Interjection Meaning Example


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Hmm expressing hesitation, doubt or disagreement

"Hmm. I'm not so sure."

oh, o expressing surprise "Oh! You're here!"

expressing pain "Oh! I've got a toothache."

expressing pleading "Oh, please say 'yes'!"

ouch expressing pain "Ouch! That hurts!"

Ah expressing pleasure "Ah, that feels good."

expressing realization "Ah, now I understand."

expressing resignation "Ah well, it can't be helped."

Interjections are usually punctuated with an exclamation mark or a comma. We Use an exclamation mark if the emotion is very strong.

Example: Wow! I won a free ticket to Australia!

Use a comma if the emotion is not as strong.

Example: Wow, I have a sandwich with coffee for lunch.

IMPORTANT:

Not every introductory word that is followed by an exclamation mark or a comma is an interjection. It is a word that shows emotion. So, if a word in the beginning of the sentence does not show emotion, it is probably not an interjection.

Example: Maria! Come and see the lion!

Names like this one are not interjections. They are nouns because they name of People.


http://www.english-grammar-revolution.com/exclamation-mark.html

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Names also don't fit our definition of an interjection because they do not show emotion. The tone of voice that you say them in may show emotion, but the name itself does not.

Example: Stop! The lion will eat you!

The word stop is not an interjection. It is a verb because it shows action.

PART II: STUDY SKILLS

Chapter 9: LISTENING SKILLS

We were given two ears but only one mouth. This is because God knew that listening was twice as hard as talking.

People need to practice and acquire skills to be good listeners, because a speaker cannot throw you information in the same manner that a dart player tosses a dart at a passive dartboard. Information is an


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intangible substance that must be sent by the speaker and received by an active listener.

We probably spend more time using our listening skills than any other kind of skill. Like other skills, listening takes practice.

What does it mean to really listen?

Real listening is an active process that has two basic steps.

1. Hearing 2. Understanding

Hearing. Hearing is the first part of listening process and

consists of perception of sound.

Understanding. The next part of listening happens when

you attach meanings to what you hear.

STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE LISTENING SKILLS

The average college student spends about 14 hours per week in class

listening (or perhaps I should say "hearing"--there is a difference!) to

lectures. See if you can improve your listening skills by following some

of the strategies below:

1. Maintain eye contact with the instructor. Of course you will need to

look at your notebook to write your notes, but eye contact keeps you

focused on the job at hand and keeps you involved in the lecture. Give

your full attention on the person who is speaking. Don't look out the

window or at what else is going on in the room.


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2. Focus on content, not delivery. Have you ever counted the number of

times a teacher clears his/her throat in a fifteen minute period? If so,

you weren't focusing on content. Make sure your mind is focused, too.

It can be easy to let your mind wander if you think you know what the

person is going to say next, but you might be wrong! If you feel your

mind wandering, change the position of your body and try to

concentrate on the speaker's words.

3. Avoid emotional involvement. When you are too emotionally involved

in listening, you tend to hear what you want to hear--not what is

actually being said. Try to remain objective and open-minded.

4. Avoid distractions. Don't let your mind wander or be distracted by the

person shuffling papers near you. If the classroom is too hot or too cold

try to remedy that situation if you can. The solution may require that

you dress more appropriately to the room temperature.

5. Treat listening as a challenging mental task. Listening to an academic

lecture is not a passive act--at least it shouldn't be. You need to

concentrate on what is said so that you can process the information

into your notes.

6. Stay active by asking mental questions. Active listening keeps you on

your toes. Here are some questions you can ask yourself as you listen.

What key point is the professor making? How does this fit with what I

know from previous lectures? How is this lecture organized?

7. Let yourself finish listening before you begin to speak! You can't really

listen if you are busy thinking about what you want say next.

8. Use the gap between the rate of speech and your rate of thought. You

can think faster than the lecturer can talk. That's one reason your mind

may tend to wander. All the above suggestions will help you keep your

mind occupied and focused on what being said. You can actually begin

to anticipate what the professor is going to say as a way to keep your


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mind from straying. Your mind does have the capacity to listen, think,

write and ponder at the same time, but it does take practice.

9. Give your full attention on the person who is speaking. Don't look out

the window or at what else is going on in the room.

10. Make sure your mind is focused, too. It can be easy to let your

mind wander if you think you know what the person is going to say

next, but you might be wrong! If you feel your mind wandering, change

the position of your body and try to concentrate on the speaker's

words.

11. Let the speaker finish before you begin to talk. Speakers

appreciate having the chance to say everything they would like to say

without being interrupted. When you interrupt, it looks like you aren't

listening, even if you really are.

12. Let yourself finish listening before you begin to speak! You can't

really listen if you are busy thinking about what you want say next.

13. Listen for main ideas. The main ideas are the most important

points the speaker wants to get across. They may be mentioned at the

start or end of a talk, and repeated a number of times. Pay special

attention to statements that begin with phrases such as "My point is..."

or "The thing to remember is..."

14. Ask questions. If you are not sure you understand what the

speaker has said, just ask. It is a good idea to repeat in your own words

what the speaker said so that you can be sure your understanding is

correct. For example, you might say, "When you said that no two

zebras are alike, did you mean that the stripes are different on each

one?"

15. Give feedback. Sit up straight and look directly at the speaker.

Now and then, nod to show that you understand. At appropriate points

you may also smile, frown, laugh, or be silent. These are all ways to let


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the speaker know that you are really listening. Remember, you listen

with your face as well as your ears!

Thinking fast

Remember: time is on your side! Thoughts move about four

times as fast as speech. With practice, while you are listening

you will also be able to think about what you are hearing,

really understand it, and give feedback to the speaker.

TEN BAD LISTENING HABITS

Several years ago I identified what seemed to me to be the ten worst listening habits in America today. Though my discussion of them here is in relation to the ways they may affect us in a formal listening situation, the effects of these habits can be just as devastating in less formal listening situations at home, at school, in business or social groups.

1. Calling the Subject Dull

Bad listeners often finds a subject too dry and dusty to command their attention and they use this as an excuse to wander off on a mental tangent. Good listeners may have heard a dozen talks on the same subject before, but they quickly decide to see if the speaker has anything that can be of use to them.

