1. Phoneme & Phonological Development Eka Andriyani, S.Pd., M.Hum 2. WHAT IS PHONEME? Phoneme is small set of speech sounds that are distinguished by the speakers of a particular language. Phoneme is the smallest contrastive unit in the sound system of a language. Phoneme is a minimal unit that serves to distinguish between meanings of words. Phoneme is a group of sounds with distinctive acoustic characteristics. 3. Phonemes can be determined by using minimal pairs. In phonology, minimal pairs are pairs of words or phrases in a particular language, which differ in only one phonological element. 4. The Rules of Identifying Phoneme: 1. The words must have the same number of sounds; 2. The words in pairs must be identical in every sound except for one; 3. The sound that is different must be in the same position in each word; 4. The words must have different meaning. 5. Pin Bin [pn] [bn] Big Dig [bg] [dg] Late Rate [let] [ret] Pill Kill [pl] [kl] Neck Knock [nek] [nk] Fine Vine [fan] [van] Zoo Too [zu:] [tu:] Hot Got [ht] [gt] Beat Bit [bi:t] [bt] Bat Bet [bt] [bet] Pie Buy [pa] [ba] Tie Die [ta] [da] Sad Sat [sd] [st] Chip Cheap [tp] [ti:p] Thin Thing [n] [] Bar Car [b:(r)] [k:(r)] Examples of Minimal Pairs: 6. Infants begin making sounds at birth (called cries). As the infant continues to mature, cooing (soft quiet voice) and babbling noises develop into consonant and vowel sounds. These early preconsonant and prevowel sounds gradually become shaped into words. Phoneme Development: 7. Although research indicates that some phonemes are present in neonates (new born child/age of less than four weeks), phoneme development for purpose of speech generally begins between the first and second birthday. 8. (1) THE DEVELOPMENT OF VOWELS & DIPHTHONGS: Vowels begin to develop from random sounds produced by infants at the age of 2 months. At this age, the vowels /e/, //, and // are frequently identified in cooing patterns (speaking in a soft way). Those vowels fade after several months and are not consistently used again until after 30 months of age (about 2,5 years old). 9. At the same time that /e/, //, and // are fading, the front vowel /i/, //, and diphthong /e/ are appearing. Those three front vowels, along with the back vowels /:/, /:/, //, /u:/, and diphthong // are consistently used and mastered over the next 2 years. 10. Produce random vowel sounds. /e/, //, and // are identified in cooing pattern. /e/, //, and // are fading; /i/, //, and /e/ are appearing. /i/, //, /e/ + /:/, /:/, //, /u:/, // are consistently used and mastered. 11. 1 The first consonant phoneme to develop are: /p/, /m/, /h/, /n/, /w/ (velar approximant), and /b/. These phonemes begin to develop before the age of 2, and all except the /b/ are mastered by age of 3. The /b/ is not mastered until age of 4 years. (2) THE DEVELOPMENT OF CONSONANTS: 12. 2 The next group of consonant phonemes to develop includes: /k/, /g/, /d/, /t/, and //. Each of these phonemes begins to develop at age of 2 years. The /k/, /g/, and /d/ are mastered at age of 4, whereas the /t/ and // are not mastered until the age of 6. 13. 3 The /f/ and /j/ phonemes begin to develop at the age of 2,5 until 3 and are mastered by the age of 4. The /f/ is the first fricative phoneme to be mastered. Some children substitute the /p/ for the /f/ at an early age. This error represents a manner of articulation error that is common only in children less than age of 4. The /j/ is the first approximant phoneme to be mastered and it requires a neutral position of the articulators. Because this phoneme is easy to produce, it is often used as a substitute for more difficult phonemes. 14. 4 The /r/, /l/, and /s/ begin to develop at age of 3, but require a lengthy period of time before mastery is accomplished. The /r/ and the /l/ are mastered at age of 6, whereas the /s/ is not fully mastered at age of 8. 15. 5 The /t/, //, and /z/ are the next phonemes to develop. A child of 3,5 years old can produce these phonemes in selected situations, but mastery is not achieved until age 7 for the /t/ and // and age of 8 for the /z/. 16. 6 The /d/ and /v/ are the next group of phonemes to develop. These phonemes begin to develop at age 4 and are mastered by ages 6 and 7, respectively (the /d/ at 6 and the /v/ at 7). The /d/ is an affricate that requires mastery of two phonemes. Because the // is not yet mastered by many children, the production of /d/ is often difficult. 17. 7 The next phonemes to develop are // and //. The // begins to develop before age of 4 and is mastered by age of 7, whereas the // begins to develop at age of 5 and is mastered by age of 8. 18. 8 The last two phonemes to develop are the // and the /W/ (bilabial approximant). The // begins to develop at age of 6 and is mastered after age of 8. The /w/ begins to develop at age of 6 and is not mastered until after age of 9. 19. // AGES 20. /t/ // /d/ // // // AGES 21. VARIATIONS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF SINGLE PHONEMES: Not all children develop the consonants with ease at the target age. Some children experience a slower than normal development of the phonemes, whereas others exhibit common developmental patterns of substitution, omission, and distortion. 