Marine habitats of the Lamu-Kiunga coast: an assessment of biodiversity value, threats and opportunities
Kennedy Osuka, Melita Samoilys, James Mbugua,Jan de Leeuw, David Obura
Marine habitats of the Lamu-Kiunga coast: an assessment of biodiversity value, threats and opportunities
Kennedy Osuka, Melita Samoilys, James Mbugua, Jan de Leeuw, David Obura
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LIMITEDCIRCULATION
Correctcitation:OsukaK,MelitaSamoilysM,MbuguaJ,deLeeuwJ,OburaD.2016.MarinehabitatsoftheLamu-Kiungacoast:anassessmentofbiodiversityvalue,threatsandopportunities. ICRAFWorkingpapernumberno.248WorldAgroforestryCentre.DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.5716/WP16167.PDF
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WorkingPaperNo.248
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Abouttheauthors
KennedyOsukaisresearchscientistatCORDIOEastAfrica.Email:[email protected]
MelitaSamoilysisadirector,CORDIOEastAfrica.Email:[email protected]
JamesMbuguaisaresearchassistantatCORDIOEastAfrica.Email:[email protected]'sEasternandSouthernAfricanteam.HeiscurrentlyanecologistatBakuStateUniversity.Email:jan45leeuw@gmail.comDavidOburaisthecoordinatorforCORDIOEastAfrica.Email:[email protected]
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Acknowledgements
The publication is an outcome of an activity of marine biodiversity assessment, which wascommissionedbyICRAFandimplementedbyCORDIOEastAfrica.SpecialgratitudegoestoEUthroughIGAD for funding the activity. CORDIO team also thank all those who contributed to the study byprovidingtheinformationrequiredforthepreparationofthisPublication.TheauthorswouldalsothankDr.MaarifaWakumanya, Pwani University, Grace Koech and Josephat Nyongesa for reviewing themanuscript.Finally,theauthorswouldliketothanktheICRAFcommunicationteamforproofreadingandpublishingtheworkingpaper.
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TableofContents
Abouttheauthors....................................................................................................................................iiAcknowledgements.................................................................................................................................iiiListoffigures...........................................................................................................................................viListoftables...........................................................................................................................................viiListofabbreviations..............................................................................................................................viiiAbstract...................................................................................................................................................ixIntroduction.............................................................................................................................................1TheLamu-Kiungaseascape......................................................................................................................2
Physiographyoftheseascape..............................................................................................................2Geologyandoceanography.................................................................................................................3OutstandingfeaturesofLamu-Kiungaseascape..................................................................................3
Biodiversityofshallowmarinehabitats...................................................................................................5Introduction.........................................................................................................................................5Coralreefs............................................................................................................................................5
Coraldiversity..................................................................................................................................5Coralreefbenthos...........................................................................................................................6Coralmortalityandbleaching.........................................................................................................8Resiliencestatusofreefs.................................................................................................................9Coralreeffishdiversity....................................................................................................................9Trendsinfishabundance...............................................................................................................12
Seagrass.............................................................................................................................................16Mangroves.........................................................................................................................................16
Mangrovecover.............................................................................................................................16Mangrovediversity........................................................................................................................17Mangrovezonation.......................................................................................................................19
Biodiversityofpelagichabitats..............................................................................................................21Introduction.......................................................................................................................................21Marinemammalsandturtles.............................................................................................................21Sharksandrays..................................................................................................................................22
Biodiversityusesandthreats.................................................................................................................24Introduction.......................................................................................................................................24Useoffishandthreatstofisheries....................................................................................................25
