Japanese Accounting System

Students: Tomescu Viorica, Mamaliga Lina

Coordonator: Lector Sup. L. Erhan

Brief introduction to Japanese accounting analysis

In the book "International accounting" Mueller, Gernon and Meek (1994)

World countries classified into four main groups, depending on the peculiarities of their accounting systems, and Japan have put it together most Continental European countries in the group.

The Japanese Accounting , aims to present the world with quality research on diverse themes relating to accounting, thereby helping improve the economic welfare of societies around the world through better accounting systems.

Apparently, into fact, the legal framework of accounting, Japan deserves place in this group, but if we look from the perspective of presentation and publication of financial accounting, Japan closer to the Anglo-Saxon oriented investors and

Decision.

Industrialization was started in Japan in 1868, with Industrialization was started in Japan in 1868, with the restoration of the Meiji dynasty. In the period the restoration of the Meiji dynasty. In the period 1890-1899 appeared first commercial code 1890-1899 appeared first commercial code Franco-German inspired, focused on protecting Franco-German inspired, focused on protecting the interests of creditors and the state as the the interests of creditors and the state as the main collector of taxes. Until the Second World main collector of taxes. Until the Second World War the Japanese economy was controlled by War the Japanese economy was controlled by political and industrial consortia that had a political and industrial consortia that had a central bank, called zaibatsu.central bank, called zaibatsu.

After World War II Japan has become one of the After World War II Japan has become one of the major economic powers. Tokyo Stock Exchange is major economic powers. Tokyo Stock Exchange is among the most important fairs of the world, the among the most important fairs of the world, the transaction volume in 1994 exceeding three transaction volume in 1994 exceeding three times that of the London Stock Exchangetimes that of the London Stock Exchange

For over 30 years, Japan was the second economy For over 30 years, Japan was the second economy in the world, but the year of 2010 was surpassed in the world, but the year of 2010 was surpassed by China, a country with a population ten times by China, a country with a population ten times higher.higher.

MacroMacro--economic indicators of Japaneconomic indicators of Japan

In 2012, Japan was ranked 3rd in the world in the amount of gross domestic product by 4.3 trillion $

GDP

Milestones in the development and evolution of Milestones in the development and evolution of Japanese accountingJapanese accounting

1890 – 1890 – was adopted Commercial Code of Japanwas adopted Commercial Code of Japan

1948 - adopted a law on the stock exchange and securities - 1948 - adopted a law on the stock exchange and securities - ("Securities and Exchange Law");("Securities and Exchange Law");

- Appeared Certified Public Accountants Law ("Certified - Appeared Certified Public Accountants Law ("Certified Public Accountants Law")Public Accountants Law")

1949 - were issued for Enterprise Financial Accounting 1949 - were issued for Enterprise Financial Accounting Standards ("Financial Accounting Standards for Business Standards ("Financial Accounting Standards for Business Enterprises")Enterprises")

- Was established as self-disciplinary association Japanese - Was established as self-disciplinary association Japanese Institute of Chartered Accountants - 'The Japanese Institute of Chartered Accountants - 'The Japanese Institute of Certified Public Accountants' (JICPA)Institute of Certified Public Accountants' (JICPA)

1950 - were established regulations regarding the terminology, forms and 1950 - were established regulations regarding the terminology, forms and methods of preparation of financial statements, audit standardsmethods of preparation of financial statements, audit standards

1960 - began publishing his first professional accounting publications 1960 - began publishing his first professional accounting publications JICPA (Japanese Institute of Certified Public Accountants)JICPA (Japanese Institute of Certified Public Accountants)

1963 - became subject to audit financial statements of companies whose 1963 - became subject to audit financial statements of companies whose shares were traded over-the-counter (under different conditions than shares were traded over-the-counter (under different conditions than the stock market)the stock market)

1965 - were taken to prevent fraudulent financial statements1965 - were taken to prevent fraudulent financial statements

1967 - audit corporation was founded first, in accordance with the Law of 1967 - audit corporation was founded first, in accordance with the Law of Certified Public AccountantsCertified Public Accountants

1971 - were issued accounting standards for private schools1971 - were issued accounting standards for private schools

2003 - amended Law of Certified Public Accountants2003 - amended Law of Certified Public Accountants

Japan has a triangular system of regulation of accounting and Japan has a triangular system of regulation of accounting and financial reporting. The three basic laws are the Commercial Code, Act financial reporting. The three basic laws are the Commercial Code, Act grant and tax law, in addition to longer apply a number of ancillary grant and tax law, in addition to longer apply a number of ancillary regulations.regulations.

