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Elective IIEvolution of Art, Culture and Technology

Greece: Introduction

Factors that favoured the rise of Greek civilization

Minoan Civilization

Mycenaean Civilization

The Dark Ages

Classical Period

Roman Period

Byzantine Period

Greek War of Independence

Twentieth Century

Twenty First Century

Case Study: Athens

Greece has one of the longest histories of any country.

Officially called the Hellenic republic, Greece is a

South east European country located at the cross

roads of Asia, Africa and Europe.

It is called the cradle of Western civilization.

It is the birthplace of democracy, political science, Olympics, drama-both theatre and

cinema.

Greek has as the longest coastline on the Mediterranean Basin

Strategically important location

Greece is at the tip of the Balkan peninsula making it a coveted region

Topography-Mountainous terrain and the long coastline helps in defence purpose

Fertile land encouraged settlements

Mineral deposits

Long coastline aids navigation and trade

Flourished on the island of Crete, in the Aegean Sea from 2900 BC to 1200 BC

Named after King Minos, who was recorded

as a prehistoric king of Crete

Largest excavated site is the Palace of

Knossos

Palaces also excavated at Phaistos, Mallia

and Kato Zakros

Minoan settlements also found on other islands-Thera, Melos, Kythera, Keos and

Rhodes

Earliest towns appear to have developed in the middle of the 3rd millennium BC without any influx of foreign migrants

Small communities that already practiced such arts as the weaving and dyeing of cloth

Pottery shows an elegance of line, although its painting is not distinguished

Palaces shattered by a major earthquake about 1700 B.C., but immediately rebuilt on a grander scale

Flourished until about 1450 B.C., when a sudden disaster overwhelmed all but Knossos

Palace of Knossos burned about 1380 B.C., probably never rebuilt on a large scale

Knossos was the capital city of the Minoan culture that centered on the island of Crete

Palaces and luxurious houses imply a king and an aristocracy

Existence of major palaces is evidence for states large enough to require

administrative centers, but their number implies that the government was largely

decentralized

Size of Knossos is proof that its king exercised suzerainty over the whole island

Existence of administrative records outside the main center shows that the other

palaces had a measure of independence

A small class of craftsmen would have been needed to provide luxury goods

Evidence for overseas contacts comesfrom the Minoan pottery found in different parts of the eastern Mediterranean

Trade in olive oil, wine, and perfumes was likely

Metals must have been mainly imported

Timber may well have been plentiful

Luxury goods such as gold and ivory were imported

Raw material for some of the stone vessels was brought from the mainland

Minoan colony at Keos was the only site to possess a temple

Most characteristic religious symbols are the double axe and the U-shaped "horns of consecration”

Most common cult figurine is of the Minoan Snake Goddess

Caves were treated as sacred

Later tradition told strange tales of a Zeus who died and was periodically reborn

Pictorial symbols systematized to form a

regular script called Linear A

Most documents are clay tablets, which were

inscribed with a sharp stylus while the clay

was still wet and then sun-dried

Religious offering tables were sometimes

inscribed

Their language was regarded as Semitic type or Anatolian, a branch of Indo-

European

MINOAN SCRIPT

Characterized by an exquisite naturalness combined with a disconcerting formalism

Absence of perspective in painting and accurate detailing done

All important buildings seem to have been decorated with frescoes

Painted on plaster walls

Landscape represented in a formalway

Same mixture of realism and formality in small scale sculpture

Figures are lifelike but stiff MINOAN FRESCO OF PARISIANS

Lacks sense of grandeur and organization

Characteristic feature of Minoan palacesis the way they are built around a large rectangular courtyard

Shallow sunken basins in the interior of the buildings were light wells

Water was supplied by underground channels

Walls were constructed of masonry bonded and tied together by vertical and horizontal wooden beams

This was to provide resilience against earthquake shocks

RECONSTRUCTION OF THE PALACE OF

KNOSSOS

Freestanding wooden columns had a characteristic shape

Little is known about their town plans

No more than a limited area had been cleared at most sites

Gournia was an exception and had narrow lanes separating clusters of houses

Thera had complexes of upper-class houses with narrow, winding streets and minute

squares

No town walls or other defensive fortification

SITE PLAN OF MINOAN TOWN-GOURNIA

Mycenaeans came from the grasslands of Southern Russia

Flourished in the late Bronze Age, from the 1600 to 1100 BC

Named after the site of Mycenae

First advanced civilization in mainland Greece

Influence extended throughout the Peloponnese in Greece and also across the

Aegean

Minoan civilization influenced Mycenaean civilization

Major Mycenaean centres included Mycenae, Tiryns, Pylos, Thebes, Midea, Gla,

Orchomenos, Argos, Sparta, Nichoria and probably Athens.