The key to good listening is that little three-letter word use. Good listeners are sifters, screeners, and winnowers of the wheat from


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the chaff. They are always hunting for something practical or worthwhile to store in the back of their mind to put to work in the months and years ahead. G.K. Chesterton said many years ago that in all this world there is no such thing as an uninteresting subject, only uninterested people.

2. Criticizing the Speaker

It's the indoor sport of most bad listeners to find fault with the way a speaker looks, acts, and talks. Good listeners may make a few of the same criticisms but they quickly begin to pay attention to what is said, not how it is said. After a few minutes, good listeners become oblivious to the speaker's mannerisms or his/her faults in delivery. They know that the message is ten times as important as the clothing in which it comes garbed.

3. Getting Overstimulated

Listening efficiency drops to zero when the listeners react so strongly to one part of the presentation that they miss what follows. At the University of Minnesota we think this bad habit is so critical that, in the classes where we teach listening, we put at the top of every blackboard the words: Withhold evaluation until comprehension is complete -- hear the speaker out. It is important that we understand the speaker's point of view fully before we accept or reject it.

4. Listening Only For Facts

I used to think it was important to listen for facts. But I've found that almost without exception it is the poor listeners who say they listen for facts. They do get facts, but they garble a shocking number and completely lose most of them.

Good listeners listen for the main ideas in a speech or lecture and use them as connecting threads to give sense and system to the


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whole. In the end they have more facts appended to those connecting threads than the catalogers who listen only for facts. It isn't necessary to worry too much about fact as such, for facts have meaning only when principles supply the context.

5. Trying To Outline Everything

There's nothing wrong with making an outline of a speech -- provided the speaker is following an outline method of presentation. But probably not more than a half or perhaps a third of all speeches given are built around a carefully prepared outline.

Good listeners are flexible. They adapt their note taking to the organizational pattern of the speaker-they may make an outline, they may write a summary, they may list facts and principles -- but whatever they do they are not rigid about it.

6. Faking Attention

The pose of chin propped on hand with gaze fixed on speaker does not guarantee good listening. Having adopted this pose, having shown the overt courtesy of appearing to listen to the speaker, the bad listener feels conscience free to take off on any of a thousand tangents.

Good listening is not relaxed and passive at all. It's dynamic; it's constructive; it's characterized by a slightly increased heart rate, quicker circulation of the blood, and a small rise in bodily temperature. It's energy consuming; it's plain hard work. The best definition I know of the word attention is a "collection of tensions that can be resolved only by getting the facts or ideas that the speaker is trying to convey."

7. Tolerating Distraction

Poor listeners are easily distracted and may even create disturbances that interfere with their own listening efficiency and that of others. They squirm, talk with their neighbors, or shuffle papers. They make little or no effort to conceal their boredom. Good listeners


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try to adjust to whatever distractions there are and soon find that they can ignore them. Certainly, they do not distract others.

8. Choosing Only What's Easy

Often we find the poor listeners have shunned listening to serious presentations on radio or television. There is plenty of easy listening available, and this has been their choice. The habit of avoiding even moderately difficult expository presentations in one's ensure-time listening can handicap anyone who needs to use listening as a learning tool.

9. Letting Emotion-Laden Words Get In The Way

It is a fact that some words carry such an emotional load that they cause some listeners to tune a speaker right out: such as, affirmative action and feminist-they are fighting words to some people.

I sometimes think that one of the most important studies that could be made would be the identification of the one hundred greatest trouble-making words in the English language. If we knew what these words were, we could ring them out into the open, discuss them, and get them behind us. It's so foolish to let a mere symbol for something stand between us and learning.

10. Wasting the Differential between Speech and Thought Speed

Americans speak at an average rate of 125 words per minute in ordinary conversation. A speaker before an audience slows down to about 100 words per minute. How fast do listeners listen? Or, to put the question in a better form, how many words a minute do people normally think as they listen? If all their thoughts were measurable in words per minute, the answer would seem to be that an audience of any size will average 400 to 500 words per minute as they listen.


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Here is a problem. The differential between the speaker at 100 words per minute and the easy thought speed of the listener at 400 or 500 words per minute is a snare and a pitfall. It lures the listener into a false sense of security and breeds mental tangents.

However, with training in listening, the difference between thought speed and speech speed can be made a source of tremendous power. Listeners can hear everything the speaker says and not what s/he omits saying; they can listen between the lines and do some evaluating as the speech progresses. To do this, to exploit this power, good listeners must automatically practice three skills in concentration:

Anticipating the next point. Good listeners try to anticipate the points a speaker will make in developing a subject. If they guess right, the speaker's words reinforce their guesses. If they guess wrong, they'll have to do some thinking to discover why they and the speaker failed to agree. In either case, their chances of understanding and remembering what was said is nearly double what it would have been if they had simply listened passively.

Identifying supporting material. Good listeners try to identify a speaker's supporting material. After all, a person can't go on making points without giving listeners some of the evidence on which the conclusions are based, and the bricks and mortar that have been used to build up the argument should be examined for soundness.

Recapitulating. With the tremendous thought speed that everyone has, it is easy to summarize in about five seconds the highlights covered by a speaker in about five minutes. When the speaker stops to take a swallow of water or walks over to the blackboard to write something or even takes a deep breath, the experienced listener makes a mental summary. Half a dozen summaries of the highlights of


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a fifty-minute talk will easily double the understanding and retention important points in a talk.

Chapter 10: READING SKILLS

SIX READING MYTHS

MYTH 1: I HAVE TO READ EVERY WORD

Many of the words used in writing grammatically correct sentences actually convey no meaning. If, in reading, you exert as much effort in conceptualizing these meaningless words as you do important ones, you limit not only your reading speed but your comprehension as well.

MYTH 2: READING ONCE IS ENOUGH

Skim once as rapidly as possible to determine the main idea and to identify those parts that need careful reading. Reread more carefully to plug the gaps in your knowledge.

Many college students fell that something must be wrong with their brain power if they must read a textbook chapter more than once. To be sure, there are students for whom one exposure to an idea in a basic course is enough, but they either have read extensively or have an excellent background or a high degree of interest in the subject.


