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Bee & Boyd, Lifespan Development, Chapter 9
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Chapter 9:
Physical and Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood
In This Chapter
Physical ChangesGrowth and Motor Development From 6 to 12
General growth
Large muscle coordination
Fine motor control
Eye-hand coordination improvement
How did you grow during middle childhood?
Physical ChangesGrowth and Motor Development From 6 to 12
Gender Differences
Girls: Faster in overall growth rate Slightly more fat and less muscle Better coordination
Boys: Boys faster and stronger
The Brain and Nervous System
Major Middle Childhood Growth Spurts
From 6 to 8 years: Increases in the sensory and motor cortex
From 10 to 12 years: Frontal lobes and cerebral cortex add synapses
The Brain and Nervous System
Cognitive ChangesThe Brain and Nervous System
Spatial perception lateralization Improves learning math concepts and
problem-solving
Spatial cognition Ability to infer rules from and make
predictions about movements of objects in space
Cognitive ChangesHealth and Wellness
Rate and Type of Injury Changes with Age
Head injuries Motor vehicles and bicycles
Traumatic brain injuries (TBI) Reduced by helmet usage
Cognitive ChangesHealth and Wellness
Asthma: Chronic disease that causes airways to become sore and swollen
Causes Allergens, irritants, weather, exercise,
infections
Consequences Most frequent cause of school absence
Health and WellnessObesity
Obesity: Excess body fat that has adverse effect on health
Most serious long-term health risk of middle childhood
Affecting nearly 1 in 5 children Associated with adult obesity
Let’s look at the prevalence of overweight children over time.
Figure 9.1 Prevalence of Overweight among U.S. 6 – 11 Year Olds
Figure to come
Cognitive ChangesLanguage
During the school-aged years, children: Demonstrate improved grammar skills and
pronunciation Engage in conversation with many ages Increase in vocabulary, especially derived
words
Figure 9.2 Vocabulary Growth in Middle Childhood
Cognitive ChangesPiaget’s Concrete Operational Stage
Concrete Operational Stage: Thinking logically about concrete concepts but have difficulty understanding abstract or hypothetical concepts
School-aged children: Understand rules that govern physical reality Distinguish between appearance and reality Utilize a set of powerful schemas
Cognitive ChangesPiaget’s Concrete Operational Stage
Do you know what powerful schema school-aged children use?
Figure 9.3 An Example of Concrete Operational Thinking
Piaget’s Concrete Operational StageDirect Tests of Piaget’s View
Horizontal decalage: Applying new thinking to all kinds of problems
Conservation: Ability to logically determine certain quantity remains same despite adjustment of container, shape, or apparent size
Let’s see how children perform on tests of conservation.
Figure 9.4 Within-Stage Development in Concrete Operations
Direct Tests of Piaget’s ViewSiegler
Concrete Operations as Rules for Problem Solving
Siegler Cognitive development consists of
acquiring a set of basic rules applied to broader ranges of problems.
Movement from one rule to next requires experience.
This approach is a cross between Piaget’s and information processing theories.
Figure 9.5 Piaget’s Balance Task
Advances in Information Processing SkillsProcessing Efficiency
Processing efficiency: Ability to make efficient use of short-term memory capacity
Major component of cognitive growth
Increases speed of cognitive processing
Change validated with cross-cultural research
Advances in Information Processing SkillsAutomaticity
Automaticity: Ability to recall information from long term memory without using short term memory capacity
Frees up short-term memory space for more complex processing
Achieved primarily through practice
Advances in Information Processing SkillsExecutive and Strategic Processes
Executive processes: Information processing skills allowing a person to devise and carry out alternative strategies for remembering and problem solving
Metacognition: “thinking about thinking”
Memory strategies
Advances in Information Processing SkillsExpertise
Expertise: Amount of information possessed improves information processing
Categorize information in complex and hierarchical ways
Stirs capacity for creativity Chi research
SchoolingOverview
Every society seeks ways of teaching children skills needed in adulthood.
In U.S., formal education is one of most important influence on cognitive development in middle childhood.
Schooling
Literacy: Ability to read and write Phonological awareness Balanced approach utilizes systematic
and explicit phonics instruction Sound-symbol connections and explicit
language mechanics instruction Curriculum flexibility
Second-Language Learners
Limited English Proficient (LEP): Limited ability to read, write, speak, or understand English
English Language Learners (ELL): Limited English proficiency prevents full participation in regular education classes
By 2008, one-half of all U.S. classrooms had one or more ELL or LEP students
Second-Language Learners
Programs and services provided Bilingual education ESL Home-school programs
No single approach is most successful Any structured program better than
submersion Transition to English-only program is
necessary
Achievement and Intelligence Tests
Standardized tests: Individual performance determined by comparing score to average score obtained from large sample of similar individuals
Kinds of tests Achievement tests Paper and pencil intelligence tests
Yes or No?
IQ tests should be used as the primary or only criteria for placing children in educational programs.
SchoolingAchievement and Intelligence Tests
Which theory describes intelligence better – multiple intelligences or the triarchic theory? Why?
Obesity is becoming a major problem in the U.S. What can a parent do to help an obese child or to help a child avoid becoming obese?
Questions To PonderQuestions To PonderQuestions To PonderQuestions To Ponder
SchoolingGroup Differences in Achievement
Sex differences No consistent differences between boys
and girls on total IQ or achievement test scores
Differences shaped by interaction between biology and environmental factors
SchoolingGroup Differences in Achievement
Ethnic differences Problems associated with economic status;
access to prenatal care; family stability
Style differences Analytic Relational
SchoolingCross Cultural Differences in Achievement
U.S. children significantly behind industrialized nation peers in math and science
North American parents emphasize innate ability; Asians emphasize hard work
Teaching methods vary Studies may be measuring surface rather
than subtle variations
Children with Special NeedsOverview
13% of all U.S. children receive some kind of special education
See Table 9.4 for a list of disabilities for which U.S. children receive special education services
One of the growing categories of disabilities include learning disabilities
Children with Special NeedsLearning Disabilities
Learning disabilities: Disorder in which child has difficulty in mastering specific academic skill, even though she or he possesses normal intelligence and no physical or sensory handicap.
Children with Special NeedsAttention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
ADHD: Neurobiological disorder characterized by developmentally inappropriate impulsivity, inattention, and, in some cases, hyperactivity
Causes Cultural factors Treatment