22. A. Substitution Substitution is the replacing of one phoneme for another, such as /b/ for the /v/. Example: ban [bn] for van [vn]. 23. The common developmental substitutions are: EXAMPLE: /p/ for /f/ fan [fn] [pn] /t/ for /k/ can [kn] [tn] /l/ for /r/ car [k:(r)] [k:l] /f/ for // think [k] [fk] /w/ for /r/ red [red] [wed] /w/ for /l/ look [lk] [wk] /n/ for // sing [s] [sn] 24. B. Omission Omission is when a sound at the end of word is omitted or has not been included. Example: [left] [lef] in left [lmp] [lm] in lamp 25. C. Distortion Distortion occurs when the phoneme is produced using an incorrect allophonic variation. Example: [f] [fs] in fish. [ple(r)] [plez(r)] in pleasure. 26. Children substitute, omit, or distort phonemes for a variety of reasons including: Developmental Disorder Problem of Hearing Physical (problems of articulation) Dental limitation, etc. 27. Phonological Development In learning the phonemes of a language, distinct syllable patterns begin to develop. The earliest patterns consist of Consonant-Vowel (CV) or Vowel-Consonant (VC) patterns. These early patterns develop into reduplication patterns, such as CVCV (mama [m:m]) or CVCV (cookie [kki]). During this developmental time frame, a few CVC (cat [kt]) patterns also develop; but in most cases, the final consonant is omitted during the production. 28. Phonological Processes Phonological Processes are a series of patterns used by children to simplify adult speech. These patterns are used because the child does not have the capacity to produce adult speech yet. These patterns seem to be innate in all children but do not always develop at the same rate. Phonological patterns consist of syllable combinations, cluster combinations, and CV combinations. 29. Phonological Processes according to KLPA (Khan-Lewis Phonological Analysis) 30. A. Processes Associated with Normal Phonological Development 1. Deletion of Final Consonants Examples The final consonant(s) in a word or syllable is deleted, and changing the syllable shape, such as: CVC CV; CCVC CCV; or CVCC CV. (The syllable changes from a closed to an open syllable.) Bag [bg] [b] Stop [stp] [st] Box [bks] [b] DELETED DELETED DELETED 31. 2. Initial Voicing Examples The use of the voiceless consonant in place of a voiced consonant in the initial position of the word or syllable. It is also considered initial consonant voicing by substituting a voiced consonant with a different place or manner of articulation. Dog [dg] [tg] Zoo [zu:] [su:] Dog [dg] [gg] VOICED VOICELESS VOICED VOICED Alveolar Plosive Velar Plosive Alveolar Plosive Alveolar Fricative 32. 3. Syllable Reduction Example One or more syllables in the word are deleted. Library [labrri] [labri] 4. Palatal Fronting Example The place of articulation is changed from the palato- alveolar area to the alveolar area. Ship [ p ] [ sp ] Palato-Alveolar Alveolar 33. 5. Deaffrication Example The first part of the affricate is deleted. Cheek [ ti:k ] [ i:k ] 6. Velar Fronting Example The place of articulation of the velar phonemes is shifted to the alveolar area. Cap [kp] [tp] Sing [s] [sn] Good [gd] [dd] [t] is deleted Velar Alveolar 34. 7. Consonant Harmony Example If the word has two or more consonants, the consonants are produced with the same place of articulation. Cup [kp] [pp] Bad [bd] [dd] 8. Stridency (sibilant) Deletion Example The stridency consonant is either deleted; or is replaced with a glottal. Sun [sn] [n] Chip [tp] [p] 35. 9. Stopping of Fricative and Affricates Examples This is when a plosive consonant is substituted for a fricative. When an affricate is stopped, only the plosive component of the affricate is produced. Thank [ k ] [ pk ] Chin [ t n ] [ t n ] 10. Cluster Simplification Example One or more of the consonants in a CC or CCC context in any position of the word is deleted. Lamp [lmp] [lm] And [nd] [n] Plosive PlosiveFricative Affricate 36. 11. Final Devoicing Example The voicing is deleted on the final consonant in the word or syllable. The result is usually the production of the voiceless sound. Bud [bd] [bt] 12. Liquid (approximant) Simplification Example The liquid phonemes /l/ and /r/ are produced as /w/ and /j/. Light [lat] [wat] Room [ru:m] [ju:m] 37. 13. Gliding of Fricatives Example Any fricative phoneme is produced as a /j/ or /w/. (NOTE: This process is not very common) Five [fav] [wav] 14. Vocalization of Liquids Example A vowel (usually the schwa) is produced instead of the final /r/ in an unstressed syllable. Flower [fla(r)] [fla] Fricative 38. B. Processes that are Non-developmental 1. Deletion of Initial Consonants : The first consonant in the word or syllable is deleted. Example: top [tp] [p]. 2. Glottal Replacement : A glottal () is used to replace a consonant or a consonant cluster usually in the medial position of the word, for example, sleeping [sli:p] [sli:]. 3. Backing to Velars : This is when any consonant is produced as a velar phoneme, such as, up [p] [k].