BEHAVIORIST PERSPECTIVE

WHAT IS BEHAVIORIST PERSPECTIVE?

WHAT IS BEHAVIORIST PERSPECTIVE?• THE BEHAVIORIST PERSPECTIVE IS A THEORY OF PSYCHOLOGY THAT STATES THAT HUMAN

BEHAVIORS ARE LEARNED, NOT INNATE. THE BEHAVIORIST APPROACH ASSERTS THAT HUMAN BEINGS HAVE NO FREE WILL AND THAT ALL ACTIONS, CHARACTERISTICS AND PERSONALITY TRAITS ARE THE RESULT OF A PERSON'S ENVIRONMENT AND THE CULTURAL FORCES THAT SHAPE IT.• THE THEORY OF BEHAVIORISM FOCUSES ON THE STUDY OF OBSERVABLE AND MEASURABLE

BEHAVIOR. IT EMPHASIZES THAT BEHAVIOR IS MOSTLY LEARNED THROUGH CONDITIONING AND REINFORCEMENT (REWARDS AND PUNISHMENT). IT DOES NOT GIVE MUCH ATTENTION TO THE MIND, AND THE POSSIBILITY OF THOUGHT PROCESSES OCCURRING IN THE MIND. CONTRIBUTIONS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE BEHAVIORIST THEORY LARGELY CAME FROM PAVLOV, THORNDIKE AND SKINNER.

TWO CATEGORIES

•BEHAVIORISM•NEO-BEHAVIORISM

BEHAVIORISM: PAVLOV, THORNDIKE, WATSON, SKINNER

•THE THEORY THAT HUMAN AND ANIMAL BEHAVIOR CAN BE EXPLAINED IN TERMS OF CONDITIONING, WITHOUT APPEAL TO THOUGHTS OR FEELINGS, AND THOSE PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS ARE BEST TREATED BY ALTERING BEHAVIOR PATTERNS.

BEHAVIORIST •IVAN PETROVICH PAVLOV •EDWARD THORNDIKE•JOHN B. WATSON•BURRHUS FREDERICK SKINNER

IVAN PETROVICH PAVLOVIVAN PETROVICH PAVLOV WAS A RUSSIAN PHYSIOLOGIST  WHO STUDIED THE BEHAVIOR OF DOGS. PAVLOV’S MOST RENOWNED EXPERIMENT INVOLVED MEAT, A DOG AND A BELL. INITIALLY, PAVLOV WAS MEASURING THE DOG’S SALIVATION IN ORDER TO STUDY DIGESTION. THIS IS WHEN HE STUMBLED UPON CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

PAVLOV ALSO HAD THE FOLLOWING FINDINGS:•STIMULUS GENERALIZATION•EXTINCTION•SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY•DISCRIMINATION•HIGHER-ORDER CONDITIONING

EDWARD THORNDIKE•CONNECTIONISM (EDWARD THORNDIKE) THE LEARNING THEORY OF

THORNDIKE REPRESENTS THE ORIGINAL S-R FRAMEWORK OF BEHAVIORAL PSYCHOLOGY. LEARNING IS THE RESULT OF ASSOCIATIONS FORMING BETWEEN STIMULI AND RESPONSES. SUCH ASSOCIATIONS OR "HABITS" BECOME STRENGTHENED OR WEAKENED BY THE NATURE AND FREQUENCY OF THE S-R PAIRINGS. THORNDIKE’S THEORY ON CONNECTIONISM STATED THAT LEARNING HAS TAKEN PLACE WHEN A STRONG CONNECTION OR BOND BETWEEN STIMULUS AND RESPONSE IS FORMED.

• HE CAME UP WITH THIS THREE PRIMARY LAW• “LAW OF EFFECT” WHICH STATED THAT ANY BEHAVIOR THAT IS

FOLLOWED BY PLEASANT CONSEQUENCES IS LIKELY TO BE REPEATED, AND ANY BEHAVIOR FOLLOWED BY UNPLEASANT CONSEQUENCES IS LIKELY TO BE STOPPED.• “LAW OF EXERCISE (THORNDIKE)” THE MORE A BEHAVIOR FOLLOWS

A GIVEN STIMULUS, THE MORE LIKELY IT WILL OCCUR AGAIN (HABIT, NO REWARD NECESSARY)• “LAW OF READINESS” THIS STATE THAT, THE MORE READINESS THE

LEARNER HAS TO RESPONSE TO THE STIMULUS, THE STRONGER WILL BE THE BOND BETWEEN THEM.