Resourceutilizationandextraction...............................................................................................25Trendsinfishcatches....................................................................................................................27Fisheriesissues..............................................................................................................................28LamuPortandLamu-SouthernSudan-EthiopiaTransportCorridorproject.................................28
Threatstoseagrassbeds....................................................................................................................28Threatstomangroves........................................................................................................................29
Communityutilization...................................................................................................................29
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LAPSSETproject.............................................................................................................................30Useoffishesandthreatstothepelagicmarinesystem....................................................................30
Opportunitiesforimprovedmanagement.............................................................................................31Introduction.......................................................................................................................................31Governmentinstitutions....................................................................................................................34
StateDepartmentofFisheries.......................................................................................................34BeachManagementUnits.............................................................................................................34KenyaWildlifeService...................................................................................................................34KenyaMarineFisheriesResearchInstitute...................................................................................35
Policyandinstitutionsformanagementofmangroves.....................................................................35Non-governmentinstitutions............................................................................................................36
FisheriesCooperatives...................................................................................................................36WorldWideFund...........................................................................................................................36CORDIOEastAfrica........................................................................................................................36
ProtectedAreaapproaches...............................................................................................................37LocallyManagedMarineAreas.....................................................................................................37
Recommendations.................................................................................................................................39References..............................................................................................................................................41Appendices.............................................................................................................................................49
Appendix1.CoralgeneraandspecieslistrecordedinPate-Kiunga2015.........................................49Appendix2.Datatreatmentandanalysis..........................................................................................53Appendix3.FishspecieslistrecordedinPate-Kiungain2015..........................................................54
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Listoffigures
Figure1:MapofcoastlineshowingKiungaMarineNationalReserveandtheconservancies................2Figure2:SpatialextentofcoralreefsoftheKenyancoastandthe200m-depthcontour......................3Figure3:ChangeinthecoverofbenthicvariablesintheLamu-Kiungaarea..........................................7Figure4:Mapofin-situcoralreefsurveysitesconductedbyCORDIO....................................................8Figure5:Fishabundanceof11selectedfamiliesinKiunga-Pateseascape...........................................14Figure6:MeandensityandbiomassoffishfamiliessurveyedatsixsitesinPateIsland-Kiunga..........15Figure7:SpatialdistributionofmangrovesalongtheKenyancoast.....................................................17Figure8:Zonationofmangrovesalongtheland-seainterface..............................................................20Figure9:TrendsinthenumberoffishermeninLamuCounty..............................................................26Figure10:DistributionoffishinggearsinLamuCounty........................................................................26Figure11:NumberofillegalgearsinuseinLamuCounty.....................................................................27Figure12:Locationof24LMMAsinKenya............................................................................................38
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Listoftables
Table1:DensitiesofcoraladultsandrecruitssampledinKiungaMarineNationalReserve..................8Table2:Totalnumberofreeffishspeciesperfamilypersite...............................................................11Table3:CoralreeffishdiversityindexvaluesforLamu-KiungaandfromotherWIOcountries...........12Table4:NationallevelmangroveareaestimatesinKenyafrom1931to2010.....................................18Table5:MangrovespeciesofLamu-Kiungaregion................................................................................19Table6:SpeciesdistributionandcoverwithintheKiungaMarineNationalReserve............................19Table7:IUCNcategoriesofmarinemammalssightedinPateIsland-Kiungaarea................................21Table8:IUCNcategoriesofsharksandraysfishedandsightedinPateIsland-Kiungaarea.................22Table9:Meancatchperuniteffortfrom2001-2007ofgearsusedinLamuCounty............................27Table10:DPSIRanalysisofenvironmentalproblemsaffectingbiodiversityintheshallowandpelagic
