Approaches to Interventions With

Struggling Readers in Grades K-2

Approaches to Interventions With

Struggling Readers in Grades K-2

Presented by

Ashley, Crystal & Kristy

Presented by

Ashley, Crystal & Kristy

RationaleRationaleThere are struggling readers everywhere. This is an issue every teacher will encounter in his/her teaching career. We chose to focus on interventions for Grades K-2, because early intervention seems to be most effective in improving the overall reading abilities of students.

We will suggest ten research-based “best practices” for struggling readers, as well as an in-depth focus on three specific interventions--Visual Phonics, Peer Assisted Learning Strategies, and Targeted Reading Intervention--for use within a Tier 2, classroom intervention model.

What does “Tier 2” mean?What does “Tier 2” mean?

“…in 2004, Congress provided educators with an option that just might help us to undo some of the mistakes of the past and close the current reading achievement gap: the Response to Intervention (RTI) initiative.”A 3-Tiered Model has become the most common form of RTI

•Tier 1: classroom reading lessons (core)•Tier 2: additional expert reading instruction typically offered daily in a small group•Tier 3: one-on-one daily tutorials based on individual needs

(Allington, 2011)

Research That Supports Our Rationale

Research That Supports Our Rationale

“Too often ‘what the research says’ has been ignored and ineffective instructional practices continue unabated in U.S. classrooms.” (Allington, 2013)

“Entrepreneurial enterprises continue to hold much more sway on daily practice than do research activities.” Reading lessons, curriculum, and assessment have been altered in accordance with the “research” presented via Reading First. Unfortunately, much of this “research” was based on entrepreneurial benefit rather than valid and reliable results. (Allington, 2013)

“Too often ‘what the research says’ has been ignored and ineffective instructional practices continue unabated in U.S. classrooms.” (Allington, 2013)

“Entrepreneurial enterprises continue to hold much more sway on daily practice than do research activities.” Reading lessons, curriculum, and assessment have been altered in accordance with the “research” presented via Reading First. Unfortunately, much of this “research” was based on entrepreneurial benefit rather than valid and reliable results. (Allington, 2013)

More Research That Supports Our Rationale

More Research That Supports Our Rationale

“Studies have shown that virtually every student could be reading on grade level by the end of 1st grade and that the cost of achieving this goal is substantially less than the current system of remediation, special education, and grade retention.” (Allington, 2011)

“…good readers typically spend 500% more time reading than struggling readers.” (Guthrie, 2004)

“Children who are behind in reading at the end of the first grade usually continue to be behind at the fourth grade and throughout their schooling” (Cihon, 2008)

“Studies have shown that virtually every student could be reading on grade level by the end of 1st grade and that the cost of achieving this goal is substantially less than the current system of remediation, special education, and grade retention.” (Allington, 2011)

“…good readers typically spend 500% more time reading than struggling readers.” (Guthrie, 2004)

“Children who are behind in reading at the end of the first grade usually continue to be behind at the fourth grade and throughout their schooling” (Cihon, 2008)

Even More Research That Supports Our Rationale

Even More Research That Supports Our Rationale

Effective reading interventions are comprised of 3 key elements:

1. Explicit instruction of the alphabetic principle grounded in reading for meaning

2. Early intervention - Kindergarten, 1st, and 2nd grades

3. Small group and/or one-on-one intensive instruction

(Foorman & Moats, 2004)

Effective reading interventions are comprised of 3 key elements:

1. Explicit instruction of the alphabetic principle grounded in reading for meaning

2. Early intervention - Kindergarten, 1st, and 2nd grades

3. Small group and/or one-on-one intensive instruction

(Foorman & Moats, 2004)

How do we define struggling readers?How do we define

struggling readers?

Struggling readers are children who cannot keep up with the reading demands placed upon them by school curriculum based on any number of factors.

Struggling readers are children who cannot keep up with the reading demands placed upon them by school curriculum based on any number of factors.

Adapted from http://mcieinclusiveschools.org/15362

How can we help our struggling readers?

How can we help our struggling readers?