Report of influence between the three mentioned regulations Report of influence between the three mentioned regulations tend to change from year to year for FSA and against the Ministry of tend to change from year to year for FSA and against the Ministry of Justice, which reorients accounting approach from a legalistic Justice, which reorients accounting approach from a legalistic perspective on economic.perspective on economic.

Standardization bodies in JapanStandardization bodies in Japan

In Japan there are several academic societies Accounting:In Japan there are several academic societies Accounting: 1. JAA, 1937 the Japanese Association of Accounting;1. JAA, 1937 the Japanese Association of Accounting;

              2. JCAA, 1975 the Japanese Association of Cost Accounting;2. JCAA, 1975 the Japanese Association of Cost Accounting;

              3. Japan Audity Association, 1978 the Japanese Association of Audit;3. Japan Audity Association, 1978 the Japanese Association of Audit;

              4. Japan Accounting History Association, 1982 the Japanese 4. Japan Accounting History Association, 1982 the Japanese Association for the History of Accounting;Association for the History of Accounting;

5. Association of Business Analists Japan, the Japanese Association of 5. Association of Business Analists Japan, the Japanese Association of Business Analysts;Business Analysts;

6. Japanese Association for International Accounting Studies. 1984 6. Japanese Association for International Accounting Studies. 1984 Japanese Association for International Accounting Studies;Japanese Association for International Accounting Studies;

7. Bookkeeping Japanese Association, 1985, Japanese Accounting 7. Bookkeeping Japanese Association, 1985, Japanese Accounting Association;Association;

8. The Japan Society for Social Science of Accounting, 1986, 8. The Japan Society for Social Science of Accounting, 1986, Japanese Society for Social Accounting;Japanese Society for Social Accounting;

9. Japan Corporate Social Accounting and Reporting 9. Japan Corporate Social Accounting and Reporting Association, 1988, the Japanese Association of Social Association, 1988, the Japanese Association of Social Accounting and Reporting;Accounting and Reporting;

10. Association of Accounting in Mathematics, 1988, the 10. Association of Accounting in Mathematics, 1988, the Association of Accountants in Mathematics;Association of Accountants in Mathematics;

11. Association of International Studies for Public Sector 11. Association of International Studies for Public Sector Accounting Association for International Studies Public Accounting Association for International Studies Public Sector Accounting;Sector Accounting;

12. Japan Tax Accounting Association, Japanese Association of 12. Japan Tax Accounting Association, Japanese Association of Tax Accounting.Tax Accounting.

Body advising the Financial Services Agency - Business Accounting Body advising the Financial Services Agency - Business Accounting

Council - BAC - Japanese normalization is the body of accounting. He Council - BAC - Japanese normalization is the body of accounting. He is approached by analogy, the National Accounting Council (CNC) in is approached by analogy, the National Accounting Council (CNC) in France, because most of its members are non-governmental France, because most of its members are non-governmental personalities.personalities.

In response the various applications of the Ministry of Finance, BAC In response the various applications of the Ministry of Finance, BAC prepares accounting standards, recognized as the "Business prepares accounting standards, recognized as the "Business Accounting Principles." All Japanese companies which fall under the Accounting Principles." All Japanese companies which fall under the Law stock must meet these standards.Law stock must meet these standards.

On July 26, 2001, through the joint effort of ten leading institutions in the On July 26, 2001, through the joint effort of ten leading institutions in the private sector of the economy, including JICPA was established private sector of the economy, including JICPA was established Accounting Standards Foundation (fasf - Financial Accounting Accounting Standards Foundation (fasf - Financial Accounting Standards Foundation).Standards Foundation).

ASBJ (Accounting Standard Board in Japan) was organized under the ASBJ (Accounting Standard Board in Japan) was organized under the auspices fasf as an independent private entity intended to establish auspices fasf as an independent private entity intended to establish standards in accounting and to establish guidelines for their standards in accounting and to establish guidelines for their application.application.

Accounting Profession in JapanAccounting Profession in Japan

Japanese accounting profession exerted relatively little Japanese accounting profession exerted relatively little influence on the financial reporting as compared to the Japanese influence on the financial reporting as compared to the Japanese government or the Anglo-Saxon countries profession. "Japanese government or the Anglo-Saxon countries profession. "Japanese Institute of Chartered Accountants' (the Japanese Institute of Institute of Chartered Accountants' (the Japanese Institute of Certified Public Accountants: JICPA) was established in 1949 as an Certified Public Accountants: JICPA) was established in 1949 as an independent association, and in 1966 was approved by law (Certified independent association, and in 1966 was approved by law (Certified Public Accountants Law) and has over 21,400 members (15,500 Public Accountants Law) and has over 21,400 members (15,500 seniors 5,750 juniors and 156 audit firms).seniors 5,750 juniors and 156 audit firms).