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For most students in most subjects, reading once is not enough. However, this is not to imply that an unthinking Pavlovian-like rereading is necessary to understand and retain materials. Many students automatically regress or reread doggedly with a self-punishing attitude. ("I didn't get a thing out of that paragraph the first time, so if I punish myself by rereading it maybe I will this time.") This is the hardest way to do it.

Good reading is selective reading. It involves selecting those sections that are relevant to your purpose in reading. Rather than automatically rereading, take a few seconds to quiz yourself on the material you have just read and then review those sections that are still unclear or confusing to you.

The most effective way of spending each study hour is to devote as little time as possible to reading and as much time as possible to testing yourself, reviewing, organizing, and relating the concepts and facts, mastering the technical terms, formulas, etc., and thinking of applications of the concepts-in short, spend your time learning ideas, not painfully processing words visually.

MYTH 3: IT IS SINFUL TO SKIP PASSAGES IN READING

Many college students feel that it is somehow sinful to skip passages in reading and to read rapidly. We are not sure just how this attitude develops, but some authorities have suggested that it stems from the days when the Bible was the main book read, savored, and reread. Indeed, the educated person was one who could quote long passages from these books from memory.

Today proliferation of books and printed matter brought about by the information explosion creates a reading problem for everyone. Furthermore, much of this printed material offers considerably less than Shakespeare or the Bible in meaning or style. You must, of course, make daily decisions as to what is worth spending your time on, what can be glanced at or put aside for future perusal, and what can be relegated to the wastebasket.


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The idea that you cannot skip but have to read every page is old-fashioned. Children, however, are still taught to feel guilty if they find a novel dull and out it down before finishing it. I once had a student who felt she could not have books in her home unless she had read every one of them from cover to cover. Studies show that this is the reason many people drop Book-of-the-Month Club subscriptions; they begin to collect books, cannot keep up with their reading, and develop guilty feelings about owning books they have not had time to read.

The idea that some books are used merely for reference purposes and are nice to have around in case you need them seems to be ignored in our schools. Sir Francis Bacon once said that some books are to be nibbled and tasted, some are to be swallowed whole, and a few need to be thoroughly chewed and digested no matter how trivial the content. No wonder many people dislike reading.

MYTH 4: MACHINES ARE NECESSARY TO IMPROVE MY READING SPEED

The best and most effective way to increase your reading rate is to consciously force yourself to read faster. Machines are useful as motivators, but only because they show you that you can read faster without losing understanding. Remember that they are inflexible, unthinking devices that churn away at the same rate regardless of whether the sentence is trivial or vital, simple or difficult. They are limited too, for if you are practicing skimming, you are looking for main ideas so that you can read more carefully. Since these may not be located in a definite pattern (e.g. one per line) nor be equally spaced so that the machine can conveniently time them, machines may actually slow you down and retard the speed with which you locate the ideas that you need for understanding. If you find yourself in need of a pusher, use a 3x5 card as a pacer, or use your hand, or your finger. However, there is one caution you should observe if you try this. Be sure that your hand or finger or card is used to push, not merely to follow your eyes.


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MYTH 5: IF I SKIM OR READ TOO RAPIDLY MY COMPREHENSION WILL DROP

Many people refuse to push themselves faster in reading for fear that they will lose comprehension. However, research shows that there is little relationship between rate and comprehension. Some students read rapidly and comprehend well, others read slowly and comprehend poorly. Whether you have good comprehension depends on whether you can extract and retain the important ideas from your reading, not on how fast you read. If you can do this, you can also increase your speed. If you "clutch up" when trying to read fast or skim and worry about your comprehension, it will drop because your mind is occupied with your fears and you are not paying attention to the ideas that you are reading.

If you concentrate on your purpose for reading -- e.g. locating main ideas and details, and forcing yourself to stick to the task of finding them quickly -- both your speed and comprehension could increase. Your concern should be not with how fast you can get through a chapter, but with how quickly you can locate the facts and ideas that you need.

MYTH 6: THERE IS SOMETHING ABOUT MY EYES THAT KEEPS ME FROM READING FAST

This belief is nonsense too, assuming that you have good vision or wear glasses that correct your eye problems. Of course, if you cannot focus your eyes at the reading distance, you will have trouble learning to skim and scan. Furthermore, if you have developed the habit of focusing your eyes too narrowly and looking at word parts, it will be harder for you to learn to sweep down a page of type rapidly.

Usually it is your brain, not your eyes that slows you down in reading. Your eyes are capable of taking in more words than your brain is used to processing. If you sound out words as you read, you will probably read very slowly and have difficulty in skimming and scanning until you break this habit.


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ACTIVE READING

When you're reading for your course, you need to make sure you're actively involved with the text. It's a waste of your time to just passively read, the way you'd read a thriller on holiday.

Always make notes to keep up your concentration and understanding.

Here are a few tips for active reading.

1. Underlining and highlighting

Pick out what you think are the most important parts of what you are reading. Do this with your own copy of texts or on photocopies, not with borrowed books. If you are a visual learner, you'll find it helpful to use different colours to highlight different aspects of what you're reading.

2. Note key words

Record the main headings as you read. Use one or two keywords for each point. When you don't want to mark the text, keep a folder of notes you make while reading.

3. Questions

Before you start reading something like an article, a chapter or a whole book, prepare for your reading by noting down questions you want the material to answer. While you're reading, note down questions which the author raises.

4. Summaries


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Pause after you've read a section of text. Then:

1. put what you've read into your own words;2. skim through the text and check how accurate your summary is

and3. Fill in any gaps.

5. A special tip: SQ3R technique

You should learn a huge amount from your reading. If you read passively, without learning, you're wasting your time. So train your mind to learn.

Try the SQ3R technique . SQ3R stands for Survey, Question, Read, Recall and Review.

Survey

Gather the information you need to focus on the work and set goals:

Read the title to help prepare for the subject Read the introduction or summary to see what the author thinks

are the key points Notice the boldface headings to see what the structure is Notice any maps, graphs or charts. They are there for a purpose Notice the reading aids, italics, bold face, questions at the end of

the chapter. They are all there to help you understand and remember.

Question

Help your mind to engage and concentrate. Your mind is engaged in learning when it is actively looking for answers to questions. Try turning the boldface headings into questions you think the section should answer.


