ANCIENT ROMEANCIENT ROMEThe Essential BackgroundThe Essential Background

Rome’s FoundationRome’s Foundation

THE MYTHTHE MYTH The great legend about Rome’s The great legend about Rome’s

foundation traces the story back to the foundation traces the story back to the Trojan War.Trojan War.

However, the best known feature is However, the best known feature is the claim that the Princess Rhea Silvia the claim that the Princess Rhea Silvia gave birth to twin sons; Romulus and gave birth to twin sons; Romulus and Remus who were fathered by the God Remus who were fathered by the God Mars. Thrown into the Tiber River by Mars. Thrown into the Tiber River by their evil great uncle Amulius, the their evil great uncle Amulius, the boys were raised by a she-wolf. boys were raised by a she-wolf.

This image is one of the best known This image is one of the best known representations of Rome herself. representations of Rome herself. Though Romulus would in time kill Though Romulus would in time kill Remus this was not until after they Remus this was not until after they founded Rome in 753 BC.founded Rome in 753 BC.

THE REALITYTHE REALITY Like everywhere in Europe, human Like everywhere in Europe, human

history in Italy stretches far back into history in Italy stretches far back into the Stone Age. By around 5000 BC the Stone Age. By around 5000 BC farms started appearing in Italy …but farms started appearing in Italy …but civilization there was 1000 years civilization there was 1000 years behind Egypt in terms of development.behind Egypt in terms of development.

Archaeology has shown that by 1000 Archaeology has shown that by 1000 BC small farms were beginning to BC small farms were beginning to appear on the famous “Seven Hills” appear on the famous “Seven Hills” that would eventually house Rome.that would eventually house Rome.

It was not until the seventh century BC It was not until the seventh century BC that these villages on the hills began that these villages on the hills began to merge into a single entity.to merge into a single entity.

The Seven Kings of RomeThe Seven Kings of Rome

Early Rome was ruled by a succession of Early Rome was ruled by a succession of kings. This kingship was not hereditary kings. This kingship was not hereditary and some monarchs came from and some monarchs came from neighbouring powers such as Etruria.neighbouring powers such as Etruria.

The details of this early era are a blend The details of this early era are a blend of myth and fact …even the dates which of myth and fact …even the dates which follow are approximations at best.follow are approximations at best.

Romulus 753-716 BCRomulus 753-716 BC Numa Pompilius 715-673 BCNuma Pompilius 715-673 BC Tullus Hostilius 673-641 BCTullus Hostilius 673-641 BC Ancus Marcius 641-616 BCAncus Marcius 641-616 BC Tarquinius Priscus 616-579 BCTarquinius Priscus 616-579 BC Servius Tullius 579-535 BCServius Tullius 579-535 BC Tarquinius Superbus 535-509 BCTarquinius Superbus 535-509 BC

* Trivia …Rome’s biggest sewer, the Cloaca * Trivia …Rome’s biggest sewer, the Cloaca Maxima was built during the reign of the Maxima was built during the reign of the final king. It is still in use today!final king. It is still in use today!

Tarquinius Superbus (“Tarquin the Proud”) was seen as a ruthless tyrant. Eventually a conspiracy was organised by Lucius Junius Brutus, Tarquin’s nephew. He was to be revered as the founder of the Roman Republic although, killed in battle in 509 BC, he took no part in establishing the new constitution.

* Trivia …Brutus’ direct descendant Marcus Junius Brutus would lead the conspiracy to kill Julius Caesar in 44 BC.

The New ConstitutionThe New Constitution

Roman historians credited Publius Valerius Poplicola (560-503 BC) with the Roman historians credited Publius Valerius Poplicola (560-503 BC) with the creation of Rome’s new constitution. The constitution was based upon one creation of Rome’s new constitution. The constitution was based upon one key underlining principle: key underlining principle: “That in the Republic no-one was to have “That in the Republic no-one was to have permanent political power.”permanent political power.”

Three significant features within the constitution are at the basis of our Three significant features within the constitution are at the basis of our study of “poltical centrism” in Rome.study of “poltical centrism” in Rome.

1. The office of King was 1. The office of King was prohibited foreverprohibited forever.. 2. Two senators called consuls were to be 2. Two senators called consuls were to be elected annuallyelected annually to run the state. to run the state.

These two men would have These two men would have supreme powersupreme power over the law and the conduct over the law and the conduct of war. Each had the of war. Each had the power of vetopower of veto …the right to reject the decisions of the …the right to reject the decisions of the other.other.

3. In times of national crisis, the constitution allowed for the appointment 3. In times of national crisis, the constitution allowed for the appointment of a of a dictatordictator (a “magister populi” …a magistrate of the people). A dictator’s (a “magister populi” …a magistrate of the people). A dictator’s power was not to last beyond six months.power was not to last beyond six months.