Professional body (JICPA) issue recommendations on accounting issues Professional body (JICPA) issue recommendations on accounting issues that tend, however, be limited to small things. Significant aspects that tend, however, be limited to small things. Significant aspects covered by the accounting principles issued by the BAC.covered by the accounting principles issued by the BAC.

Since the main objective oversight of the accounting profession as a whole Since the main objective oversight of the accounting profession as a whole and maintain a high level of ethics and professionalism, JICPA is and maintain a high level of ethics and professionalism, JICPA is involved in various other activities, such as:involved in various other activities, such as:

Quality control audits made by members of the body of experts, Quality control audits made by members of the body of experts, including checking the quality of company activities;including checking the quality of company activities;

Ensuring continuing professional education, including the Ensuring continuing professional education, including the organization of courses for junior experts;organization of courses for junior experts;

Active participation with the Business Accounting Council in the Active participation with the Business Accounting Council in the development of accounting and auditing standards,development of accounting and auditing standards,

Cooperation with other professional bodies;Cooperation with other professional bodies;

Active participation in international organizations. JICPA is a Active participation in international organizations. JICPA is a founding member of IFAC (International Financial Accounting founding member of IFAC (International Financial Accounting Committee), IASB (International Accounting Standards Board) Committee), IASB (International Accounting Standards Board) and CAPA (Confederation of Asian and Pacific Accountants), and CAPA (Confederation of Asian and Pacific Accountants), and one of the most important members of the IAASB and one of the most important members of the IAASB (International Auditing and Assurance Standards Board).(International Auditing and Assurance Standards Board).

In addition to the body of the accounting profession in Japan In addition to the body of the accounting profession in Japan working and a Federation of tax advisors, bringing working and a Federation of tax advisors, bringing together representatives of other professions. The services together representatives of other professions. The services related to tax or financial advice business, bookkeeping, related to tax or financial advice business, bookkeeping, preparation of financial statements or tax advice specific preparation of financial statements or tax advice specific areas (such as inheritance tax).areas (such as inheritance tax).

After 1996, the accounting profession may be exercised by After 1996, the accounting profession may be exercised by audit firms (Kansa Hajin) comprising at least five audit firms (Kansa Hajin) comprising at least five associates, all auditors. Associations are responsible associates, all auditors. Associations are responsible indefinitely and solidarity. Very few diploma holders indefinitely and solidarity. Very few diploma holders working outside the profession.working outside the profession.

The General AccountingThe General Accounting

Generally accepted accounting principles in Japan Generally accepted accounting principles in Japan (Japanese GAAP) include accounting principles (Japanese GAAP) include accounting principles issued by the BAC (Business Accounting Council), issued by the BAC (Business Accounting Council), the ASBJ issued Accounting Standards (Accounting the ASBJ issued Accounting Standards (Accounting Standard Board in Japan) and practical guidelines Standard Board in Japan) and practical guidelines prepared by JICPA, the professional body of this prepared by JICPA, the professional body of this country.country.

Accounting Principles are a set of rules that includes Accounting Principles are a set of rules that includes a seven general principles, covering every aspect a seven general principles, covering every aspect of accounting and reporting in the field:of accounting and reporting in the field:

a. fair value;a. fair value; b. record keeping;b. record keeping; c. the distinction between capital and profits;c. the distinction between capital and profits; d. true and fair view;d. true and fair view;    e. permanence or continued application methods;e. permanence or continued application methods; f. consistency;f. consistency; g. conservatism.g. conservatism.

Additional notes materiality principle appears in the Additional notes materiality principle appears in the General Principles for business and is not included in General Principles for business and is not included in the basic set. However, it is just as important as the the basic set. However, it is just as important as the other seven general principles.other seven general principles.

The principle of fair value The principle of fair value is the most important of the is the most important of the general principles for businesses. According to him, general principles for businesses. According to him, a company must provide true and fair view of its a company must provide true and fair view of its financial conditions and results of operations financial conditions and results of operations involved.involved.