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Read

Read the first section with your questions in mind. Look for the answers, and make up new questions if necessary.

Recall

After each section, stop and think back to your questions. See if you can answer them from memory. If not, take a look back at the text. Do this as often as you need to.

Review

Once you have finished the whole chapter, go back over all the questions from all the headings. See you if can still answer them. If not, look back and refresh your memory.

Words and vocabulary

When you're a graduate people expect you to use a vocabulary which is wider than a school-leaver's. To expand your vocabulary:

Choose a large dictionary rather than one which is ‘compact' or ‘concise'. You want one which is big enough to define words clearly and helpfully (around 1,500 pages is a good size).

Avoid dictionaries which send you round in circles by just giving synonyms. A pocket dictionary might suggest: ‘impetuous = rash'.

A more comprehensive dictionary will tell you that impetuous means ‘rushing with force and violence', while another gives ‘liable to act without consideration', and add to your understanding by giving the derivation ‘14th century, from late Latin impetuous = violent'.

It will tell you that rash means ‘acting without due consideration or


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thought', and is derived from Old High German rasc = hurried.

So underlying these two similar words is the difference between violence and hurrying.

There are over 600,000 words in the Oxford English Dictionary ;

most of them have different meanings, (only a small proportion are synonyms).

Avoid dictionaries which send you round in circles by using very complicated language to define the term you're looking up, leaving you struggling to understand half a dozen new words.

Keep your dictionary at hand when you're studying. Look up unfamiliar words and work to understand what they mean.

Improve your vocabulary by reading widely.

If you haven't got your dictionary with you, note down words which you don't understand and look them up later.

FOUR READING STRATEGIES

Skimming

Skimming is used to quickly gather the most important information, or 'gist'. Run your eyes over the text, noting important information. Use skimming to quickly get up to speed on a current business situation. It's not essential to understand each word when skimming.

Examples of Skimming:

The Newspaper (quickly to get the general news of the day) Magazines (quickly to discover which articles you would like to

read in more detail)


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Business and Travel Brochures (quickly to get informed)

Scanning

Scanning is used to find a particular piece of information. Run your eyes over the text looking for the specific piece of information you need. Use scanning on schedules, meeting plans, etc. in order to find the specific details you require. If you see words or phrases that you don't understand, don't worry when scanning.

Examples of Scanning

The "What's on TV" section of your newspaper. A train / airplane schedule A conference guide

Extensive reading

Extensive reading is used to obtain a general understanding of a subject and includes reading longer texts for pleasure, as well as business books. Use extensive reading skills to improve your general knowledge of business procedures. Do not worry if you understand each word.

Examples of Extensive Reading

The latest marketing strategy book A novel you read before going to bed Magazine articles that interest you

Intensive reading

Intensive reading is used on shorter texts in order to extract specific information. It includes very close accurate reading for detail. Use intensive reading skills to grasp the details of a specific situation. In this case, it is important that you understand each word, number or fact.

Examples of Intensive Reading


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A bookkeeping report An insurance claim A contract

STEPS TO FOLLOW IN SKIMMING FOR THE MAIN IDEAS

1. First, read the title of the chapter or selection carefully. Determine what clues it gives you as to what the selection is about. Watch for key words like "causes," "results," "effects," etc., and do not overlook signal words such as those suggesting controversy (e.g. "versus," "pros and cons"), which indicate that the author is planning to present both sides of an argument.

2. Look carefully at the headings and other organizational clues. These tip you off to the main points that the author wants you to learn. You may be accustomed to overlooking boldface headings and titles which are the obvious clues to the most important ideas. If you concentrate on the details and ignore the main ideas, you will have much more difficulty retaining the information you read.

Remember that authors of college textbooks want you to recognize the important concepts. They use:

a. Major headings and subheadings to convey major points.

b. Italicized words and phrases so that crucial new terms and definitions will stand out.

c. Lists of points set off by numbers or paragraphs that begin with the phrases such as "The three most important factors . . . " etc.

d. Redundancy or repetition. By stating and restating the facts and ideas, the author ensures that you will be exposed in different ways to the concepts she feels are the most crucial for you to understand. She hopes that on at least one of these exposures you will absorb the idea. Therefore, it is vital that you recognize


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when an important concept is being restated in slightly different words and when you have completely mastered the idea.


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CHAPTER 10: SKILLS FOR TAKING LECTURES & NOTES

A wit once remarked that "A lecture is a process in which information passes from the notes of the lecturer into the notes of the student without passing through the minds of either." (Gilstrap and Martin, 1975). These guidelines aim to help you avoid that dull and futile situation by helping you learn how to be a more active participant in lectures.

1. Making the most of Lectures

Lectures are used for two purposes:

1. to give an overview of the subject, which means you will need to fill in the detail, and

2. to give detailed information on a topic, which means you will need to fill in the background.

These guidelines cover:

a. Preparing for lectures b. During lectures c. After lectures

a. Preparing for lectures

Find out how your lectures relate to your course as a whole. Do the seminars or tutorials prepare you for the lectures, or do they follow up the lectures? Will you be able to discuss the lecture content in seminars? See your course information booklet or ask your tutor.

Doing preparatory reading will make it easier for you to follow the lecture. When the lecture is part of a series, you should revise your notes from previous lectures.

b. During lectures


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Listening in lectures

During the lecture it's more important to listen than to make notes. If you listen effectively, you will have a better understanding of the content, which will help you write clear, helpful notes that will make sense to you later on. If you have trouble concentrating, you should try sitting near the front, so you are removed from distractions. You may find it helpful to record the lecture on a cassette recorder, but ask the lecturer's permission first.

Signposts to structure

While you listen to a lecture, try to focus on its structure. Sometimes the lecturer makes it clear at the start of the lecture with a list of headings or a summary. Note this down so you have a sense of where the lecture is going.

The lecturer may use verbal signposts, for example: "I shall now discuss..." or "My next point is..." Note the change of topic in your notes. Other signposts to listen out for are phrases like: "On the other hand..." or "Turning to..."

Using handouts

Some lecturers issue handouts to summarise important information and help you follow the lecture. To get the most benefit from them:

Highlight key words Add notes in the margin Add colour to highlight and categorise information.

c. After lectures

Ask: Don't be afraid to ask the lecturer for clarification either in the


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lecture, or afterwards.