Worst Practices for Struggling ReadersWorst Practices for Struggling Readers

Teaching children to read nonsense words (and assessing them using timed measures) (Allington, 2013)

Phonics worksheets (Allington, 2013) Computer-based reading products (Allington, 2011) Labeling children who “don’t read so good” (Morrow &

Gambrell, 2011)

Teaching children to read nonsense words (and assessing them using timed measures) (Allington, 2013)

Phonics worksheets (Allington, 2013) Computer-based reading products (Allington, 2011) Labeling children who “don’t read so good” (Morrow &

Gambrell, 2011)

More Worst Practices for Struggling Readers

More Worst Practices for Struggling Readers

“Not a single reliable study supports the use of any of the commercial core programs…of the 153 different reading programs reviewed by the WWC, only one had ‘strong evidence’ that it improved reading achievement! That program was Reading Recovery…” (What Works Clearinghouse [WWC], 2007); Allington further states, “No research existed then, or exists now, to suggest that maintaining fidelity to a core reading program will provide effective reading lessons.” Core reading programs have 3 main shortfalls: they require minimal engaged reading, they don’t promote high-success reading, and they don’t encourage self-selected reading. (Allington, 2011)

“Not a single reliable study supports the use of any of the commercial core programs…of the 153 different reading programs reviewed by the WWC, only one had ‘strong evidence’ that it improved reading achievement! That program was Reading Recovery…” (What Works Clearinghouse [WWC], 2007); Allington further states, “No research existed then, or exists now, to suggest that maintaining fidelity to a core reading program will provide effective reading lessons.” Core reading programs have 3 main shortfalls: they require minimal engaged reading, they don’t promote high-success reading, and they don’t encourage self-selected reading. (Allington, 2011)

General Best PracticesGeneral Best Practices1. Increase the amount of meaningful texts and genres struggling readers are exposed to. When reading lessons are meaning focused, struggling readers improve more than when lessons are skills focused. (Allington, 2013)

2. Use appropriately leveled texts.Struggling readers are typically asked to read texts that are too difficult for them. They should be developing reading skills using texts that they can read with 98% accuracy. (Allington, 2013)

3. Explicitly teach decoding skills to those struggling readers who would benefit from it.There is substantial evidence that many children who fall behind in beginning reading are not qualitatively different from other readers, but rather require intense, systematic decoding instruction in order to learn to read. (Pressley, 2006)

1. Increase the amount of meaningful texts and genres struggling readers are exposed to. When reading lessons are meaning focused, struggling readers improve more than when lessons are skills focused. (Allington, 2013)

2. Use appropriately leveled texts.Struggling readers are typically asked to read texts that are too difficult for them. They should be developing reading skills using texts that they can read with 98% accuracy. (Allington, 2013)

3. Explicitly teach decoding skills to those struggling readers who would benefit from it.There is substantial evidence that many children who fall behind in beginning reading are not qualitatively different from other readers, but rather require intense, systematic decoding instruction in order to learn to read. (Pressley, 2006)

General Best PracticesGeneral Best Practices4. Increase independent, engaged reading time.Because good readers typically spend 500% more time reading than struggling readers, “Educators should attempt to increase engaged reading time [for struggling readers] by 200%-500%.” (Morrow & Gambrell, 2011)Independent engaged reading is very important. This is known as self-teaching. In a study of the self-teaching hypothesis one group of children from low-income families received 12 free, self-selected books every summer while a second group of children did not receive books. The children who received the books gained reading achievement over the summer, while the children who did not receive the books experienced summer reading loss. (Allington, 2013)

Struggling readers need to read more every day than their peers who are more skilled readers. However, most tasks required of struggling readers require little reading. (Allington, 2013)

4. Increase independent, engaged reading time.Because good readers typically spend 500% more time reading than struggling readers, “Educators should attempt to increase engaged reading time [for struggling readers] by 200%-500%.” (Morrow & Gambrell, 2011)Independent engaged reading is very important. This is known as self-teaching. In a study of the self-teaching hypothesis one group of children from low-income families received 12 free, self-selected books every summer while a second group of children did not receive books. The children who received the books gained reading achievement over the summer, while the children who did not receive the books experienced summer reading loss. (Allington, 2013)

Struggling readers need to read more every day than their peers who are more skilled readers. However, most tasks required of struggling readers require little reading. (Allington, 2013)

General Best PracticesGeneral Best Practices

5. Use small teacher/student ratios, including expert teachers and peer tutoring.

Small-group (e.g., 1:3) instruction…may provide [struggling readers] with opportunities to learn the models of [literacy strategies] that enhances understanding from their peers. (Vaughn et al., 2003)

It is critical that expert teachers are working with struggling readers in interventions. Many schools assign paraprofessionals to this role. (Allington, 2013)