The principle of keeping The principle of keeping registers specifies that a registers specifies that a company must keep accounting records in a strict company must keep accounting records in a strict order. In addition, although not directly stated, this order. In addition, although not directly stated, this principle implies that all accounting treatment of the principle implies that all accounting treatment of the undertaking must be very strict. In this context, the undertaking must be very strict. In this context, the principle of keeping records involving the same principle of keeping records involving the same philosophy as the principle of fair value.philosophy as the principle of fair value.

The principle of distinction The principle of distinction between capital and profit between capital and profit mainly refers to the distinction between capital surplus mainly refers to the distinction between capital surplus and profit. In Japan, the emphasis is on profit and profit. In Japan, the emphasis is on profit distribution to shareholders and authorities. In terms distribution to shareholders and authorities. In terms of income determination that will distribute the of income determination that will distribute the distinction to be made relates in particular to the distinction to be made relates in particular to the capital and undistributed profit to be distributed.capital and undistributed profit to be distributed.

True and fair view principle True and fair view principle states that a company must states that a company must clearly disclose its financial conditions and results of clearly disclose its financial conditions and results of operations they undertake, so the information does operations they undertake, so the information does not mislead users. This principle applies to the not mislead users. This principle applies to the financial statements of the enterprise as a whole, and financial statements of the enterprise as a whole, and explanatory notes.explanatory notes.

On this principle, disclosures regarding accounting On this principle, disclosures regarding accounting principles and other final trial balance are necessary, principles and other final trial balance are necessary, end users can better understand the financial end users can better understand the financial conditions and results of the undertaking.conditions and results of the undertaking.

Going requires an undertaking not to change its accounting Going requires an undertaking not to change its accounting policies without reasonable grounds. If it changes its policies policies without reasonable grounds. If it changes its policies must be communicated reasons for such a change.must be communicated reasons for such a change.

Conservatism principleConservatism principle, known as the precautionary principle, , known as the precautionary principle, require the undertaking to make prudent accounting changes require the undertaking to make prudent accounting changes and estimate the moments when future events will have a and estimate the moments when future events will have a negative impact on its financial situation. On the other hand, negative impact on its financial situation. On the other hand, the principle prohibits too conservative estimates.the principle prohibits too conservative estimates.

In Japan, a company often prepare multiple sets of financial In Japan, a company often prepare multiple sets of financial communicated dedicated purposes, including to shareholders, communicated dedicated purposes, including to shareholders, extension and repayment of loans, payment of taxes. extension and repayment of loans, payment of taxes. The The principle of consistencyprinciple of consistency require a company to have a set of require a company to have a set of communicated for each purpose separately and not in any way communicated for each purpose separately and not in any way distort accounting data from managerial purposesdistort accounting data from managerial purposes

Materiality principle Materiality principle was issued before the was issued before the earlier principles, the additional notes to earlier principles, the additional notes to general principles for business enterprises. general principles for business enterprises. He asks a company to make judgments He asks a company to make judgments about the costs or revenues involved a about the costs or revenues involved a change of accounting method. Accounting change of accounting method. Accounting standards should not apply to intangible standards should not apply to intangible items.items.

This principle is not contradictory to that of This principle is not contradictory to that of keeping records or true and fair view, as it keeping records or true and fair view, as it seeks to achieve the purpose of efficient seeks to achieve the purpose of efficient financial statements, which is the purpose financial statements, which is the purpose of those two principles.of those two principles.

Differences between IFRS and Japanese accounting systemDifferences between IFRS and Japanese accounting systemPresentation extraordinary income and expenses in the annual financial Presentation extraordinary income and expenses in the annual financial

statements:statements:

JGAAP related items Extraordinary income and expenses are JGAAP related items Extraordinary income and expenses are presented according to their naturepresented according to their nature

IFRS, no element of profit or loss shall not be presented in the IFRS, no element of profit or loss shall not be presented in the financial statements as item (income or expense) Extraordinaryfinancial statements as item (income or expense) Extraordinary

Recognition of contingent liabilities:Recognition of contingent liabilities:

JGAAP: contingent liabilities are recognized in the accounts JGAAP: contingent liabilities are recognized in the accounts when they are expenses or losses in certain circumstances when they are expenses or losses in certain circumstances indicated it happens after a purchase and measure the likelihood indicated it happens after a purchase and measure the likelihood is reflected in its importanceis reflected in its importance

IFRS: contingent liabilities that are liabilities arising from past IFRS: contingent liabilities that are liabilities arising from past events are recognized regardless of the output probability of events are recognized regardless of the output probability of economic resources, which occur when the fair value can be economic resources, which occur when the fair value can be measured reliablymeasured reliably