They had trading relations and shared cultural features

Greatly influenced by Minoan art

Natural forms and flowing design along with a tendency of more schematic and less

life-like representation

Geometric designs were popular

Decorative motifs such as spirals and rosettes

Pottery similar to that of Minoan civilization with the addition of goblets and alabastron

(squat jars)

Terracotta figurines of animals and standing female figures were popular

A large palace complex has been found at most of the Mycenaean centres.

Built around a large rectangular central hall or Megaron

Heart of the palace and contained a large circular hearth

Throne room of the ruler

Second, smaller hall (Queen’s Megaron), many private apartments and areas set

aside for administration, storage and manufacturing

Fresco paintings adorned the walls

Rooms in the palace were constructed with rubble fill

Cross-beamed walls covered in plaster inside and limestone blocks outside

Columns and ceilings were usually of painted wood

Fortification wall of height 13m and thickness 8m around the palatial complex

Corbel galleries - arched corridors, circular stone tombs, monumental doorways

Dams for flood management, bridges

Presence of foreign goods in Mycenaean settlements provesthat the Mycenaean civilization had trading contact with other Aegean cultures.

Traded goods include gold, ivory, copper, glass, pottery

No mercantile class Barter system Exchange of people also

existed Economic affluence of Syria

and Palestine, and the period of peace in the Mediterranean assured by the kingdom of Egypt gave impetus to navigation and trade

Complex religious structure

Importance given to animal sacrifice, communal feasting, pouring of libations and

offerings of foodstuffs

Strong links with the Minoan religion

Believed in a pantheon or a group of Gods

Poseidon, Ares, Zeus, Hercules

Specific sanctuary sites for worship close to the palace complex

Burial was an important ritual

Greatly influenced by Minoan art

Natural forms and flowing design along with a tendency of more schematic and less life-like representation

Geometric designs were popular

Decorative motifs such as spirals and rosettes

Pottery similar to that of Minoan civilization with the addition of goblets and alabastron (squat jars)

Terracotta figurines of animals and standing female figures were popular

Lasted around 450 years

Old major settlements abandoned

More simple life in villages

Population dropped rapidly

Cultural growth stunted

Writing in the Linear B script ceasedLINEAR B SCRIPT

Adopted the alphabet used by Phoenicians and

introduced vowels as letters

First Olympics occurred in this age

Homeric epics were written

Greatly influenced Greek political attitudes during the classical period

Ended around 700 BC with the development of city-states

200 year period in Greek culture lasting from 5th through 4th centuries BC.

Period between the Persian Wars at the beginning of the 5th century B.C. and the

death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C.

An era of war and conflict –first between the Greeks and the Persians, then

between the Athenians and the Spartans .

But it was also an era of unprecedented political and cultural achievement .

Most enduring contribution to the modern world: system known as demokratia, or

“rule by the people”.

Athens was the dominating power in the Aegean Sea during this period.

Athenian leadership successfully repelled the military threat of Persian invasion.

The Athenian Golden Age ends with the defeat of Athens at the hands of Sparta in the Peloponnesian war in 404 BC.

Influenced the Roman Empire and carried a version of it to many parts of the Mediterranean region and Europe, for which reason it is generally considered as to be the Seminal Culture.

Also led the foundations of the western civilization.

Much of modern Western Culture was derived from this period of Greek history.

In the context of the art, architecture and culture of Ancient Greece, the Classical period is also called as the Hellenic period.

The Persian war: Great centres in Ionia such as Miletus and Halicarnassus came under the rule of the Persian Empire in mid 6th century BC.

The Athenian fleet then turned to chasing the Persians from the Aegean Sea, defeating their fleet in the Battle of Mycale.

The Peloponnesian war: In 431 BC war broke out between Athens and Sparta and its allies .

It was a struggle between two leagues namely: The Delian league(Athens) and The Peloponnesian League(Sparta).

The Battle of Plataea was the final battle of Xerxes invasion of Greece.

The war lasted for 27 years ,partly because of Athens and Sparta found it difficult to come to grips with each other.

Architecture during Classical period

Best known from its temples ,many of which are found

throughout the region.

The second important building that survives all over the

Hellenic period is the open-air theatre.

Many other architectural forms like propylon, agora, stoa,

bouleuterion and mausoleum are still in evidence.