Clarify: Use seminars and tutorials to clarify material from the lectures.

Review: Review your notes while the lecture us still fresh in your mind.

Note-taking is a skill which you will need in order to be a successful student. It's also a skill which your future employer wants you to have: to be able to summarise what has been said or written, in a clear, concise form, with no important facts left out.

We cover six aspects of making notes:

a) Be selectiveb) Mind mapsc) Cornell systemd) Recording lecturese) Using notesf) Making notes as you listen

a. Be selective

Note-taking does not mean writing down everything you read or hear. Your notes should be a clear summary of essential points in a text or lecture. Be selective about what you write down.

Notes should help you to:

Fix information in your mind, and Revise.

b. Mind-mapping

If you're a Visual Learner you'll find patterns easier to use than lists of


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ideas, so you may want to use mind maps (which are also called spider digrams).

Mind maps can help you to connect information in a variety of ways. You can use them for:

Making notes, Planning essay answers and Revising.

Start in the middle of a page with the subject title or topic, and add major points along a line from the centre, with additional ideas branching out from the main points. Use connecting lines to link up ideas/points from different branches. Like this:

There are dedicated software packages (e.g. Inspiration and MindManager) which you can use for mind-mapping on your computer.

c. Cornell Method

If you are an Auditory Learner, you may prefer to use a system like the Cornell Method, an example of which is given below:


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Cornell Method

Use large loose-leaf notebook

Write legibly

Capture general ideas not illustrative ones

Leave blank lines to show end of topics

Use abbreviations to save timesummary column

leave a 7cm left margin

key words after the lecture, go over your notes and jot down key ideas or key words in the summary column


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Cornell’s note taking method

d. Recording lectures

You may find it easiest to record lectures on audio cassette and make your notes from the tapes afterwards.

Get permission: most lecturers will let you record, but it's a courtesy to ask first

Put your cassette recorder near the lecturer: you won't get clear sound if you put your cassette machine at the back of a large lecture theatre.


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e. Using your notes

Whichever method you use, it's important that you do something with your notes. You need to go through them while the lecture is still fresh in our mind, within 24 hours, and make sure you tidy them up and summarize them.

Use highlighters and coloured pens to highlight key points and to link relevant facts and ideas.

Make it a rule after each lecture to:

Tidy up your notes Make them more legible if you need to

Summarise your notes

Write down the main points to make it easy to revise for exams later.

If you use the Cornell system, you can overlay your pages so you only see the left-hand margin, and read the essentials of the lecture from your summary notes.)

Fill in your notes

Fill in from memory examples and facts which you didn't have time to get down in the lecture

Clarify your notes

If any parts of the lecture were unclear, ask the lecturer, tutor or a fellow-student about them, or check your text books

Highlight your notes

Make the key points stand out:

Underline them,


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Highlight them in a bright colour, or Mark them with asterisks.

f. Making notes as you listen

Apart from the date and title (if it's given) don't try to write anything at the start of a lecture.

Listen to find out what the content is going to be.

Write down key words / ideas. You don't have to write in complete sentences.

Use abbreviations to help you. The most common abbreviations are:

eg for example nb note well ie that is cf compare etc and the rest & and = equals

> greater than < less than C19 nineteenth century

therefore because

CHAPTER 11: TEN TIMELESS PERSUASIVE WRITING TECHNIQUES


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Want to convince your readers to do something or agree with your point of view? OK, that was a silly question. Of course you do.

Persuasion is generally an exercise in creating a win-win situation. You present a case that others find beneficial to agree with. You make them an offer they can’t refuse, but not in the manipulative Godfather sense.

It’s simply a good deal or a position that makes sense to that particular person. But there are techniques that can make your job easier and your case more compelling. While this list is in no way comprehensive, these 10 strategies are used quite a bit because they work.

1. Repetition

Talk to anyone well versed in learning psychology, and they’ll tell you repetition is crucial. It’s also critical in persuasive writing, since a person can’t agree with you if they don’t truly get what you’re saying.

Of course, there’s good repetition and bad. To stay on the good side, make your point in several different ways, such as directly, using an example, in a story, via a quote from a famous person, and once more in your summary.

2. Reasons Why

Remember the power of the word because. Psychological studies have shown that people are more likely to comply with a request if you simply give them a reason why… even if that reason makes no sense.

The strategy itself does make sense if you think about it. We don’t like to be told things or asked to take action without a reasonable explanation. When you need people to be receptive to your line of thinking, always give reasons why.

3. Consistency

It’s been called the “hobgoblin of little minds,” but consistency in our


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thoughts and actions is a valued social trait. We don’t want to appear inconsistent, since, whether fair or not, that characteristic is associated with instability and flightiness, while consistency is associated with integrity and rational behavior.

Use this in your writing by getting the reader to agree with something up front that most people would have a hard time disagreeing with. Then rigorously make your case, with plenty of supporting evidence, all while relating your ultimate point back to the opening scenario that’s already been accepted.

4. Social Proof

Looking for guidance from others as to what to do and what to accept is one of the most powerful psychological forces in our lives. It can determine whether we deliver aid to a person in need, and it can determine whether we muster the courage to kill ourselves.

Obvious examples of social proof can be found in testimonials and outside referrals, and it’s the driving force behind social media. But you can also casually integrate elements of social proof in your writing, ranging from skillful alignment with outside authorities to blatant name dropping.

5. Comparisons

Metaphors, similes and analogies are the persuasive writer’s best friends. When you can relate your scenario to something that the reader already accepts as true, you’re well on your way to convincing someone to see things your way.

But comparisons work in other ways too. Sometimes you can be more persuasive by comparing apples to oranges (to use a tired but effective metaphor). Don’t compare the price of your home study course to the price of a similar course—compare it to the price of a live seminar or your hourly consulting rate.

6. Agitate and Solve


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This is a persuasion theme that works as an overall approach to making your case. First, you identify the problem and qualify your audience. Then you agitate the reader’s pain before offering your solution as the answer that will make it all better.