• PRINCIPLES DERIVED FROM THORNDIKE’S CONNECTIONISM:• LEARNING REQUIRES BOTH PRACTICE AND REWARDS (LAW

OF EFFECT/EXERCISE)•A SERIES OF S-R CONNECTIONS CAN BE CHAINED TOGETHER

IF THEY BELONG TO THE SAME ACTION SEQUENCE (LAW OF READINESS).• TRANSFER OF LEARNING OCCURS BECAUSE OF PREVIOUSLY

ENCOUNTERED SITUATIONS.• INTELLIGENCE IS A FUNCTION OF THE NUMBERS OF

CONNECTIONS LEARNED.

JOHN B. WATSON• JOHN B. WATSON WAS THE FIRST AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST TO

WORK WITH PAVLO’V IDEA. HE TOO WAS INITIALLY INVOLVED IN ANIMAL STUDIES, THE LATER BECOME INVOLVED IN HUMAN BEHAVIOR RESEARCH.•HE CONSIDERED THAT HUMAN ARE BORN WITH FEW REFLEXES AND

THE EMOTIONAL REACTIONS OF LOVE AND RAGE. ALL OTHER BEHAVIOR IS LEARNED THROUGH STIMULUS-RESPONSE ASSOCIATIONS THROUGH CONDITIONING.•EXPERIMENT ON ALBERT

BURRHUS FREDERICK SKINNER•BURRHUS FREDERICK SKINNER LIKE PAVLOV, WATSON AND

THORNDIKE, SKINNER BELIEVED IN THE STIMULUS-RESPONSE PATTERN OF CONDITIONAL BEHAVIOR. SKINNER’S WORK DIFFERS FROM THAT OF THE THREE BEHAVIORISTS BEFORE HIM, IN THAT HE STUDIED OPERANT BEHAVIOR (VOLUNTARY BEHAVIORS USED IN OPERATING ON THE ENVIRONMENT). THUS, IS THEORY CAME TO BE KNOWN AS OPERANT CONDITIONING.

•OPERANT CONDITIONING IS BASED UPON THE NOTION THAT LEARNING IS A RESULT OF CHANGE IN OVERT BEHAVIOR•REINFORCEMENT IS THE KEY ELEMENT IN SKINNER’S S-R THEORY • TWO TYPE OF REINFORCER • POSITIVE REINFORCER – IS ANY STIMULUS THAT IS GIVEN OR ADDED TO INCREASE

THE RESPONSE• NEGATIVE REINFORCER – IS ANY STIMULUS THAT RESULT IN THE INCREASED

FREQUENCY OF A RESPONSE WHEN IT IS WITHDRAW OR REMOVED

• EXTINCTION OR NON-REINFORCEMENT• RESPONSES THAT ARE NOT REINFORCED ARE NOT LIKELY TO BE REPEATED

• SHAPING OF BEHAVIOR•BEHAVIOR CHAINING

•REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULES• ONCE THE DESIRED BEHAVIORAL RESPONSE IS ACCOMPLISHED,

REINFORCEMENT DOES NOT HAVE TO BE 100%.

• FIXED INTERVAL SCHEDULES• THE TARGET RESPONSE IS REINFORCED AFTER A FIXED AMOUNT OF TIME

HAS PASSED SINCE THE LAST REINFORCEMENT.

•VARIABLE INTERVAL SCHEDULES • SIMILAR TO FIXED INTERVAL SCHEDULES, BUT THE AMOUNT OF TIME

THAT MUST PASS BETWEEN REINFORCEMENT VARIES.

• FIXED RATIO SCHEDULES• A FIXED NUMBER OF CORRECT RESPONSES MUST OCCUR BEFORE

REINFORCEMENT MAY RECUR.

•VARIABLE RATIO SCHEDULES• THE NUMBER OF CORRECT REPETITION OF THE CORRECT RESPONSE FOR

REINFORCEMENT VARIES.

• IMPLICATION OF OPERANT CONDITIONING. THIS IMPLICATION ARE GIVEN FOR PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION• PRACTICE SHOULD TAKE THE FORM OF EQUATION (STIMULUS) – ANSWER

(RESPONSE) FRAMES WHICH EXPOSE THE STUDENT TO THE SUBJECT IN GRADUAL STEPS.• REQUIRE THAT THE LEARNER MAKES A RESPONSE FOR EVERY FRAME

AND RECEIVES IMMEDIATE FEEDBACK• TRY TO ARRANGE THE DIFFICULTY OF THE QUESTIONS SO THE RESPONSE

IS ALWAYS CORRECT AND HENCE, A POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT.• ENSURE THAT GOOD PERFORMANCE IN THE LESSON IS PAIRED WITH

SECONDARY REINFORCEMENT SUCH AS VERNAL PRAISE, PRIZES AND GOOD GRADES.