marinehabitats..............................................................................................................................32Table11:ListofBMUsinLamu-Kiungaarea..........................................................................................34Table12:NationallygazettedMarineProtectedAreasinKenya...........................................................37
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Listofabbreviations
BMP BiodiversityManagementProgrammeBMU BeachManagementUnitCBD ConventiononBiologicalBiodiversityCFDI CoralFishDiversityIndexCORDIO CoastalOceansResearchandDevelopmentIndianOceanCPUE CatchPerUnitEffortDPSIR DrivingForce-Pressure-State-Impact-ResponseframeworkEACC EastAfricaCoastalCurrentEEZ ExclusiveEconomicZoneENSO ElNiñoSouthernOscillationEU EuropeanUnionFAO FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNationsGBR GreatBarrierReefGoK GovernmentofKenyaICRAF WorldAgroforestryCentreIGAD IntergovernmentalAuthorityonDevelopmentIP ImplementingPartnerIUCN InternationalUnionforConservationofNatureIUU IllegalUnregulatedandUnreportedKFS KenyaForestServiceKMCC KiungaMarineCommunityConservancyKMFRI KenyaMarineFisheriesResearchInstituteKMNR KiungaMarineNationalReserveKWS KenyaWildlifeServiceLAPSSET LamuPortSouthernSudan-EthiopiaTransportLMMAs LocallyManagedMarineAreasMPAs MarineProtectedAreasMSP MarineSpatialPlanningNGO Non-GovernmentalOrganizationNRT NorthernRangelandsTrustPES PaymentforEcosystemServicesPMCC PateMarineCommunityConservancySDF StateDepartmentofFisheriesTNC TheNatureConservancyUVC UnderwaterVisualCensus VMS VesselMonitoringSystemWIO WesternIndianOceanWWF WorldWildlifeFund
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Abstract
The oceanography, geology, connectivitywithGulf of Aden, diverse ecosystems and culturalworldheritagearetheOutstandingUniversalValuesofLamu-Kiungaseascape.Theoceanographysupportsaproductivemarineecosystemthathostsavarietyofmarinespecies.Thecoralcoverin2015averaged16%, with a range of 35% inshore <5% on the deep offshore reefs. Globally, rare coral genera ofSiderastrea,Horastrea,Caulastrea,MoseleyaandendemicangelfishApolemichthysxanthotisaswellassixsharkandninerayspecies,Dugongs,turtles,whalesanddolphinoccurintheseascape.Mangrovecover and quality is good but has reduced over decades. Themain threats to marine biodiversityinclude;increaseinhumanpopulation,highpovertylevels,deforestationofmangroves,clayminingforpottery and land tenure. In response to these threats, public and civil institutionshaveengaged inprovidingsolutions.Enactmentofawiderangeofnational,coastalandenvironmentallegislationispartofthepolicyresponsetothethreats.Theadoptionoflocally-managedmarineareashasalsoimprovedmanagement ofmarine biodiversity. It is envisioned that integrating local knowledge, governmentregulations and science through a marine spatial planning approach has the potential to benefitecosystemsandcommunitieslivingaroundthisuniquepartofKenya’scoast.Keywords:marineecosystems;marinespecies;coralcover;conservation
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Introduction
TheBiodiversityManagementProgramme(BMP)isanIntergovernmentalAuthorityonDevelopment(IGAD)initiativewhichaimstocontributetopovertyreductionbyimprovingthesocialandeconomicwellbeing of populations in the region, through better regional integration in the environmentalsector. Its purpose is the conservation and sustainable management of ecosystems in order tocontributetolastingecosystemgoodsandservices.ICRAFisoneofBMP’sImplementingPartners(IPs)andismanagingoneofthethreeprojectsaimedatdevelopingcollaborativemanagementinthreecross-boundary land and seascapes between Kenya-Somalia, Djibouti-Ethiopia and Ethiopia-SouthSudan.TheinitiativeisfundedbytheEuropeanUnion(EU).The ICRAF-ledproject (November2013-November2017) isbeing implemented in thecross-borderareaofnortheasternKenyaandsouthernSomaliainanareaextendingfromtheTanaRiverinKenyatotheLagaBadanaBushBushNationalReserveinSomalia.Thispaperaddressesoneoftheprojectaimsofsourcingbiodiversityinformationandprovidingasynthesisofthreatsandopportunities.Asapartner on the ICRAF project, CORDIO East Africawas taskedwith contributing to this activity byleadingthecompilationandsynthesisof informationonmarinebiodiversity inthenorthernKenyapartof theseascapefromLamutotheSomaliborderatKiunga.Withadditional fundingfromTheNatureConservancy(TNC),CORDIOEastAfricawasabletosurveythePatetoKiungacoastalmarinehabitatsin2015.Thepurposeofthestudywastoassessthenear-shorecoastalmarineenvironment,itscurrentandpotentialuseandbenefitsofecosystemservicestopeople,andthedriversandpressuresofchangeintheseascape,aswellasopportunitiesforimprovedmanagement.This study sought to determine the current status of themarine biodiversity in the area, with aparticularfocusoncoralreefsandmangrovesasthetwodominantmarinehabitatsinthisseascape.Currentmanagementofthenationalmarinereserves,andinformationonotherkeyaspectsofthisseascape such as coral health, ecologically valuable habitats, vulnerable and threatened species,ecosystemservicesandresiliencetoclimatechangewerealsoassessed.
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TheLamu-Kiungaseascape
The Lamu-Kiunga seascape is located in the northern part of Kenya’s coast between 1.6537°S,41.5598°Eand2.4776°S,40.7060°E.TheareabordersSomalia.Ithasmanyvaluablemarineresources,suchasmangroves,coralreefsandseagrasses,whichprovideanimportantsourceoflivelihoodandfoodsecurityforlocalcommunities.ManagementofPateIslandandKiungaareahasembracedtheuseofcommunityconservancies,anchoredintheWildlifeConservationandManagementAct2013,andestablishedthroughapartnershipbetweencommunities,government,TheNatureConservancyand Northern Rangelands Trust (NRT). Pate Marine Community Conservancy (PMCC) and KiungaMarineCommunityConservancy(KMCC)wereestablishedin2013:PMCCisinchargeofcoordinationofconservationmeasuresinfourmanagementunits(blocks)ofPethali,Rewa,UvondoandSiyuwhileKMCCisresponsibleforMkokoni,Kiwayu,Rubu,KiungaandIshakani(Figure1).Itisanticipatedthattheintegrationoflocaltraditionalknowledgeonenvironmentwithmodernscienceandresearchwillimprovethemanagementoffiniteresources.