The agitation phase is not about being sadistic; it’s about empathy. You want the reader to know unequivocally that you understand his problem because you’ve dealt with it and/or are experienced at eliminating it. The credibility of your solution goes way up if you demonstrate that you truly feel the prospect’s pain.

7. Prognosticate

Another persuasion theme involves providing your readers with a glimpse into the future. If you can convincingly present an extrapolation of current events into likely future outcomes, you may as well have a license to print money.

This entire strategy is built on credibility. If you have no idea what you’re talking about, you’ll end up looking foolish. But if you can back up your claims with your credentials or your obvious grasp of the subject matter, this is an extremely persuasive technique.

8. Go Tribal

Despite our attempts to be sophisticated, evolved beings, we humans are exclusionary by nature. Give someone a chance to be a part of a group that they want to be in—whether that be wealthy, or hip, or green, or even contrarian—and they’ll hop on board whatever train you’re driving.

This is the technique used in the greatest sales letter ever written. Find out what group people want to be in, and offer them an invitation to join while seemingly excluding others.

9. Address Objections

If you present your case and someone is left thinking “yeah, but…”, well,


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you’ve lost. This is why direct marketers use long copy—it’s not that they want you to read it all, it’s that they want you to read enough until you buy.

Addressing all the potential objections of at least the majority of your readers can be tough, but if you really know your subject the arguments against you should be fairly obvious. If you think there are no reasonable objections to your position, you’re in for a shock if you have comments enabled.

10. Storytelling

Storytelling is really a catch-all technique—you can and should use it in combination with any and all of the previous nine strategies. But the reason why storytelling works so well lies at the heart of what persuasion really is.

Stories allow people to persuade themselves, and that’s what it’s really all about. You might say that we never convince anyone of anything—we simply help others independently decide that we’re right. Do everything you can to tell better stories, and you’ll find that you are a terribly persuasive person.

CHAPTER 12: SKILLS FOR EXAMS

Last-minute 'cramming' for exams is the worst of all worlds - it is very stressful, is unlikely to lead to good marks and you won't be able to remember much of it within a few days of leaving the exam room.

It makes much more sense to start exam revision in plenty of time - all


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it takes is a little planning and self-discipline to avoid those late nights, cold sweats and so-so grades.

Revising for Exams

Here are nine tips on revising for exams:

a. Make use of your learning style when you revise b. Plan in good time c. Active revision d. Old exam papers e. Pace yourself f. You’re not alone g. Reward yourself h. Trust i. Look after yourself

a. Make use of your learning style when you revise

Tips for Visual Learners

Rewrite your notes as mind-maps Use colour to highlight important things Draw diagrams and sketches to help you remember points.

Tips for Auditory Learners

Read your notes aloud Record yourself on cassette reading key points of your notes

aloud, then listen to the tape afterwards Revise with other students if you can Sing the main points. Linking them with a tune may help you

remember them.

Tips for learners who are readers and writers

Copy out your notes. Read your notes silently.


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Rewrite the key points using different words. Write down key points from memory.

Tips for Active Learners

Move around the room Revise while you do kung-fu moves or other physical activity Mentally review what you’ve been revising while you’re

swimming or jogging.

b. Plan in good time

Timetable

How much time have you got? What do you need to do?

A week in hand

Aim to have your revision completed by a week before your exams. This gives you:

flexibility in case of illness a chance to spend longer on something that proves difficult a break before you sit your exams.

Select

What topics do you need to revise? How much time do they need?

Targets

Be realistic about:

the targets you set yourself how much time you will need.

Balance


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Aim for a balance between subjects you’re strong in and those which you’re less confident about.

c. Active revision

It’s not enough just to re-read notes, make your revision active! Here’s how:

Paper

Have plenty of paper and a pen handy.

Memorise

Study a section of your notes, and memorise the essential points.

Write

Put your notes out of sight, and write down from memory the essential things you learned.

Check

Check with your notes.

Learn

Note any points you omitted or got wrong, and learn them.

Cards

1. Reduce notes to essential points, either by highlighting or underlining.

2. Use these points to make memory aids on index cards or similar-sized pieces of paper.

3. Use a separate card for each topic.4. Write down important points to remember about each topic.5. Carry these cards with you wherever you go. Review them in

your spare moments.


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d. Old exam papers

Look through old exam papers

Make outline plans for the answers

Note carefully the slight differences in how questions are asked from year to year.

e. Pace yourself

Use your time well.

Don’t try to do too much at once. Take a break from time to time in each study period.

f. You’re not alone

Revise with other people sometimes; if you don’t feel that you’ve entirely grasped a topic, or don’t have any ‘new’ ideas on it, discussing it with other students can be helpful. This is specially useful for Auditory Learners.

g. Reward yourself

Recognise the targets you have achieved. Mark your progress on your revision plan so that you can see what you are achieving.

h. Trust

Trust your memory.

Once you know a subject thoroughly, move on to the next. Don’t keep checking your memory to see if it’s doing its job.

It’s like a filing system, and it will produce what is required at the appropriate time.


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i. Look after yourself

Diet

Try and eat a healthy diet, not just chips and burgers! Take time out for meals; don’t try to work while you’re eating dinner.

Caffeine

Too much tea and coffee can increase your anxiety levels and induce insomnia. Caffeine tablets have the same effect.

Exercise

Get some exercise! You don’t have to go mad. 20 minutes exercise 2-3 times a week will give you more stamina, help reduce stress and help you to sleep.

Rest

Don’t try to work through the night before an exam.Go to bed in good time and get as much sleep as you can.

Taking exams

Here are eight tips for helping you cope on the day of an exam:

a. Eat b. Trustc. Organise d. Comfort e. Nerves f. Instructions g. Questions h. Preparing

a. Eat

Have a reasonable amount to eat before the exam. Some people find it


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helpful to take sweets or chocolate into exams as they help maintain blood sugar levels. But don’t rustle those wrappers.

b. Trust

Don’t get into conversations about the exam just before the start; other people may make you more nervous or start confusing you. If you’ve prepared thoroughly, trust your own knowledge.

c. Organise

Get to the exam room in good time. Make sure you have all the equipment you need. Remember that pens run out, and pencils break. Always have spares. Make sure that you know beforehand whether dictionaries, calculators and other pieces of equipment are allowed.

d. Comfort

Remember that you will be sitting still for some hours. Make sure that you will be warm enough.

e. Nerves

If you do get nervous or anxious, take some time out; getting a glass or water or going to the loo can help.