Characterized by both structure and decoration.

Use of geometric formula which reflected the Golden-ratio

Divided into three defined orders: The Doric Order, The Ionic Order and the

Corinthian Order.

Divided into three defined orders:

The Doric Order, The Ionic Order

and the Corinthian Order.

The Doric style was used in

mainland Greece and spread from

there to the Greek colonies in Italy.

The Parthenon: Doric style

The Ionic style was used in the

cities of Ionia and some of the

Aegean islands.

The Corinthian order was a later

development of Ionic .

Concept of architectural beauty is

still alive through

revivals of Classicism.

The Erechtheum: Ionic style

Interconnected traditions of painting in ancient Greece.

Not all painting techniques are equally well represented in the archaeological period.

Most respected form of art, technically described as Panel paintings were individual, mobile paintings on wooden boards.

The tradition of wall painting in Greece goes back to the Minoan and Mycenaean Bronze Age.

Greek stonework is described as polychrome.

Pergamon Altar:Athena against the giant Alcyoneus

Highly influential musical tradition.

Largely structured on the lyre and supporting string instruments.

Strong mark on the culture of Rome.

Originates from pottery and other forms of Greek art.

It was believed that dancing was invented by the Gods.

Dance was held in high regard for its educational qualities God Pan and a Maenad dancing

Greek language is the official language of the Hellenic

republic.

It is clearly detected in the Mycenaean language and

the Cypriot syllabary.

The history of the language spans over 3400 years of written records.

Enormous impact on other languages like Latin language during the early days of

Rome.

At the beginning of Greek literature stand the two monumental works of Homer, the

Iliad and the Odyssey.

Invention of drama and masterpieces that are still reckoned as drama’s crowning

achievement.

Two historians flourished during Greece’s classical age: Herodotus and

Thucydides.

Herodotus commonly called as father of history, and his history contains the first

truly literary use of prose in Western literature.

Thucydides researched critical use of sources, inclusion of documents and

laborious language.

This research made his History of Peloponnesian War a significant influence on

later generations of historians.

Influence of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle on Western society.

To the Romans, the Greek civilization was a source of inspiration

and as Athens prospered under the Emperor Hadrian, Rome

prospered from the ideas of the ancient Athenians.

PAX ROMANA - Period of peace and security

It was the long period of peacefulness and minimal expansion by the Roman military

force experienced by the Roman empire after the of the final war of the Roman

Republic.

Its span was approximately 206 years (27 BC to 180 AD)

It is said to have been a miracle because prior to it there had never been peace for

so many centuries in a given period of history.

This period of peace and stability allowed the Roman Empire to achieve new

heights in technology, agriculture, science, and the arts.

Education - During the Roman period the schools of Athens flourish with the young

men of many Roman noble families coming to the city to get an education. At the

foundation of ancient Greek education was an effective system of formal education,

but in contrast, the Romans lacked such a system until the 3rd century BC. Instead,

at the foundation of ancient Roman education was, above all else, the home and

family, from which children derived their so-called "moral education.“

The process known as SYNCRETISM gives Roman names to the Greek Gods.

ZEUS

ARTEMIS

HERMES

HERA

ATHENA

APOLLO

ARES

APHRODITE

POSEIDON

HADES

Although the colours, decoration and materials used in the manufacture of Roman clothing varied the tunic, the toga and the cloak.

The Palla as Roman Dress for Women

The Palla was a woven rectangle made of wool that

the Roman matron put on top of her stola when

she went outside. She could use the palla in many

ways, like a modern scarf, but palla is often

translated as cloak. A palla was like the toga,

which was another woven, not sewn, expanse of

cloth that could be pulled over the head.

Roman architecture continued the legacy left by the earlier architects of the Greek world, and the Roman respect for this tradition and their particular reverence for the established architectural orders, especially the Corinthian, is evident in many of their large public buildings.

However, the Romans were also great innovators and they quickly adopted new construction techniques, used new materials, and uniquely combined existing techniques with creative design to produce a whole range of new architectural structures such as the basilica, triumphal arch, monumental aqueduct, amphitheatre, granary building, and residential housing block.

Smart agriculture practices and an extensive grain trade network enabled the romans o thrive in the water limited environment of the Mediterranean. But the stable food supply brought about by these measures promoted population growth and urbanisation, pushing the empire closer to the limits of its food resource.

The three main Roman ports involved with eastern trade were Arsinoe, Berenice and Myos Hormos. Arsinoe was one of the early trading centers but was soon overshadowed by the more easily accessible Myos Hormos and Berenice.