The only known inscription bearing the name of Poplicola.

Patricians .v. PlebeiansPatricians .v. Plebeians

After Rome had eliminated the kingship, After Rome had eliminated the kingship, society was split into two distinct halves. The society was split into two distinct halves. The upper classes were known as the “patricians” upper classes were known as the “patricians” whereas the lower classes were referred to as whereas the lower classes were referred to as “plebeians” or simply “plebs.”“plebeians” or simply “plebs.”

In the earliest years of the Republic all the top In the earliest years of the Republic all the top jobs were reserved for the aristocrats; most jobs were reserved for the aristocrats; most especially the new role of consul. The majority especially the new role of consul. The majority of people were of course “plebs” and filled all of people were of course “plebs” and filled all the ordinary jobs including serving in the army the ordinary jobs including serving in the army without pay.without pay.

Not surprisingly, the tension between the Not surprisingly, the tension between the classes soon erupted into a 200 year “war” classes soon erupted into a 200 year “war” that historians have dubbed the “Conflict of that historians have dubbed the “Conflict of the Orders.” The key outcome of this conflict the Orders.” The key outcome of this conflict was the creation of the tribunate. However, it was the creation of the tribunate. However, it always remained difficult for a brilliant man of always remained difficult for a brilliant man of a poor background to attain real power in a poor background to attain real power in Rome.Rome.

Eventually, clever politicians such as Caesar Eventually, clever politicians such as Caesar would come to recognize the “power of the would come to recognize the “power of the mob.” By the end of the Republic only 15 or so mob.” By the end of the Republic only 15 or so pure patrician families remained having been pure patrician families remained having been decimated by intermarriage and the financial decimated by intermarriage and the financial need to join with rich plebeian families.need to join with rich plebeian families.

Gaius Julius Caesar was from a famous patrician family that could trace its lineage back to Rome’s foundation. He was the principal architect of the downfall of the Republic. Caesar’s immense popularity amongst the plebs would carry him to ultimate power.

The Cursus HonorumThe Cursus Honorum

The diagram opposite shows the ladder The diagram opposite shows the ladder of political advancement in Ancient of political advancement in Ancient Rome. The “Cursus Honorum” was Rome. The “Cursus Honorum” was literally the “course of honours” followed literally the “course of honours” followed by politicians.by politicians.

The “course” was a mixture of military The “course” was a mixture of military and political posts which was originally and political posts which was originally reserved for “patricians.” Each office had reserved for “patricians.” Each office had a minimum age for election and a minimum age for election and minimum intervals between holding minimum intervals between holding successive offices. Laws forbade successive offices. Laws forbade repeating an office.repeating an office.

These rules were altered and flagrantly These rules were altered and flagrantly ignored during the last century of the ignored during the last century of the Republic; the time span of our inquiry Republic; the time span of our inquiry topic.topic.

To have held each post at the youngest To have held each post at the youngest possible age was considered the ultimate possible age was considered the ultimate political success …but few achieved it.political success …but few achieved it.

Only those offices marked with an asterix Only those offices marked with an asterix carried “imperium” which allowed the carried “imperium” which allowed the holder to command an army.holder to command an army.

The Key MagistraciesThe Key Magistracies

CONSULS (2): The two chief CONSULS (2): The two chief magistrates who presided over the magistrates who presided over the Senate, initiated legislation, served as Senate, initiated legislation, served as army commanders-in-chief and army commanders-in-chief and represented Rome in foreign affairs. represented Rome in foreign affairs. This position was the pinnacle of This position was the pinnacle of power in Republican Rome.power in Republican Rome.

QUAESTORS (20): These were largely QUAESTORS (20): These were largely financial positions both within the financial positions both within the state treasury and in provinces. state treasury and in provinces. Election as quaestor gained a man Election as quaestor gained a man admission to the Senate.admission to the Senate.

TRIBUNES (10): These officials had to TRIBUNES (10): These officials had to be “plebeian” and were to protect the be “plebeian” and were to protect the rights of the lower classes. They could rights of the lower classes. They could veto the act of any magistrate and veto the act of any magistrate and they were by law “sacrosanct.” they were by law “sacrosanct.”

AEDILES (4): Two had to be plebeian AEDILES (4): Two had to be plebeian but the other two could come from but the other two could come from either order. These magistrates either order. These magistrates controlled public places, the games controlled public places, the games and the grain supply.and the grain supply.

PRAETORS (8): These were primarily PRAETORS (8): These were primarily the judges in the law courts. They the judges in the law courts. They could however convoke the Senate could however convoke the Senate and assumed the duties of the consuls and assumed the duties of the consuls if they were away from Rome.if they were away from Rome.