Don’t give up. It’s always worth going back in and trying again.

f. Instructions

Read through the instructions, make sure you understand them.

Read through all the questions and decide which ones you can answer.

Divide the time available by the number of questions you have to answer, to work out how much time you can give each question.

Allow five minutes at the end of each period for reading through your


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answers.

g. Questions

If they ask you to answer four questions, they will allocate marks to each one. So there’s no point in spending all your time on just two questions, you’ll never get more than 50% of the available marks that way.

Attempt the number of questions you are asked to answer.

h. Preparing

If you are giving essay-style answers, spend the first 5-10 minutes of your available time noting down the ideas you wish to include.

Put them in a logical order and write your answer.

It is a good idea to practise writing this kind of timed answer as part of your revision routine.

PART III: READING COMPREHENSION SKILLS

CHAPTER 13: SKILLS FOR READING COMPREHENSION

What is reading comprehension

According to Webster's Dictionary, reading is "to receive or take in the sense of (as letters or symbols) by scanning; to understand the meaning of written or printed matter; to learn from what one has seen or found in writing or printing. Webster also tells us that


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comprehension is "the capacity for understanding fully; the act or action of grasping with the intellect." So, Comprehension = understanding!

Recognizing Organizational Patterns

It is very important for a reader to recognize the organizational patterns used by an author in a particular text. The author may use any one of the following patterns.

1. Enumeration

i. A list of dates, names, formulas, theories, and so onii. what the author believes is important to understanding the

larger concept of the materials

2. Time order

A list of major events in the order they occur

3. Cause-effect

An explanation of how one thing causes other things to happen

4. Compare-contrast

An explanation of how events, discoveries, and so on are the same or different.

Levels of Comprehension

The three levels of comprehension, or sophistication of thinking, are presented in the following hierarchy from the least to the most sophisticated level of reading.

Least = surface, simple reading Most = in-depth, complex reading

Level One

LITERAL - what is actually stated.

Facts and details Rote learning and memorization Surface understanding only


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TESTS in this category are objective tests dealing with true / false, multiple choice and fill-in-the blank questions.

Common questions used to illicit this type of thinking are who, what, when, and where questions.

Level Two

INTERPRETIVE - what is implied or meant, rather than what is actually stated.

Drawing inferences Tapping into prior knowledge / experience Attaching new learning to old information Making logical leaps and educated guesses Reading between the lines to determine what is meant by what

is stated.

TESTS in this category are subjective, and the types of questions asked are open-ended, thought-provoking questions like why, what if, and how.

Level Three

APPLIED - taking what was said (literal) and then what was meant by what was said (interpretive) and then extend (apply) the concepts or ideas beyond the situation.

Analyzing Synthesizing Applying

In this level we are analyzing or synthesizing information and applying it to other information.

Comprehension Skill Strategies

1. Know the purpose for each reading assignment and why you should be interested in this new knowledge

2. Skim the book’s preface and table of contents to decide what organizational structure the author has chosen.


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3. Read the summary paragraph at the end of each reading segment so you will know what the author thinks is important before you start reading

4. Identify lists of learning objectives at the beginning of each chapter or reading segment

5. Read any study questions found at the end of the chapter before you start reading

Comprehension Skill Strategies: While You Are Reading

1. Look for major headings and subheadings in the reading materials

2. Examine the first few lines of each section of the text to identify the main idea

3. Write a brief outline of the major and supporting ideas4. Read with a dictionary5. Look for bold print that may indicate important words,

definitions, charts, graphs, etc6. Focus7. Predict information in the reading selection. Anticipate the

outcomes

Comprehension Skill Strategies: After You Read

1. Review the material to find answers to all the questions you have developed by using the preceding strategies

2. Explain what you read out loud to yourself, another student or a study group

Comprehension Skill Strategies: Summary

1. Summarize

i. Identify the topic sentence for each paragraphii. Outline the text using headings and subheadingsiii. Draw graphics to illustrate the informationiv. Make a list of problems that need to be resolved


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2. Mental Imagery

Mental imagery, also called visualization and mental rehearsal. It is the human ability to visualize images in our minds after the original stimuli is out of view. This cognitive component is one of the main assisting factors in our memories and current thought. It provides us with images to help us decipher concepts presented to us as well as a source of encoded thoughts to recall old ideas.

For example. Close your eyes and imagine where you have seen an animal about which you have studied in a paragraph

3. Story Grammar

i. Who is the main characterii. Where and when does the story take placeiii. What do the characters doiv. How does the story endv. How do the main characters feel

4. Mnemonic Imagery

Mnemonics are memory devices used to help learners recall larger pieces of information, especially in the form of lists like characteristics, steps, stages, parts, phases, etc. We knew back in 1967 from a study by Gerald R. Miller that mnemonics increased recall. He found that students who regularly used mnemonic devices increased test scores up to 77%!

Many types of mnemonics exist and which type works best is limited only by the imagination of each individual learner. The 9 basic types of mnemonics presented in this handout include Music, Name, Expression/Word, Model, Ode/Rhyme, Note Organization, Image, Connection, and Spelling Mnemonics.

A familiar example of a mnemonic device is the name Roy G Biv, an acronym for the sequence of colors in a rainbow (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet).


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My Very Educated Mother Just Served Us Nine Pizzas (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto), Fan Boys, ABC MUSIC MNEMONIC.

5. Question Generation

Question Generation is a strategy that assists students with their comprehension of text. Students learn to formulate and respond to questions about situations, facts, and ideas while engaged in understanding a text. During this process, there are several different types of questions that may be derived.

Type of Question Examples

Self-monitoring

Did this passage make sense to me?

What should I be on the lookout for in the next passage?

Collecting Information

What are the facts? What are the main

ideas? Who are the main

characters? What are the significant

details?

Asking the Author What does this author seem to think is most important?

Why is the author telling


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me this now?

Classifying

How can I reorganize the information?

Can I explain this new information?

Predicting

Based on what I know, what might happen next?

How might this appear on the test?