Amortization of goodwill:Amortization of goodwill:

JGAAP: Goodwill is recognized as an asset and is JGAAP: Goodwill is recognized as an asset and is amortized on a systematic basis over a period of 20 years amortized on a systematic basis over a period of 20 years or lessor less

IFRS: Goodwill is not depreciatedIFRS: Goodwill is not depreciated

In August 2007, the Accounting Standards Board Japan In August 2007, the Accounting Standards Board Japan and the IASB announced their agreement to accelerate and the IASB announced their agreement to accelerate the convergence by eliminating major differences the convergence by eliminating major differences between GAAP Japan and IFRS by 2008 and the remaining between GAAP Japan and IFRS by 2008 and the remaining by the end of 2011. by the end of 2011.

Japanese authorities have imposed no obligation to Japanese authorities have imposed no obligation to reconciliationreconciliation

Community issuers that prepare their financial statements Community issuers that prepare their financial statements inin

accordance with IFRS. Therefore, it was considered accordance with IFRS. Therefore, it was considered appropriate,appropriate,

from 1 January 2009 to consider that Japanese GAAP from 1 January 2009 to consider that Japanese GAAP equivalent to IFRS adopted.equivalent to IFRS adopted.

Trends in the evolution of Japanese accountingTrends in the evolution of Japanese accounting Recent years have brought major changes in the Japanese Recent years have brought major changes in the Japanese

accounting system. In 2001 and established a private body to create a accounting system. In 2001 and established a private body to create a conceptual framework and to issue accounting standards. Since fiscal 2002 conceptual framework and to issue accounting standards. Since fiscal 2002 many of the traditional characteristics of accounting were abandoned, the many of the traditional characteristics of accounting were abandoned, the idea of international accounting model orientation.idea of international accounting model orientation.

Summarizing Japanese accounting features, Christopher Nobes reach the Summarizing Japanese accounting features, Christopher Nobes reach the following conclusiofollowing conclusions:ns:

German traits influence is manifested by:German traits influence is manifested by: - Government control;- Government control; - Inaccessible nature of the accounts;- Inaccessible nature of the accounts; - Uniform formats for financial statements;- Uniform formats for financial statements; - Predominanţa fiscal rules;- Predominanţa fiscal rules; - Strict application of historical cost;- Strict application of historical cost; - Legal form prevailing reality;- Legal form prevailing reality; - Legal reserve (25%) etc.- Legal reserve (25%) etc.

American traits influence is manifested by:American traits influence is manifested by:

- special rules for listed companies;- special rules for listed companies;

  - presence of US formats;- presence of US formats;

    - information on cash flows;- information on cash flows;

    - goodwill;- goodwill;

    - chosen method in accounting for stock assessment should be the same as - chosen method in accounting for stock assessment should be the same as that chosen for taxation (Supports all methods of assessment, but, that chosen for taxation (Supports all methods of assessment, but, contrary to American practice, the most used is CMP);contrary to American practice, the most used is CMP);

- US accounting terminology used;- US accounting terminology used;

    - Publication of "earnings per share".- Publication of "earnings per share".

        Features of concern:Features of concern:

- using historical exchange rates for certain monetary items;- using historical exchange rates for certain monetary items;

- expressing financial statements as a percentage;- expressing financial statements as a percentage;

- the mold special "statutory audit" (Statutory Audit).- the mold special "statutory audit" (Statutory Audit).

The Annual Salary for Accountant

THE FUTURE OF ACCOUNTING IN JAPANTHE FUTURE OF ACCOUNTING IN JAPAN Since the end of World War II, the Japanese economy has undergone tremendous Since the end of World War II, the Japanese economy has undergone tremendous

development, but it is the author’s opinion that the accounting structure in Japan development, but it is the author’s opinion that the accounting structure in Japan has not kept pace with its own economic growth. For example, the practice of has not kept pace with its own economic growth. For example, the practice of publishing interim financial statements as part of the financial reporting of a publishing interim financial statements as part of the financial reporting of a business was adopted only ten years ago, and consolidated financial statements business was adopted only ten years ago, and consolidated financial statements have only recently been required. As of yet, cash flow statements and value-have only recently been required. As of yet, cash flow statements and value-added statements are not included among published financial statements. added statements are not included among published financial statements. Although Japan ranks economically among the leading nations of the world, its Although Japan ranks economically among the leading nations of the world, its financial reporting is inadequate. financial reporting is inadequate. 