Instead of focusing on protecting their borders, Roman armies began fighting

against one another. As a result, many outside invaders were able to entre Rome,

and cause great destruction.

ECONOMIC DECAY –

Barbarian disruption of trade

No plunder

Drain of gold and silver

Inflation caused by over coinage

330 – 1453 AD

Pax Romana was endangered

Christianity had been recognized as a religion in

the empire

305AD - Constantine became the emperor of

Rome

324AD – Capital was transferred from Rome to

Byzantium

364AD – Roman empire split

Mosaic is the art of creating images with an assemblage of small pieces of colored glass, stone, or other materials. It is a technique of decorative art or interior decoration. Most mosaics are made of small, flat, roughly square, pieces of stone or glass of different colors, known as tesserae; but some, especially floor mosaics, may also be made of small rounded pieces of stone, and called "pebble mosaics".

Characterized especially by massive domes with square bases and rounded arches and spires and extensive use of glass mosaics.

Early byzantine architecture was built as a continuation of Roman architecture

Stylistic drift, technological advancement, and political and territorial changes meant that a distinct style gradually emerged which imbued certain influence from the near east and used the Greek cross plan in church architecture.

Greek cross plan in church architecture – A cross with four equal arms at right angles

Buildings increased in geometric complexity, brick and plaster were used in

addition to stone in the decoration of important public structure, classical orders

were used more freely, mosaics replaced carved decoration, complex domes rested

upon massive piers, and windows filtered light through thin sheets of alabaster to

softly illuminate interiors.

Use of centrals square plans. On

square divisions to accommodate

domes for roofing system is the

measure characteristic feature.

Square plan of the eastern churches

were termed as ‘Greek Cross Plans’

Emperor held all powers

Viewed As divinely ordained Ruler

The Byzantine Empire had a complex system of aristocracy and bureaucracy, which was inherited from the Roman Empire. At the apex of the hierarchy stood the emperor, who was the sole ruler and who was considered to be divinely ordained. Beneath him, a multitude of officials and court functionaries operated the complex administrative machinery that was necessary to run the empire. In addition to those officials, a large number of honorific titles existed, which the emperor awarded to his subjects or to friendly foreign rulers.

Over the more than thousand years of the empire's existence, different titles were adopted and discarded, and many lost or gained prestige. At first the various titles of the empire were the same as those in the late Roman Empire. However, by the time that Heraclius was emperor (610–641), many of the titles had become obsolete. By the time of Alexios I reign (1082–1118), many of the positions were either new or drastically changed. However, from that time on they remained essentially the same until the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453.

The Greek war of independence (1821-1830) was motivated by the desire for self-

determination, free thought, education, and joining the civilized nations of Europe.

The movement was an organized effort, with certain objectives

Western influences are largely responsible, but also Greek intellectual activity.

The Sultan retaliated with mindless slaughter of civilian populations in defenseless islands (Chios, Psara), which captured Western Imagination

The Great Powers of the time, although instinctively against revolts, changed their policy and become sympathetic to the Greek Cause.

Egyptian Intervention (with a strong navy), nearly

extinguished the revolution.

However, pro-Hellenic sentiment had grown

stronger in western Europe, and Byron’s death in

the city functions as a strong propaganda in favor

of the revolutionaries

The Sultan was forced to acknowledge the creation of a small Greek State.

King Othon, a German prince, brings with him a Bavarian ensemble, which plays an

important role in the organization of the new state according to Western models.

1834: The Bavarians move the capital to Athens.

Greece under Othon remained a little

disturbed, but quickly established itself

as the center of Hellenism. Much of the

literature still comes from the Ionian

Islands.

For the next 50 years, Greece will

re-established the bonds with its past.

1862: Othon was forced to leave. He was succeeded by George I (until 1913).

In this period Greece became a center for literature and arts, and becomes prosperous by the end of the century.

The Balkan nations revolt and drive the Turks out of Europe.

The Greeks take advantage and acquire Macedonia and Thrace. The size of the country doubles, more or less to its present borders.

WW1: Greece fights side by side with victorious allies.

But it gains nothing, and loses a lot.

Catastrophe in Asia Minor.

Myrivilis: Life in the Tomb.

Athens in the 1930’s caught up with world depression.

The wounds of the Catastrophe in Asia Minor and the world economic crisis created a depressed mood.

The suicide of Karyotakis.

1940 Italian Invasion of Greece is resisted successfully.

1941: Hitler comes to the aid of Mussolini, and the Germans occupy Greece until 1944.