Source:NRT-Coast
Figure1:MapofcoastlineshowingKiungaMarineNationalReserveandtheconservanciesPhysiographyoftheseascape
Theseascapehasacontinentalshelfspreadingabout4-6kmoffthemainland.Thecoralreeftypeischaracterizedbypatchyandfringingreefswithoffshoredeepreefterraces.Thedeepreefextendsabout4kmoffshoretotheedgeofthecontinentalshelf,whiletheraisedfossilreefonshorearemostlycoveredwithsanddunessuchas theKiwayu Island,whichsupporthalophytic shrubs,grassesandwoodland. The geology of the islands comprises the fossilized sand dunes and beaches of thePleistoceneage(Weruetal.2001).ThecoastlineofLamuseascapeandnortheastwardsalongSomaliais mostly rocky with few indentations and is rimmed by a narrow beach. The rocks consist of
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Quaternary sediments that are in contactwith Jurassic sediments and thePrecambrianbasement(PepperandEverhart1963).Geologyandoceanography
TheoceanfloorofLamu-KiungaseascapeliesontheIndianOceanBasinwithintheAfricanplate,whichbrokeupfromGondwanaland,thesupercontinent,about180millionyearsago(CandeandStegman2011,Oburaetal.2012).Theoceanfloorhasremainedrelativelyunchangedmakingitarefugefordifferentmarinespecies.ThebroaderLamu-KiungaarchipelagorepresentstheNorthernMonsoonCoastalCurrenteco-regionofKenya(McClanahan1988,Obura2012).TheLamu-Kiungaareaexperiencesmonsoonalwinds,EastAfrica Coastal Current (EACC) and Somali current that significantly influences the rainfall and seasurfacetemperatures(Schottetal.2009).TheinfluenceoftheSomalicurrentwithitscoldupwellingwatersishigherintheseascapecomparedtoKenya’ssoutherncoast,partlybecauseofitsproximityandduetothenarrowwidthofcontinentshelfinthenorthcomparedwiththesouth(Figure2).Theupwelling waters of the seascape enhance nutrient circulations for the primary and secondaryproductivityofthemarineecosystems,supportingmarinelifesuchasfish,crustaceans,molluscsandmigratoryspeciessuchasseabirdsandturtles(Samoilysetal.2015).
Source:CordioEastAfrica
Figure2:SpatialextentofcoralreefsoftheKenyancoastandthe200m-depthcontour
OutstandingfeaturesofLamu-Kiungaseascape
ThecoralreefsystemintheareahasauniquemixofcoralandfishspeciesrepresentativeoftheEastAfricanandtheRedSea/ArabianGulffauna.ConvergenceoftheEastAfricaCoastalCurrent(EACC)
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andthecoldupwellingoftheSomalicurrentcausethis.Forinstance,anendemicangelfishoftheRedSea/GulfofAden,Apolemichthysxanthotisisfoundinthearea.ThecoralragislandsofKiunga-Lamuarchipelago also act as key nesting grounds for 10,000 breeding pairs of roseate terns (Sternadougallii).Otherbirdsincludewhite-cheekedtern(Sternarepresa),bridledtern(Sternaanaethetus),whitepelicans(Pelecanusonocrotalus),andAfricanspoonbill(Plataleaalba)(Weruetal.2001).TherearealsoanecdotalreportsofsightingsoftheCriticallyEndangeredknifetoothsawfish(Anoxypristiscuspidate)andlongcombsawfish(Pristiszijron)southofLamuinthelowerreachesoftheTanaRiver(Samoilysetal.2011a).Thegeology,oceanography,connectivitywithGulfofAden,widerangeofecosystemsfromterrestrialandmarinehabitats,andculturalworldheritagearesomeoftheOutstandingUniversalValuesofthebroaderLamu-Kiungaseascape.Theseascapeisendowedwithuniquehabitats,extensivemangroveforestsandresidentandmigratoryspecies,makingitanimportantglobalbiodiversitysite(Weruetal.2001,Oburaetal.2012).