6. Encourage inventive spelling.

Giving children plenty of opportunities to use inventive spelling simultaneously develops phonemic awareness and understanding of the alphabetic principle. It provides a natural purpose for children to learn letter-sound relationships. (Allington, 2013)

5. Use small teacher/student ratios, including expert teachers and peer tutoring.

Small-group (e.g., 1:3) instruction…may provide [struggling readers] with opportunities to learn the models of [literacy strategies] that enhances understanding from their peers. (Vaughn et al., 2003)

It is critical that expert teachers are working with struggling readers in interventions. Many schools assign paraprofessionals to this role. (Allington, 2013)

6. Encourage inventive spelling.

Giving children plenty of opportunities to use inventive spelling simultaneously develops phonemic awareness and understanding of the alphabetic principle. It provides a natural purpose for children to learn letter-sound relationships. (Allington, 2013)

General Best PracticesGeneral Best Practices

7. Differentiate instruction for struggling readers.

Effective teachers are able to teach several decoding approaches effectively. They are able to adapt their teaching until they locate the best method for an individual child. (Allington, 2013)

8. Use frequent assessments to determine the effectiveness of interventions.

Frequent assessments are necessary to determine the effectiveness of the intervention for a child. (Cihon, 2008)

7. Differentiate instruction for struggling readers.

Effective teachers are able to teach several decoding approaches effectively. They are able to adapt their teaching until they locate the best method for an individual child. (Allington, 2013)

8. Use frequent assessments to determine the effectiveness of interventions.

Frequent assessments are necessary to determine the effectiveness of the intervention for a child. (Cihon, 2008)

General Best PracticesGeneral Best Practices

9. Teachers should show their passion and excitement for literature, and pass that onto their struggling readers.Most of all, the teacher must have a passion for reading himself/herself. I do not think you can instill the importance of reading within your children if you do not exude it yourself. (Archer, 2004)

10. School-wide targeted Professional Development with teacher coaching.

Targeted professional development and classroom coaching for teachers can have a powerful effect on reading instruction. (Allington, 2013)

9. Teachers should show their passion and excitement for literature, and pass that onto their struggling readers.Most of all, the teacher must have a passion for reading himself/herself. I do not think you can instill the importance of reading within your children if you do not exude it yourself. (Archer, 2004)

10. School-wide targeted Professional Development with teacher coaching.

Targeted professional development and classroom coaching for teachers can have a powerful effect on reading instruction. (Allington, 2013)

An In-Depth Focus on 3 Different InterventionsAn In-Depth Focus on 3 Different Interventions

1. Visual Phonics

2. Peer Assisted Learning Strategies

3. Targeted Reading Intervention

1. Visual Phonics

2. Peer Assisted Learning Strategies

3. Targeted Reading Intervention

Visual PhonicsVisual Phonics Research supports the effectiveness of using visual

phonics with students who are deaf and/or hard-of-hearing.

These studies offer results for using visual phonics with hearing children at risk of reading failure.

At risk Kindergarteners were provided instruction in Visual Phonics for 10-12 minutes per day, 3 times per week Progress in developing knowledge of letter-sound relationships was

compared to a similar at-risk peer group that did not receive the intervention

Research supports the effectiveness of using visual phonics with students who are deaf and/or hard-of-hearing.

These studies offer results for using visual phonics with hearing children at risk of reading failure.

At risk Kindergarteners were provided instruction in Visual Phonics for 10-12 minutes per day, 3 times per week Progress in developing knowledge of letter-sound relationships was

compared to a similar at-risk peer group that did not receive the intervention

Visual Phonics MethodsVisual Phonics Methods One distinct hand movement for each phoneme Hand gestures are tied to articulation and letters,

making sound concrete Hand signs mimic some aspect of sound production,

and sometimes provide visual or kinesthetic links to letter shapes

Written symbols can be used to clarify sounds in printed context

One distinct hand movement for each phoneme Hand gestures are tied to articulation and letters,

making sound concrete Hand signs mimic some aspect of sound production,

and sometimes provide visual or kinesthetic links to letter shapes

Written symbols can be used to clarify sounds in printed context

Visual Phonics ResultsVisual Phonics Results Post-intervention gains on DIBELS and the CBM All students improved letter-sound correspondence

skills Most students had a decrease in their reading risk

level

Post-intervention gains on DIBELS and the CBM All students improved letter-sound correspondence

skills Most students had a decrease in their reading risk

level

Advantages of Visual Phonics

Advantages of Visual Phonics

Easy to learn (6 hours) Inexpensive: initial investment of $50 - 100 for

training, no consumable materials Generic lesson plan

Easy to learn (6 hours) Inexpensive: initial investment of $50 - 100 for

training, no consumable materials Generic lesson plan

(Cihon, 2008 and Gardner, et al., 2013)