•PRINCIPLE DERIVED FROM SKINNER’S OPERANT CONDITIONING• BEHAVIOR THAT IS POSITIVELY REINFORCED WILL REOCCUR;

INTERMITTENT REINFORCEMENT IS PARTICULARLY EFFECTIVE.• INFORMATION SHOULD BE PRESENTED IN SMALL AMOUNTS SO

THAT RESPONSE CAN BE REINFORCED (SHAPING).• REINFORCEMENT WILL GENERALIZE ACROSS SIMILAR STIMULUS

(STIMULUS GENERALIZATION) PRODUCING SECONDARY CONDITIONING.

NEO BAHAVIORISM: TOLMAN AND BANDURA• NEOBEHAVIORISM IS A SCHOOL OF THOUGHT THAT POSITS THAT THE STUDY OF LEARNING AND A

FOCUS ON RIGOROUS OBJECTIVE OBSERVATIONAL METHODS FORM THE KEY TO SCIENTIFIC PSYCHOLOGY. NEOBEHAVIORISM IS THE SECOND PHASE OF BEHAVIORISM, WHICH WAS CLOSELY ASSOCIATED WITH B.F. SKINNER, CLARK HULL AND EDWARD C. TOLMAN. • YOU ARE TASKED TO SOLVE A MAZE. THERE ARE TWO MAZES, MAZE A AND MAZE B. USUALLY, PEOPLE

WHO WORKED ON THE MAZE ACTIVITY WOULD SAY THAT THEY FOUND THE SECOND MAZE EASIER. THIS IS BECAUSE THAT THE TWO MAZES WERE IDENTICAL, EXCEPT THAT THE ENTRANCE AND EXIT POINTS WERE REVERSED. PEOPLE CREATE MENTAL MAPS OF THINGS THEY PERCEIVED. THESE MENTAL MAPS HELP THEM RESPOND TO OTHER THINGS OR TASKS LATER, ESPECIALLY IF THEY SEE THE SIMILARITY. YOU MAY BEGIN TO RESPOND WITH TRIAL AND ERROR (BEHAVIORISTIC), BUT LATER ON OUR RESPONSE BECOMES MORE INTERNALLY DRIVEN (COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE). THIS IS WHAT NEOBEHAVIORISM IS ABOUT. IT HAS ASPECTS OF BEHAVIORISM BUT IT ALSO REACHES OUT TO THE COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE.

TWO THEORIES REFLECTING NEOBAVIORISM THAT STANDS OUT:

•EDWARD TOLMAN’S PURPOSIVE BEHAVIORISM & ALBERT BANDURA’S SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY•BANDURA’S SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

EDWARD TOLMAN’S PURPOSIVE BEHAVIORISM & ALBERT BANDURA’S SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY• PURPOSIVE BEHAVIORISM HAS ALSO BEEN REFERRED TO AS SIGN LEARNING

THEORY AND IS OFTEN SEEN AS THE LINK BETWEEN BEHAVIORISM AND COGNITIVE THEORY. TOLMAN’S THEORY WAS FOUNDED ON TWO PSYCHOLOGICAL VIEWS, THOSE OF GESTALT PSYCHOLOGISTS AND THOSE OF JOHN WATSON, THE BEHAVIORIST.• TOLMAN BELIEVED THAT LEARNING IS A COGNITIVE PROCESS. LEARNING

INVOLVES FORMING BELIEFS AND OBTAINING KNOWLEDGE ABOUT THE ENVIRONMENT AND THEN REVEALING THAT KNOWLEDGE THROUGH PURPOSEFUL AND GOAL-DIRECTED BEHAVIOR