The ivory “Curule” chair was a symbol of high office.

Magistrates with imperium were accompanied and guarded by lictors.

Roman ReligionRoman Religion

The Romans seemingly adopted a The Romans seemingly adopted a limitless number of Gods from other limitless number of Gods from other cultures with which they came in cultures with which they came in contact.contact.

They saw the great Gods of their They saw the great Gods of their pantheon in human form; Gods were pantheon in human form; Gods were immortal and spent their time immortal and spent their time controlling human affairs.controlling human affairs.

Each God had a personality, particular Each God had a personality, particular powers, faults and favourites and some powers, faults and favourites and some were linked by family relationships.were linked by family relationships.

JUPITER (or JOVE or JUPITER OPTIMUS JUPITER (or JOVE or JUPITER OPTIMUS MAXIMUS) was the King of the Gods. MAXIMUS) was the King of the Gods. His worship was a regular part of the His worship was a regular part of the state calendar.state calendar.

JUNO was Jupiter’s wife and the mother JUNO was Jupiter’s wife and the mother of Mars; she symbolised motherly of Mars; she symbolised motherly virtues.virtues.

MARS was God of War but was also MARS was God of War but was also associated with healing, agriculture associated with healing, agriculture and property boundaries.and property boundaries.

Other key Gods of the public arena Other key Gods of the public arena included Apollo, Mercury, Neptune, included Apollo, Mercury, Neptune, Venus and Vulcan.Venus and Vulcan.

VESTA was the Goddess of the “Hearth VESTA was the Goddess of the “Hearth Fire” who was worshipped in every Fire” who was worshipped in every home and in the city itself. Her eternal home and in the city itself. Her eternal flame was kept by the Vestal Virgins.flame was kept by the Vestal Virgins.

From our study of Pompeii you will From our study of Pompeii you will remember the importance of remember the importance of household deities; the Lares. household deities; the Lares.

* Trivia: Forculus was the God of Doors * Trivia: Forculus was the God of Doors whilst Cardea watched over the whilst Cardea watched over the hinges!hinges!

JUPITER

What’s In A Name?What’s In A Name?

Roman citizens of the “respectable Roman citizens of the “respectable classes” typically had a classes” typically had a tria nomina tria nomina which which was made up of a was made up of a praenomen praenomen (forename (forename or what we call a Christian name), a or what we call a Christian name), a nomen nomen (the clan name or “family branch”) (the clan name or “family branch”) and a and a cognomencognomen (family surname). E.g. (family surname). E.g. Gaius Julius CaesarGaius Julius Caesar

Some also had an Some also had an agnomen agnomen (an additional (an additional surname, used to distinguish them from surname, used to distinguish them from others with the same name.) This others with the same name.) This agnomen was sometimes an awarded title agnomen was sometimes an awarded title or a nickname.or a nickname.

E.g. Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus (the E.g. Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus (the Scipio who defeated Hannibal in Africa)Scipio who defeated Hannibal in Africa)

Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica (the Scipio Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica (the Scipio with the big nose!)with the big nose!)

* Trivia: Men who came from a non-noble * Trivia: Men who came from a non-noble family were treated with great family were treated with great resentment. They were referred to as resentment. They were referred to as novi novi homineshomines; new men.; new men.

Scipio Africanus

Marcus Tullius Cicero

“New Man”

The Punic WarsThe Punic Wars

In the era between 264 and 146 BC Rome fought three great wars against the great In the era between 264 and 146 BC Rome fought three great wars against the great Mediterranean power of Carthage. Undoubtedly the best known of these was the Second Punic Mediterranean power of Carthage. Undoubtedly the best known of these was the Second Punic War (218-202 BC) which saw Rome pitted against Hannibal.War (218-202 BC) which saw Rome pitted against Hannibal.

Having invaded Italy from the north Hannibal won a series of great battles against Rome at Having invaded Italy from the north Hannibal won a series of great battles against Rome at Trebia, Lake Trasimene and Cannae. The last was one of the greatest defeats in Rome’s long Trebia, Lake Trasimene and Cannae. The last was one of the greatest defeats in Rome’s long history; on that one day they are estimated to have lost 70,000 legionaries.history; on that one day they are estimated to have lost 70,000 legionaries.

Scipio Africanus became the Republic’s first great military hero. He was the first to “overcome” Scipio Africanus became the Republic’s first great military hero. He was the first to “overcome” the restrictions of the “Cursus Honorum” by being appointed consul at a young age. He invaded the restrictions of the “Cursus Honorum” by being appointed consul at a young age. He invaded Africa and defeated Hannibal at the great Battle of Zama. As a result Rome gained its first Africa and defeated Hannibal at the great Battle of Zama. As a result Rome gained its first overseas provinces; the Empire was born.overseas provinces; the Empire was born.