Peer Assisted Learning Strategies (PALS)

Peer Assisted Learning Strategies (PALS)

"The PALS activities were very easy to implement. They provided intensive times of actual reading by every student, as well as interaction with other students. It provided a valuable addition to my regular reading instruction. I believe the PALS program was of benefit to low, average, and high performing students." (Mrs. King, Dodson Elementary School, Nashville)

“PALS was a good experience for me. It helped me cooperate with other students. For example one of my partners read a four paragraph page very slowly. I helped him. The next day he read much better. That made me feel really good. Later, another PALS partner I had didn't like to answer the PALS question. When I showed her how, she was spectacular. I loved PALS. I hope to do it again." (Student Response, Myers)

"The PALS activities were very easy to implement. They provided intensive times of actual reading by every student, as well as interaction with other students. It provided a valuable addition to my regular reading instruction. I believe the PALS program was of benefit to low, average, and high performing students." (Mrs. King, Dodson Elementary School, Nashville)

“PALS was a good experience for me. It helped me cooperate with other students. For example one of my partners read a four paragraph page very slowly. I helped him. The next day he read much better. That made me feel really good. Later, another PALS partner I had didn't like to answer the PALS question. When I showed her how, she was spectacular. I loved PALS. I hope to do it again." (Student Response, Myers)

http://kc.vanderbilt.edu/pals

PALS MethodPALS Method

PALS consists of two parts: 1. Teacher-Led Reading Instruction

Readers learn specific strategies for reading fluency, phonemic awareness and phoneme knowledge, vocabulary and comprehension

2. Student-Led Reading Instruction The teacher organizes pairs of readers together, making

sure they are at different reading levels Pairs take turns reading orally together

PALS consists of two parts: 1. Teacher-Led Reading Instruction

Readers learn specific strategies for reading fluency, phonemic awareness and phoneme knowledge, vocabulary and comprehension

2. Student-Led Reading Instruction The teacher organizes pairs of readers together, making

sure they are at different reading levels Pairs take turns reading orally together

PALS ResultsPALS Results

At the primary grades, students achieved better with the standard PALS, without the addition of elaborated help-giving strategies. (Fuchs et al, 1999)

Results show that students participating in the PALS program make significant gains in their reading fluency, confirming the usefulness of the PALS program to reduce the gap between adequate and inadequate first grade readers. All schools with a first grade program should have PALS available for intervention of reading fluency. (Ary et al, 2006)

At the primary grades, students achieved better with the standard PALS, without the addition of elaborated help-giving strategies. (Fuchs et al, 1999)

Results show that students participating in the PALS program make significant gains in their reading fluency, confirming the usefulness of the PALS program to reduce the gap between adequate and inadequate first grade readers. All schools with a first grade program should have PALS available for intervention of reading fluency. (Ary et al, 2006)

PALS StrengthsPALS Strengths

The students lead the paired reading instruction, thus teaching each other.

The social aspect is key when students can hear and see what their peers can do.

Pair groups are assigned based on ability. The PALS website has excellent training

opportunities for teachers.

The students lead the paired reading instruction, thus teaching each other.

The social aspect is key when students can hear and see what their peers can do.

Pair groups are assigned based on ability. The PALS website has excellent training

opportunities for teachers.

http://kc.vanderbilt.edu/pals/index.html

Targeted Reading Intervention (TRI)

Targeted Reading Intervention (TRI)

One-on-one instruction Diagnostic thinking and “instructional

match” Rapid acceleration of decoding abilities

and text comprehension Escalating opportunities to read Literacy coaches

One-on-one instruction Diagnostic thinking and “instructional

match” Rapid acceleration of decoding abilities

and text comprehension Escalating opportunities to read Literacy coaches

TRI Main Points TRI Main Points

Based out of the University of North Carolina

Designed for struggling readers in Kindergarten and 1st grade in rural low-SES communities

Based out of the University of North Carolina

Designed for struggling readers in Kindergarten and 1st grade in rural low-SES communities