• TOLMAN STATED IN HIS SIGN THEORY, THAT AN ORGANISM LEARNS BY PURSUING SIGNS TO A GOAL, I.E., LEARNING IS ACQUIRED THROUGH MEANINGFUL BEHAVIOR. HE STRESSED THE ORGANIZED ASPECT OF LEARNING: “ THE STIMULI WHICH ARE ALLOWED IN ARE NOT JUST SIMPLE ONE TO ONE SWITCHES TO THE OUTGOING RESPONSES. RATHER THE INCOMING IMPULSES ARE USUALLY WORKED OVER AND ELABORATED IN THE CENTRAL ROOM INTO A TENTATIVE MAP, INDICATING ROUTES AND PATHS AND ENVIRONMENTAL RELATIONSHIPS, WHICH FINALLY DETERMINES WHAT RESPONSES, IF ANY, THE ANIMAL WILL MAKE.• TOLMAN’S KEY CONCEPTS• LEARNING IS ALWAYS PURPOSIVE AND GOAL-DIRECTED- INDIVIDUALS DO MORE

THAN MERELY RESPOND TO A STIMULI; THEY ACT ON BELIEFS, ATTITUDES, CHANGING CONDITIONS AND THEY STRIVE TOWARD GOALS.

• COGNITIVE MAPS IN RATS. IN HIS FAMOUS EXPERIMENTS, ONE GROUP OF RATS WAS PLACED AT RANDOM STARTING LOCATIONS IN A MAZE BUT THE FOOD WAS ALWAYS IN THE SAME LOCATION IN A MAZE BUT THE FOOD WAS ALWAYS IN THE SAME LOCATION. ANOTHER GROUP OF RATS HAD THE FOOD PLACED IN DIFFERENT LOCATIONS WHICH ALWAYS REQUIRED EXACTLY THE SAME PATTERN OF TURNS FROM THEIR STARTING LOCATION. THE GROUP THAT HAD THE FOOD IN THE SAME LOCATION PERFORMED MUCH BETTER THAN THE OTHER GROUP, SUPPOSEDLY DEMONSTRATING THAT THEY HAD LEARNED THE LOCATION RATHER THAN THE SPECIFIC SEQUENCE OF TURNS. THIS IS TENDENCY TO “LEARN LOCATION” SIGNIFIED THAT RATS SOMEHOW FORMED COGNITIVE MAPS THAT HELP THEM PERFORM WELL ON MAZE. HE ALSO FOUND OUT THAT ORGANISMS WILL SELECT THE SHORTEST OR EASIEST PATH TO ACHIEVE A GOAL.

• LATENT LEARNING – IS A KIND OF LEARNING THAT REMINDS OR STAYS WITH THE INDIVIDUAL UNTIL NEEDED.IT IS LEARNING THAT IS NOT OUTWARDLY MANIFESTED AT ONCE. • EX. APPLIED IN HUMAN, A TWO-YEAR-OLD ALWAYS SEES HER DAD OPERATE THE TV. REMOTE

CONTROL AND OBSERVES HOW THE TV IS TURNED ON OR HOW CHANNEL IS CHANGED AND VOLUME ADJUSTED. AFTER SOMETIME THE PARENTS ARE SURPRISED THAT ON THE FIRST TIME THAT THEIR DAUGHTER HOLDS THE REMOTE CONTROL, SHE ALREADY KNOWS WHICH BUTTON TO PRESS FOR WHAT FUNCTION. THROUGH LATENT LEARNING, THE CHILD KNEW THE SKILLS BEFOREHAND, EVEN THOUGH SHE HAS NEVER DONE THEM BEFORE.

• THE CONCEPT OF INTERVENING VARIABLE- ARE VARIABLES THAT ARE NOT READILY SEEN BUT SERVE AS DETERMINANTS OF BEHAVIOR. TOLMAN BELIEVED THAT LEARNING IS MEDITATED OR IS INFLUENCED BY EXPECTATIONS., PERCEPTIONS, REPRESENTATIONS, NEEDS AND OTHER INTERNAL OR ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES.• REINFORCEMENT NOT ESSENTIAL FOR LEARNING- TOLMAN CONCLUDED THAT

REINFORCEMENT IS NOT ESSENTIAL FOR LEARNING, ALTHOUGH IT PROVIDES AN INCENTIVE FOR PERFORMANCE.

BANDURA’S SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY• A TEN-YEAR-OLD BOY NAMED SERGIO PELICO DIED BY HANGING HIMSELF FROM A

BUNK BED WAS APPARENTLY MIMICKING THE EXECUTION OF FORMER IRAQI LEADER SADDAM HUSSEIN. CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGIST EDWARD BISCHOF OF CALIFORNIA SAID CHILDREN SERGIO’S AGE MIMIC RISKY BEHAVIORS THEY SEE ON TV SUCH AS WRESTLING OR EXTREME SPORTS WITHOUT REALIZING THE DANGERS. HE SAID TV APPEARED TO BE THE STIMULANT IN SERGIO’S CASE.

• SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY FOCUSES ON THE LEARNING THAT OCCURS WITHIN A SOCIAL CONTEXT. IT CONSIDERS THAT PEOPLE LEARN FROM ONE ANOTHER, INCLUDING SUCH CONCEPTS AS OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING, IMITATION AND MODELING THE 10-YEAR-OLD BOY SERGIO PELICO DID WATCH SADDAM’S EXECUTION IN TV AND THEN MUST HAVE IMITATED IT.

• AMONG OTHERS, ALBERT BANDURA IS CONSIDERED THE LEADING PROPONENT OF THIS THEORY.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY• PEOPLE CAN LEARN BY OBSERVING THE BEHAVIOR OF OTHERS AND THE

OUTCOMES OF THOSE BEHAVIORS.• LEARNING CAN OCCUR WITHOUT A CHANGE.• COGNITION PLAYS A ROLE IN LEARNING• SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY CAN BE CONSIDERED A BRIDGE OR A TRANSITION

BETWEEN BEHAVIORIST LEARNING THEORIES AND COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORIES.

HOW THE ENVIRONMENT REINFORCES AND PUNISHES MODELLING?• THE OBSERVER IS REINFORCED BY THE MODEL • THE OBSERVER IS REINFORCED BY A THIRD PERSON• THE IMITATED BEHAVIOR ITSELF LEADS TO REINFORCING

CONSEQUENCES•CONSEQUENCES OF THE MODEL’S BEHAVIOR AFFECT THE

OBSERVER’S BEHAVIOR VICARIOUSLY

CONTEMPORARY SOCIAL LEARNING PERSPECTIVE OF REINFORCEMENT AND PUNISHMENT• CONTEMPORARY THEORY PROPOSES THAT BOTH REINFORCEMENT AND

PUNISHMENT HAVE INDIRECT EFFECTS ON LEARNING.• REINFORCEMENT AND PUNISHMENT INFLUENCE THE EXTENT TO WHICH AN

INDIVIDUAL EXHIBITS A BEHAVIOR THAT HAS BEEN LEARNED.• HE EXPECTATION OF REINFORCEMENT INFLUENCES COGNITIVE PROCESSES

THAT PROMOTE LEARNING.

COGNITIVE FACTORS IN SOCIAL LEARNING

•LEARNING WITHOUT PERFORMANCE.•COGNITIVE PROCESSES DURING LEARNING•EXPECTATIONS•RECIPROCAL CAUSATION•MODELING

CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR EFFECTIVE MODELLING TO OCCUR•BANDURA MENTIONS FOUR CONDITIONS THAT ARE NECESSARY

BEFORE AN INDIVIDUAL CAN SUCCESSFULLY MODEL THE BEHAVIOR OF SOMEONE ELSE:• .ATTENTION- A PERSON MUST PAY ATTENTION TO THE MODEL FIRST• RETENTION-A PERSON MUST REMEMBER WHAT HAS BEEN OBSERVED• MOTOR REPRODUCTION –ABILITY TO REPLICATE THE BEHAVIOR THAT THE

MODEL DEMONSTRATED.• MOTIVATION

EFFECTS OF MODELLING ON BEHAVIOR•MODELLING TEACHES NEW BEHAVIORS.•MODELLING INFLUENCES THE FREQUENCY OF PREVIOUSLY

LEARNED BEHAVIORS.•MODELLING MAY ENCOURAGE PREVIOUSLY FORBIDDEN

BEHAVIORS•MODELING INCREASES THE FREQUENCY OF SIMILAR BEHAVIORS.

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY• STUDENTS OFTEN LEARN A GREAT DEAL SIMPLY BY OBSERVING OTHER PEOPLE.• DESCRIBING THE CONSEQUENCES OF BEHAVIOR CAN EFFECTIVELY INCREASE THE

APPROPRIATE BEHAVIORS AND DECREASE INAPPROPRIATE ONES.• MODELLING PROVIDES AN ALTERNATIVE TO SHAPING FOR TEACHING NEW

BEHAVIORS.• TEACHERS AND PARENTS MUST MODEL APPROPRIATE BEHAVIORS AND TAKE CARE

THAT THEY DO NOT MODEL INAPPROPRIATE BEHAVIORS.• TEACHERS SHOULD EXPOSE STUDENTS TO A VARIETY OF OTHER MODELS.

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