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Biodiversityofshallowmarinehabitats
Introduction
ThehabitatsofLamu-Kiungaseascapeofferawiderangeofecosystemservices fromthecomplexcarbonsequestrationservices,primaryandsecondaryproductivitytoprovidinghabitatandnurserygrounds fornumerous fishand shellfish (De LaCruz1979,Carlton1974). ShallowmarinehabitatsfoundinLamu-Kiungaseascapeincludecoralreefs,seagrassandmangrovesecosystemsthatprovidefourecosystemservicesofprovisioning,regulating,culturalandsupportingservices.Seagrassmeadowsprovidenumeroushighvalueecosystemservices.Theyarevitalhabitatformarineorganisms and form important foraging grounds for the endangeredmarine turtles and dugongs.Seagrassecosystemsarevitaltothefishingindustriesastheyserveasanimportanthabitatandsourceoffoodtolargefishspecies,foratleastapartoftheirlifecycle.Theystabilizebottomsedimentswiththeir dense roots and rhizomes especially during storms. Seagrass beds also represent enormouscarbonsinksandarebeingconsideredinbluecarbonschemes(Samoilysetal.2015).Coralreefs
Coralreefsareamongthemostproductiveanddiverseofallmarineecosystems.Theycontroltheecologyofnearshoremarineenvironmentsbyprovidinghabitatandsheltertoahighdiversityoffishfamilies,lobsters,octopus,dugongs,turtlesandwhalesharks.Theyactasabufferforoceanwavesreachingtheshore.Coralreefecosystemsupportsbothartisanalandcommercialfisheriesandhenceforms the backbone of coastal communities’ economies. Recreational activities in coral reefecosystems support the tourism industry,which subsequentlyengagesother stakeholders suchasboatoperators,tourcompanies,tourguidesandhoteliersinthehospitalitysector.CoralreefsinKenyaextendfromtheTanzanianborderinthesouthtotheSomaliborderinthenorthandcoveranareaof621.55km²representing0.2%oftheGreatBarrierReef(Figure2).Kenya’scoralcommunities conform to thoseof thewesternandcentral IndianOceanbiogeographic zone,withsome endemic species and others of wide Indo-Pacific distribution (Obura 2012). The reefs aretypically composed of hard substrate co-existing closely with extensive sea grass communities asdescribedbyRosen(1971).AcontinuousfringingreefdominatesthesouthernpartofKenyanreefswhilepatchyandinplacesmarginalizedreefscharacterizethenorthernpartincludingthePateIslandtoKiungaarea.Thesecontrastingformationpatternsbetweenthesouthernandthenorthernreefsisattributed to the uniquebiophysical characteristics of the northern coast notably the freshwaterdischargefromtheTanaandSabakiRiverscoupledwiththenutrientrichSomalicurrentrunningsouthfromSomalia(SurveyofKenya2009,Oburaetal.1998).
Coraldiversity
Thecoral reefsurvey in1998 in thePate Island-KiungaReservearea identified51generaand146speciesofcoralswiththereefsofSimbabaya,KuiandBomanibeingmorediversethanotherreefs(Oburaetal.1998).Surveysdonein2000sshowpresenceof180speciesofcoralsintheLamu-Kiunga
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seascape(Oburaetal.2012).TheuniquecoralsspeciesintheseascapeincludePoritesnodifera,P.columnaris,andCoscinaraea species (Hamilton and Brakel 1984,Obura 2008). Globally rare coralgeneraofSiderastrea,Horastrea,Caulastrea,andMoseleyahavealsobeenencounteredinpreviouscoral surveys (Obura et al. 1998). The rare and endemic corals comprise Horastrea indica andSiderastreasavignyana.Gonioporasp.isalsopresentespeciallyoffPateIsland(Samoilysetal.2011a).Forty-fourcoralgenerawererecordedacrossallthesites(Appendix1).Thesite-levelspeciesrichnessvariesfromhighsof26generaonmanyofthedeepreefsatChole,25generaatShimolaTewa,tolowsof16-17generaatKui,KupiandPethali,allinnerpatchreefs.Bycontrast,speciesrichnesswasgreatestontheshallowreefs(ShimolaTewa,Chole, Iweni)andlowestontwodeepreefs(MongoShariff,Ch.Rubu)andtwoinnerreefs(Pethali,Kui).ReefsiteswerestronglydominatedbyPoritesfollowedbyabout15generathatdecreasedprogressivelyinrelativeabundance,andincludedFavites,Goniastera,Coscinaraea,Favia.Eightgenerawerescarce,onlyfoundonceintheentiresurvey.ThisincludestheendemicgenusCraterastrea,whichuntilnowhadbeenreportedonlywithinthehighdiversitycentreinthenorthernMozambiqueChannel,aswellasfromChagos(BritishIndianOceanTerritory). Genus richness is generally low, compared to >50 genera recorded and >300 speciesexpectedatsitesinthenorthernMozambiqueChannel(Obura2012).