TRI Method TRI Method

Apply strategies using classroom teachers in one-to-one and small group instruction in 15-minute daily diagnostic teaching sessions comprised of: Re-reading for Fluency Decoding skills:

Integrates multiple reading skills in each Instruction takes place within the context of words and

texts Multi-sensory methods Teacher provides continual feedback

Guided Oral Reading TRI Extensions

Apply strategies using classroom teachers in one-to-one and small group instruction in 15-minute daily diagnostic teaching sessions comprised of: Re-reading for Fluency Decoding skills:

Integrates multiple reading skills in each Instruction takes place within the context of words and

texts Multi-sensory methods Teacher provides continual feedback

Guided Oral Reading TRI Extensions

TRI Method TRI Method

Ongoing, collaborative professional development model designed to help teachers: Acquire essential knowledge of early reading

development that is especially critical for struggling readers

Learn a set of assessment-based reading strategies to match the skill level of each child

Literacy coach works with teacher on a weekly basis, in person or via webcam

Ongoing, collaborative professional development model designed to help teachers: Acquire essential knowledge of early reading

development that is especially critical for struggling readers

Learn a set of assessment-based reading strategies to match the skill level of each child

Literacy coach works with teacher on a weekly basis, in person or via webcam

TRI Results & Strengths TRI Results & Strengths

TRI has the potential to greatly improve the reading skills of struggling readers in Kindergarten.

Evidence of Kindergarteners “catching up”

Didn’t prove to be as effective for the 1st grade students in the study - concluded to be related to low levels of implementation fidelity

A cost-effective way to provide intensive support to struggling readers.

TRI has the potential to greatly improve the reading skills of struggling readers in Kindergarten.

Evidence of Kindergarteners “catching up”

Didn’t prove to be as effective for the 1st grade students in the study - concluded to be related to low levels of implementation fidelity

A cost-effective way to provide intensive support to struggling readers.

(Vernon-Feagans, et al., 2010)

Professional DevelopmentProfessional Development

Together, we can make a difference in our schools!

Approaches for Engaging Colleagues

Approaches for Engaging Colleagues

1. Build a learning community for students and staff.

2. Provide direct instruction in reading strategies of proficient readers.

3. Design ways that students can independently use comprehension skills.

1. Build a learning community for students and staff.

2. Provide direct instruction in reading strategies of proficient readers.

3. Design ways that students can independently use comprehension skills.

4. Teach teachers how to collect and analyze data in order to monitor and modify instruction.

5. Celebrate and share successes.

4. Teach teachers how to collect and analyze data in order to monitor and modify instruction.

5. Celebrate and share successes.

(Grimes, 2004)

Professional Development Resources

Professional Development Resources

What Works Clearinghouse

www.whatworks.ed.gov/

Reviews of research on programs, products, practices, & policies in education

Intervention Central www.interventioncentral.org

Great source for interventions and progress monitoring tools

Read Write Think www.readwritethink.org/professional-development/strategy-guides/

Contains strategy guides to share with school colleagues on various literacy topics

What Works Clearinghouse

www.whatworks.ed.gov/

Reviews of research on programs, products, practices, & policies in education

Intervention Central www.interventioncentral.org

Great source for interventions and progress monitoring tools

Read Write Think www.readwritethink.org/professional-development/strategy-guides/

Contains strategy guides to share with school colleagues on various literacy topics

Suggestions for Finding Funds

Suggestions for Finding Funds

Eliminate workbooks Eliminate test prep Eliminate paraprofessionals

from instructional roles Eliminate expenditures for

computer-based reading programs

(Allington, 2013)

Eliminate workbooks Eliminate test prep Eliminate paraprofessionals

from instructional roles Eliminate expenditures for

computer-based reading programs

(Allington, 2013)

Research SourcesResearch SourcesAllington, R.L. (2013). What really matters when working with struggling readers. The Reading Teacher, 66(7), 520-530.Allington, R.L. (2011). What at-risk readers need. Educational Leadership, 68(6), 40-45.Archer, J. (2004). Characteristics of an effective teacher of reading in an elementary school setting. Dissertation.Ary, D., Jacobs, L., Razavieh, A., & Sorensen, C. (2006). Introduction to research in education. Thomson Wadsworth. Belmont, CA.Cihon, T.M. (2008). Using visual phonics as a strategic intervention to increase literacy behaviors for kindergarten participants at-risk for reading failure. Journal of Early and Intensive Behavior Intervention, 5(3), 138-155.Dunn, Foorman, B. R., & Moats, L. C. (2004). Conditions for sustaining research-based practices in early reading instruction. Remedial and Special Education, 25(1), 51-60.Fuchs, L.S., Fuchs, D., Kazdan, S., & Allen, S. (l999). Effects of peer-assisted learning strategies in reading with and without training in elaborated help giving. Elementary School Journal, 99, 201-219.