Greece remains firmly pro-Western.

As the invading forces left, the Greeks are

divided between those who seek to remain

in the west, and those who want to join the

Eastern Block.

British/American intervention ensured that

Greece will remain Western.

The Turkish army invaded Cyprus in 1974, and effectively (but illegally) divided

the island.

The Greeks still consider the US largely responsible for the tragedy of Cyprus.

Two main parties and many smaller

ones.

The socialist party has dominated Greek

politics since 1981.

Liberalization.

Egalitarianism

1960: Treaty of Rome creates Common Market

1973: EEC

1992: Treaty of Maastricht creates the European

Union (EU)

2002: Monetary Union in 12 countries (EURO)

The main aspect which affected culture a lot was The Great Greek

Economic Crisis.

The lifestyle, migration rate, buying capacity, per capita income were

totally changed.

2004 Olympics, poor political leadership, over smart opposition party

were the prominent reasons of crisis.

Due to economic crisis, the people started migrating vigorously which created a

problem.

The Olympic games are an indivisible part of Greek culture.

The 2004 Olympic was held in Athens.

This Olympic has a big effect on Greek culture, economy, politics.

The theatres in Greece play an important role in

the culture and thought process of citizens.

A leader emerged in the city to reach cultural and military heights and his name was Pericles. He was credited with rebuilding a powerful army and greatest monuments of all times..

Early settlements-This temple of Athena Polias was built upon the Doerpfeld foundations,[16] between the Erechtheion and the still-standing Parthenon. Arkhaios Neōs was destroyed by the Persian invasion in 480 BC. However, the temple was probably reconstructed since in 454 BC the treasury of the Delian League was transferred in its opisthodomos. The temple may have been burnt down in 406/405 BC as Xenophon mentions that the old temple of Athena was set on fire. Pausanias does not mention it in his 2nd century AD Description of Greece

HELLENISTIC AND ROMAN PERIOD

During the Hellenistic and Roman periods, many of the existing buildings in the area of the Acropolis were repaired., due to damage from age, and occasionally, war.[Monuments to foreign kings were erected, notably those of the Attalid kings of Pergamon Attalos II (in front of the NW corner of the Parthenon), and Eumenes II, in front of the Propylaia. These were rededicated during the early Roman Empire to Augustus or Claudius (uncertain), and Agrippa, respectively. Eumenes was also responsible for constructing a stoa on the South slope, not unlike that of Attalos in the Agora below.

During the Julio-Claudian period, the Temple of Rome and Augustus, a small, round edifice, about 23 meters from the Parthenon, was to be the last significant ancient construction on the summit of the rock. Around the same time, on the North slope, in a cave next to the one dedicated to Pan since the classical period, a sanctuary was founded where the archons dedicated to Apollo on taking office. In 161 AD, on the South slope, the Roman Herodes Atticus built his grand amphitheatre or Odeon. It was destroyed by the invading Herulians a century later but was reconstructed in the 1950s.

During the 3rd century, under threat from a Herulian invasion, repairs were made to the Acropolis walls, and the "Beulé Gate" was constructed to restrict entrance in front of the Propylaia, thus returning the Acropolis to use as a fortress

In the Byzantine period, the Parthenon was turned into a church, dedicated to the Virgin Mary. Under the Latin Duchy of Athens, the Acropolis functioned as the city's administrative center, with the Parthenon as its cathedral, and the Propylaia as part of the DucalPalace.[ A large tower was added, the "Frankopyrgos", demolished in the 19th century. After the Ottoman conquest of Greece, the Parthenon was used as the garrison headquarters of the Turkish army, and the Erechtheumwas turned into the Governor's private Harem. The buildings of the Acropolis suffered significant damage during the 1687 siege by the Venetians in the Morean War. The Parthenon, which was being used as a gunpowder magazine, was hit by artillery fire and severely damaged

The entrance to the Acropolis was a monumental gateway called the Propylaea. To

the south of the entrance is the tiny Temple of Athena Nike. At the centre of the

Acropolis is the Parthenon or Temple of Athena Parthenos (Athena the Virgin). East

of the entrance and north of the Parthenon is the temple known as the Erechtheum.

South of the platform that forms the top of the Acropolis there are also the remains

of an outdoor theatre called Theatre of Dionysus. A few hundred metres away, there

is the now partially reconstructed Theatre of Herodes Atticus.[44]

All the valuable ancient artifacts are situated in the Acropolis Museum, which resides on the southern slope of the same rock, 280 metres from the Parthenon