3. The notion of rhythm involves some noticeable event
happening at regular intervals of time. It has often been claimed
that English speech is rhythmical and that the rhythm is detectable
in the regular occurrence of stressed syllables. M.Mahdipour
4. This theory implies that stressed syllables will tend to
occur at relatively regular intervals whether they are separated by
unstressed syllables or not. It states that in languages like
English, Russian, Arabic the times from each stressed syllable to
the next will tend to be the same, irrespective of the number of
intervening unstressed syllables. Ex/ `Walk `down the `path to the
`end of the caal M.Mahdipour
5. The theory also claims that there is another kind of rhythm
in some languages (French) called syllable-timed rhythm in which
all syllables whether stressed or unstressed tend to occur at
regular time intervals and the time between stressed syllables will
be shorter or longer due to the number of unstressed syllables.
M.Mahdipour
6. Foot is a unit of rhythm. It begins with a stressed syllable
and includes all following unstressed syllables up to the next
stressed syllable. `walk `down the `path to the `end of the ca `nal
M.Mahdipour
7. Some feet are stronger than others, producing strong-week
patterns in larger pieces of speech above the level of the foot.
For example; the word twenty has one strong and one weak syllable,
forming one foot. And so does the word places. S W S W twen ty pla
ces M.Mahdipour
8. Now consider the phrase twenty places where places normally
carries stronger stress. W S s w s w twen ty pla ces
M.Mahdipour
9. Looking at this phrase in the context of a longer phrase
twenty places further back, well have: w w w w w w twen ty pla ces
fur ther back The strength of any particular syllable can be
measured by counting up the number of times an S symbol occurs
above. M.Mahdipour
10. English speech tends towards a regular alternation between
stronger and weaker, and tends to adjust stress levels to bring
this about. This is the effect called stress-shift. As you can see
below, the stresses are altered according to context. Compact (adj)
/km`pkt/ Compact disk /kmpkt disk/ Westminster /west`mnst/
Westminster Abbey /`westmnst `bi/ M.Mahdipour
11. In speaking English we vary in how rhythmically we speak:
sometimes we speak very rhythmically (like in public speaking)
while at other times we may speak arhythmically if we are hesitant
or nervous. Stress-timed rhythm is characteristic of one style of
speaking, not of English speech as a whole. M.Mahdipour
12. Regressive Progressive (Coalescent) Assimilation of place
Assimilation of voice M.Mahdipour
13. In natural connected speech, sounds belonging to one word
can cause changes in sounds belonging to neighbouring words. we
call this difference assimilation. . Cf Ci .. word boundary
Assimilation is sth which varies in extent according to speaking
rate and style and is more likely to be found in rapid, casual
speech. M.Mahdipour
14. If Cf changes to become like Ci in some way, the
assimilation is called regressive.( The following phoneme affects
on its preceding) If Ci changes to become like Cf, then the
assimilation is called progressive. This kind of assimilation is
sometimes called Coalescence. In words like: Not yet & could
you A final t,d and an initial j following often combine to form t,
, so that not yet Is pronounced /net/ and could you is /ku/. 2.1
Regressive assimilation 2.2 Progressive assimilation
M.Mahdipour
15. This is the case parallel to regressive/progressive where a
Cf with alveolar place of articulation is followed by an Ci with a
place of articulation that is not alveolar. ex/ that person is /p
psn/ that man /p mn/ meat pie /mip pa/ that case /k kes/ bright
colour /brak kl/ good boy /gb b/ bad thing /bd / card game /kg gem/
green paper /grm pep/ ten girls /te glz/ this shoe / u/ those years
/ jz/ M.Mahdipour
16. It is important to know the consonants that have undergone
assimilation have not disappeared; the duration of consonants
remains more or less what one would expect for a two-consonant
cluster. The change in the manner of articulation is most likely
towards an easier consonant which makes less obstruction to the
airflow. A case of progressive assimilation where Ci becomes
identical in manner to the Cf. ex/ in the /n / /nn/ get them /get
m/ /gettm/ read these /rid iz/ /riddiz/ M.Mahdipour
17. This is found in a limited way and there is only regressive
assimilation of voice. If Cf is a lenis (voiced) consonant and Ci
is fortis (voiceless) the lenis consonant often becomes voiceless
too. ex/ I have to /a hf tu/ A type of assimilation that has become
fixed is the progressive assimilation of vioce with the suffixes
s,z (3rd person singular, plural, possessive) where S is pronounced
as /S/ if the preceding consonant is fortis (voiceless) and as /Z/
if the preceding consonant is lenis (voiced). Cats /kts/ dogs /dgz/
Jumps /dmps/ runs /rnz/ Pats /pts/ pams/pmz/ M.Mahdipour
18. Assimilation creates sth of a problem for phoneme theory:
For example when d in good/gd/ in the context good girl gives /gg
gl/ or b in the context good boy /gb b/ should we say that one
phoneme has been substituted for another? English has no dental or
labiodental plosive phonemes, so in these cases, although there is
clearly assimilation , there could not be said to be a substitution
of one phoneme for another. The alternative is to say that
assimilation causes a phoneme to be realized by a different
allophone. This would mean that the phoneme d of good has velar and
bilabial allophones. M.Mahdipour
19. In certain circumstances a phoneme may be realised as zero
or have zero realisation or be deleted, this is called Elision. It
is typical of rapid, casual speech. M.Mahdipour
20. 1. Loss of weak vowel after p,t,k: potato, tomato, canary,
perhaps, today. 2. Weak vowel + n, l, r becomes syllabic consonant:
tonight /tnat/ police/plis/ correct/krekt/ 3. Avoidance of complex
consonant clusters: acts/ks/ looked back/lk bk/ scripts/skrps/ 4.
Loss of final v in of before consonants: Lots of them/lts m/ west
of money/west mni/ M.Mahdipour
21. Had, would (d) : pronounced /d/ (after vowels), /d/ (after
consonants) Is, has (s): pronounced /s/ (after fortis consonants),
/z/ (after lenis consonants) Will (ll): pronounced /l/ (after
vowels), /l/ (after consonants) Have (ve): pronounced /v/ (after
vowels), /v/ (after consonants) Are (re): pronounced //, /r/(after
vowels) M.Mahdipour
22. In real connected speech we link words together in a number
of ways. The most familiar case is the use of linking r. Here /h/
but here are/hr / Four /f/ but four eggs/fr egz/ M.Mahdipour
23. It is using r for linking words ending with a vowel, even
when there is no justification. Formula A /fmjlr e/ Australia all
out /strelir l at/ Media event /midir vent/ M.Mahdipour
24. Linking r and intrusive r are special cases of juncture.
Take a look at some other examples: my turn /ma tn/ long a,
aspirated t might earn/mat n/ shortened a, unaspirated t my train
/ma tren/ might rain /mait rein/ Tray lending /tre lendi/ long e,
clear l Trail ending /trel endi/ shortened e, dark l keeps ticking
t aspirated in ticking keep sticking t unaspirated after s
M.Mahdipour