Allington, R.L. (2013). What really matters when working with struggling readers. The Reading Teacher, 66(7), 520-530.Allington, R.L. (2011). What at-risk readers need. Educational Leadership, 68(6), 40-45.Archer, J. (2004). Characteristics of an effective teacher of reading in an elementary school setting. Dissertation.Ary, D., Jacobs, L., Razavieh, A., & Sorensen, C. (2006). Introduction to research in education. Thomson Wadsworth. Belmont, CA.Cihon, T.M. (2008). Using visual phonics as a strategic intervention to increase literacy behaviors for kindergarten participants at-risk for reading failure. Journal of Early and Intensive Behavior Intervention, 5(3), 138-155.Dunn, Foorman, B. R., & Moats, L. C. (2004). Conditions for sustaining research-based practices in early reading instruction. Remedial and Special Education, 25(1), 51-60.Fuchs, L.S., Fuchs, D., Kazdan, S., & Allen, S. (l999). Effects of peer-assisted learning strategies in reading with and without training in elaborated help giving. Elementary School Journal, 99, 201-219.

Research SourcesResearch SourcesGardner, R., Cihon, T. M., Morrison, D., & Paul, P. (2013). Implementing visual phonics with hearing kindergarteners at risk for reading failure. Preventing School Failure, 57(1), 30-42.Grimes, S. (2004). The Search for Meaning. School Library Journal, 50(5).Guthrie, J.T. (2004). Teaching for literacy engagement. Journal of Literacy Research, 36(1), 1-30.Morrow, L. M., Gambrell, L. B. (2011). Best Practices in Literacy Instruction, Fourth Edition. The Guilford Press. New York, NY.Pressley, M. (2006). Reading Instruction That Works: The Case for Balanced Teaching, Third Edition. The Guilford Press. New York, NY.Vaughn, S., Linan-Thompson, S., Kouzekanani, K., Bryant, D. P., Dickson, S., & Blozis, S. A. (2003). Reading Instruction Grouping for Students with Reading Difficulties. Remedial and Special Education, 24(5), 301-315.Vernon-Feagans, L., Gallagher, K., Ginsberg, M. C., Amendum, S., Kainz, K., Rose, J., & Burchinal, M. (2010). A diagnostic teaching intervention for classroom teachers: Helping struggling readers in early elementary school. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 25(4), 183-193.What Works Clearinghouse. (2007). Find what works: Summarize and compare the evidence of the effectiveness of interventions that address your school or district ﾕ s needs. Retrieved June 16, 2013, from ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/findwhatworks.aspx#General%20literacy%20achievement

Gardner, R., Cihon, T. M., Morrison, D., & Paul, P. (2013). Implementing visual phonics with hearing kindergarteners at risk for reading failure. Preventing School Failure, 57(1), 30-42.Grimes, S. (2004). The Search for Meaning. School Library Journal, 50(5).Guthrie, J.T. (2004). Teaching for literacy engagement. Journal of Literacy Research, 36(1), 1-30.Morrow, L. M., Gambrell, L. B. (2011). Best Practices in Literacy Instruction, Fourth Edition. The Guilford Press. New York, NY.Pressley, M. (2006). Reading Instruction That Works: The Case for Balanced Teaching, Third Edition. The Guilford Press. New York, NY.Vaughn, S., Linan-Thompson, S., Kouzekanani, K., Bryant, D. P., Dickson, S., & Blozis, S. A. (2003). Reading Instruction Grouping for Students with Reading Difficulties. Remedial and Special Education, 24(5), 301-315.Vernon-Feagans, L., Gallagher, K., Ginsberg, M. C., Amendum, S., Kainz, K., Rose, J., & Burchinal, M. (2010). A diagnostic teaching intervention for classroom teachers: Helping struggling readers in early elementary school. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 25(4), 183-193.What Works Clearinghouse. (2007). Find what works: Summarize and compare the evidence of the effectiveness of interventions that address your school or district ﾕ s needs. Retrieved June 16, 2013, from ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/findwhatworks.aspx#General%20literacy%20achievement