Hannibal

“The Father of Strategy”

Hannibal’s famous trek across the Italian Alps with his army and war elephants

The Roman ArmyThe Roman Army

For hundreds of years up to and including the Punic Wars Rome had relied upon a For hundreds of years up to and including the Punic Wars Rome had relied upon a “citizen army” to come to her aid in times of need. However, as she acquired “citizen army” to come to her aid in times of need. However, as she acquired overseas territory it became clear that to administer an empire a permanent, overseas territory it became clear that to administer an empire a permanent, standing army of professional soldiers would be essential.standing army of professional soldiers would be essential.

The Roman Army was in a very real sense created by the military genius who was The Roman Army was in a very real sense created by the military genius who was Gaius Marius. Like Cicero, he was a “new man” born in the provincial town of Gaius Marius. Like Cicero, he was a “new man” born in the provincial town of Arpinum. Faced by great military threats from all sides Rome turned to Marius as Arpinum. Faced by great military threats from all sides Rome turned to Marius as their saviour. He held the consulship seven times, including five years (illegally) in their saviour. He held the consulship seven times, including five years (illegally) in succession from 104-100 BC.succession from 104-100 BC.

Marius began hiring, training and equipping volunteers from amongst the poor of Marius began hiring, training and equipping volunteers from amongst the poor of Rome. Crucially and significantly for our Inquiry Topic, these men were loyal to their Rome. Crucially and significantly for our Inquiry Topic, these men were loyal to their leader Marius rather than to the Roman Senate. During times of peace he used the leader Marius rather than to the Roman Senate. During times of peace he used the army to build roads and bridges throughout the growing empire.army to build roads and bridges throughout the growing empire.

Gaius

Marius

It was Marius who adopted the eagle as the symbol of the legions. SPQR stands for senatus populusque Romanum …”the Senate and People of Rome.”

The City of Rome: 6 Odd The City of Rome: 6 Odd FactsFacts

Some interesting facts about the city of Rome itself ( …in no particular order but Some interesting facts about the city of Rome itself ( …in no particular order but nonetheless the first two are actually important!)nonetheless the first two are actually important!)

1. The Romans very definitely believed that they were superior to everyone else and had a 1. The Romans very definitely believed that they were superior to everyone else and had a preordained destiny to rule the world. Therefore, the greatest of all prizes was to be preordained destiny to rule the world. Therefore, the greatest of all prizes was to be granted Roman citizenship.granted Roman citizenship.

2. Soldiers were not permitted in the city of Rome itself except for the celebration of a 2. Soldiers were not permitted in the city of Rome itself except for the celebration of a triumph. A general who crossed the triumph. A general who crossed the pomerium pomerium (city boundary) lost all power and could be (city boundary) lost all power and could be liable to prosecution.liable to prosecution.

3. Romans kept both dogs and cats as pets; largely to control rodents. Dogs were also kept 3. Romans kept both dogs and cats as pets; largely to control rodents. Dogs were also kept in temples and trained to lick the injured and blind …their saliva was believed to have in temples and trained to lick the injured and blind …their saliva was believed to have curative powers!curative powers!

4. Rome was the first civilization to create such services as a police force, a fire brigade and 4. Rome was the first civilization to create such services as a police force, a fire brigade and charities to care for uneducated and orphaned children. Entertainment was a big focus; by charities to care for uneducated and orphaned children. Entertainment was a big focus; by the height of the Empire around half the year was dedicated to religious holidays with the height of the Empire around half the year was dedicated to religious holidays with games.games.

5. Gaius Appuleius Diocles was Rome’s most famous charioteer. He competed in nearly 5. Gaius Appuleius Diocles was Rome’s most famous charioteer. He competed in nearly 4,500 races of which he won 1,462. He died in a race fall when only 26 years of age. During 4,500 races of which he won 1,462. He died in a race fall when only 26 years of age. During his career he amassed a fortune of 35 million sesterces (…the annual wage of 30,000 years his career he amassed a fortune of 35 million sesterces (…the annual wage of 30,000 years in the army!)in the army!)

6. “Monte Testaccio” in Rome is a massive rubbish dump holding the fragments of an 6. “Monte Testaccio” in Rome is a massive rubbish dump holding the fragments of an estimated 50 million olive oil amphorae dumped in the first three centuries AD. They would estimated 50 million olive oil amphorae dumped in the first three centuries AD. They would have held approximately 6 billion litres of oil.have held approximately 6 billion litres of oil.