  Since the end of the 1960s, an inter-national revolution in financial reporting Since the end of the 1960s, an inter-national revolution in financial reporting with economic income measurement giving ground to an informational approach, with economic income measurement giving ground to an informational approach, has been in progress. In Japan, there also has been much interest in this has been in progress. In Japan, there also has been much interest in this informational approach, but as yet there is little evidence that this approach soon informational approach, but as yet there is little evidence that this approach soon will replace economic income meas-urement. A more likely scenario is one in will replace economic income meas-urement. A more likely scenario is one in which ever-increasing foreign investment in Japan and Japanese investment which ever-increasing foreign investment in Japan and Japanese investment abroad will force a gradual but definite evolutionary change or adaptation upon abroad will force a gradual but definite evolutionary change or adaptation upon the accounting structure in Japan. Future development of Japanese accounting the accounting structure in Japan. Future development of Japanese accounting will be of special interest to accounting historians as international investment will be of special interest to accounting historians as international investment patterns involving Japan become more complex.patterns involving Japan become more complex.

5 Big Reasons To Smile On International 5 Big Reasons To Smile On International Accounting Day “10 November”Accounting Day “10 November”

You're in demand.You're in demand. Opportunities for accounting professionals are  Opportunities for accounting professionals are increasing as companies strive to support business growth, keep up increasing as companies strive to support business growth, keep up with regulatory compliance mandates and fill job openings as more with regulatory compliance mandates and fill job openings as more baby boomers retire.baby boomers retire.

You're a hot commodity.You're a hot commodity. Competition for talent is boosting  Competition for talent is boosting compensation. In addition to higher salaries, employers are offering compensation. In addition to higher salaries, employers are offering attractive incentives, such as extra vacation days and flexible attractive incentives, such as extra vacation days and flexible schedules, to attract and retain top performers.schedules, to attract and retain top performers.

You can find sizzling salary hot spots.You can find sizzling salary hot spots. Certain U.S. markets pay  Certain U.S. markets pay well above the national average. Accountants can earn the most well above the national average. Accountants can earn the most in New York City, San Francisco and San Jose, Calif., according to in New York City, San Francisco and San Jose, Calif., according to the Salary Guide.the Salary Guide.

You've got something special.You've got something special. Specialized skills are in short  Specialized skills are in short supply. Talent shortages are emerging in areas such as accounting, supply. Talent shortages are emerging in areas such as accounting, audit, financial analysis, compliance and business systems. The result? audit, financial analysis, compliance and business systems. The result? Increased job opportunities and compensation for professionals with Increased job opportunities and compensation for professionals with these backgrounds.these backgrounds.

You can bank on big data remaining a big deal.You can bank on big data remaining a big deal.  The world's  The world's dependence on data is creating an array of opportunities for dependence on data is creating an array of opportunities for accounting professionals who can mine and interpret the information.accounting professionals who can mine and interpret the information.

Bibliographic sources:Bibliographic sources:

♦♦““Contabilitate internaContabilitate internaţionalăţională””, , Neculai Tabara, Emil Horomnea, Mirela-Neculai Tabara, Emil Horomnea, Mirela-

Cristina MirceaCristina Mircea

♦♦““Comparatie intre sistemul contabil japonez si standardele IFRS, English Comparatie intre sistemul contabil japonez si standardele IFRS, English version 3.0. “– Ernst & Youngversion 3.0. “– Ernst & Young

♦♦“ “ Asemanari si deosebiri – o comparatie intre IFRS si JGAAP”, Asemanari si deosebiri – o comparatie intre IFRS si JGAAP”, PricewaterhouseCoopersPricewaterhouseCoopers

♦ ♦ http://www.hp.jicpa.or.jp/english/http://www.hp.jicpa.or.jp/english/

♦♦http://eurlex.europa.eu/Notice.do?http://eurlex.europa.eu/Notice.do?mode=dbl&lang=en&ihmlang=en&lng1=en,ro&lng2=bg,cs,da,de,el,en,es,etmode=dbl&lang=en&ihmlang=en&lng1=en,ro&lng2=bg,cs,da,de,el,en,es,et,fi,fr,hu,it,lt,lv,mt,nl,pl,pt,ro,sk,sl,sv,&val=485600:cs,fi,fr,hu,it,lt,lv,mt,nl,pl,pt,ro,sk,sl,sv,&val=485600:cs

♦♦ http://businessday.ro/03/2011/economia-japoniei-in-cifre-1970-2010/http://businessday.ro/03/2011/economia-japoniei-in-cifre-1970-2010/