6. Prior Knowledge Activation

Prior knowledge refers to all the knowledge which readers have acquired through their lives. Some theorists use the term prior knowledge synonymously with world knowledge, background knowledge, memory storage, or experiential background.

When students make connections to the text they are reading, their comprehension increases. Good readers constantly try to make sense out of what they read by seeing how it fits with what they already know. When we help students make those connections before, during, and after they read, we are teaching them a critical comprehension strategy that the best readers use almost unconsciously.

Ellin Oliver Keene and Susan Zimmerman in Mosaic of Thought (1997), have identified three main types of connections students make as they read:

Text to self


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Text to world Text to text

Exercise:1

Read the following paragraph and underline the stated main idea. Write down in your own words what you are able to conclude from the information.

The rules of conduct during an examination are clear. No books, calculators or papers are allowed in the test room. Proctors will not allow anyone with such items to take the test. Anyone caught cheating will be asked to leave the room. His or her test sheet will be taken. The incident will be reported to the proper authority. At the end of the test period, all materials will be returned to the proctor. Failure to abide by these rules will result in a failing grade for this test.

COMPREHENSION PRACTCE

In this part of the test you will be given 12 minutes to read a passage on current general economic literature and 8 Minutes to answer the questions that follow it. You must try to retain the names, facts, figures and other salient points of the passage. You must NOT, however, underline or mark the passage in any way. Do not jot down these figures anywhere and use unfair means in any manner you’re your own interest.

While reading the passage you will NOT be allowed to refer to the questions which follow. And while answering the question you will NOT be allowed to refer to the original passage.

The passage is usually spread over a page. Begin reading the passage only when the instructor tells you to-do so, and stop reading as soon as the instructor says STOP.

PASSAGE: 1

Siraj-ud-Daulah instantly assembled his whole force, and marched to encounter the English. It had been agreed the Meer Jaffar should separate himself from the Nabob and carry over his division to Civil.


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But as the decisive moment approached, the fears of the conspirator overpowered his ambition. Clive and advance to CassimBazaar; the Nabob lay with a mighty power a few miles off Plassey; and still Meer Jaffar delayed to fulfill the engagements.

Clive was in painfully anxious situation. He could place no confidence in the sincerity or in the courage of his confederate; and whatever confidence he might place in his own military talents and in the valor and discipline of his troops, it was no light thing to engage an army twenty times as numerous as his own.

Clive was unable to sleep; he heard, through the whole night, the sound of drums and cymbals from the vast camp of Nabob. It is not strange that even his stout heart should now and then have sunk, when he reflected against what odds and for what prize, he was in a few hours to contend.

Nor was the rest of Siraj-ud-Daulah more peaceful. His mind, at once weak and stormy, was distracted by wild and horrible apprehensions. Appalled by the greatness and nearness of the crises, distrusting his captains, dreading everyone who approaches him, dreading to be left alone, he sat gloomily in his tent.

QUESTIONS RELATED TO THE PASSAGE

1. Whole army was twenty times as numerous as Clive’s2. What two words in the passage describe the quality of the British

Troops?3. Give the two adjectives used in the passage to describe Siraj-ud-

Daula’s state of mind?4. Where did Nabob’s Army lie?5. Where and Clive encamped?6. What did Nabob fear most in his own Captains?7. Mention three words in the passage which are synonyms of Army 8. What words would you use to describe Meer Jaffar’s act against

Nabob.

PASSAGE: 2

If man began with speech, and civilization with agriculture, industry began with fire. Man did not invent it; probably Nature produced the marvel for him by the friction of leaves or twigs, a stroke of lighting, or a chance union of chemicals; man merely had the saving wit to imitate


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Nature, and to improve upon her. He put the wonder into a thousand uses. First, perhaps, he made it serve as a torch to conquer his fearsome enemy, the dark; then he used it for warmth, and moved about freely from his native tropics to less enervating zones, slowly making the planet human; then he applied it to metals, softening them, tempering them, and combining them into form stronger and more supple than those in which they had come to his hand. It was fire that created the old and honorable art of cooking; extending the diet of man to a thousand foods that could not be eaten before. So beneficent and strange was it that fire always remained a miracle to primitive man, fit to be worshipped as a god; he offered it his life and home; he carried it carefully with him as he moved from place to place in his wanderings and would not willingly let it die. Even the Romans punished with death the careless virgins of the temple Vesa who allowed the sacred fire to be extinguished.


1. Fire is called a Wonder. What other single word in the passage convey the same idea

2. What did the primitive man fear greatly?3. What is meant by, “Man merely has the saving wit to imitate

Nature”.4. What were the results of application of fire to metal?5. How did man set about making the planet human?6. What was the principal duty of the Virgins in the temple of Vesa?7. Suggest a suitable title for the passage

PASSAGE 3

It is physically impossible for a well-educated, intellectual or brave man to make money the chief object of his thoughts; just as it is for him to make his dinner the principal object of them. All healthy people like their dinners, but their dinner is not the main object of their lives. So all healthy-minded people like making money, ought to like it – and enjoy the sensation of winning it; but the main object of their life is not money. It is something better than money. A good soldier, for instance, mainly wishes to do his fighting well. He is glad of his pay – very


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properly so, and justly grumbles when you keep him ten years without it – still, his main notion of life is to win battles, not to be paid for winning them. So of the doctors, they like fees no doubt, ought to like them; yet if they are brave and well educated, the entire object of their lives is not fees. They on the whole desire to cure the sick and if they are good doctors, and the choice were fairly put to them, they would rather cure their patient and lose the fee than kill him and get it. And so with all other brave and rightly trained men; their work is first, their fee second – very important no doubt, but still second. But in every nation, as I said there are vast numbers of people who are ill-educated, cowardly and more or less stupid. And with these people just as certainly the fee is first and the work second, as with the brave it is opposite.


1. What are the two types of people mentioned by the writer?2. What is the fundamental difference between the two types of

people mentioned?3. The author’s tone in the passage can be best described as 4. The main object of healthy – minded people is5. How many people of different professions does the writer

mention?6. What is physically impossible for a well-educated and brave

man?7. When does a solider grumble?8. Which is the best suitable title for this passage

Regards: Muhammad Irfan Saeed BS(IT)


Education

Bsit sem 2 english (version last)