Coralreefbenthos
Coralreefsgloballyarefacingadeclineincoverandchangeinspeciescompositionduetostressorssuch as climate change, pollution, overfishing and harmful algal blooms. Estimates indicate thatgloballyapproximately34%ofthecoralreefshavebeendestroyedoraredeclining(Pandolfietal.2011).Globaltrendsshowadeclineinhardcoralcover,whichhasacceleratedinthelastfewdecades(Pandolfi et al. 2003, Carpenter et al. 2008). Coral reefs of thenorthernoffshoreKiunga area arepredominantlyalgalreefswithsomepatchcoralhabitats,particularlynearshore,withcoralcoverofaround4%ontheoffshoredeepreefslopesofKiungaMarineReserve(Samoilys1988).Hardcoralcoverestimatesin1987onthedeeperoffshorereefsofRubu,MkokoniandKiwayuwas<5%.In2006,the latest year surveyedduring thenine-yearWWF/CORDIOprogramme, the coverofhard coralsrangedwidely,from5-24%,dependingonthesitewithinthePate-Kiungaarea(Figure3a).Thecoverofsoftcoralsinthe1980srangedfrom2.9-5.6%comparedto0.1-8%in2006(Figure3b).Hardcoral,soft coralandcorallinealgaecoveralldeclinedsignificantly inall areasofKiungaMarineNationalReserve and around Pate Island following the 1998/1999 coral bleaching, and then graduallyrecoveredoversubsequentyears(Figures3a-c).In contrast, the brown macro-algae Sargassum sp., Turbinaria sp. and Hormophysa cuneiformis,increased after the 1998 bleaching event to the highest level recorded of >86% and then laterdropped,buttolevelsthatwerealwayshigherthanthepre-bleachinglevel(Figure3d).In2006macro-algae cover was between 42% and 79% in the Pate-Kiunga area. This increase in macro-algaecorrespondstoareduction inhardcoralcover.StudiesoncoralconditionsandrecruitmentwithinKiungaMarineNationalReserve,conductedsystematicallyfrom1998to2002furtherunderscorealow recruitment in 1999, likely due to mortality following the 1998 coral bleaching and reducedreproductiveoutputofsurvivingcorals(Table1).WhilethecoverofcoralsinthePateIsland-KiungaseascapeisgenerallywellbelowtheaveragecoverofKenyanreefs(20-30%),by2000thecoverhad
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stabilized, but on average at lower levels than pre-bleaching levels. However, some sites hadrecoveredtohigherlevelswithinthenearshoreKiwayuandPethaliareasandarewithintherangeofnationalcoralcover(Figure3a).
Figure3:Changeinthecoverofbenthicvariables:a)hardcoral,b)softcoral,c)corallinealgaeandd)brownmacro-algae,from1998to2006intheLamu-Kiungaarea(Datasource:CORDIO/WWF)Seeappendix2fordatatreatmentandanalysisFromthecoralreefsurveysconductedin2015todeterminethecurrentstatusofreefsinthearea(Figure4),thecoralcoverofPate-Kiungaareaaveraged16%acrossthesites,fromamaximumof35%atIwenitominimumof<5%onthedeepreefsatRubu,MongoShariff,ChanoandMvundeni.Thesemeasuresarenotmarkedlydifferentfrom2006,thoughthemeasureof35%atIweniishigherthananypreviousyears.Corallinealgalcoverwaslowatmostsites,butwithhigherlevelsatCh.Chano(>20%)andCh.Mvundeni(10%).However,thesearenothigherthanlevelsnineyearsago.In2015,turfalgaewerethedominantcoveracrossallsitesatanaverageof38%,followedbyhardcorals(16%)thenmacroalgae(13%).Macro-algalcoverisnowsubstantiallylowerthanitwasin2006.Macroalgalcover did vary between sites with higher cover at three deep reefs (Rubu, Mongo Shariff andMvundeni)andtwoshallowreefs(KuiandPethali).Reasonsforthesesitedifferencesarenotclear,possiblyduetositedifferencesinnutrientenhancementfromneighboringmangrovesorupwelling.
0 5
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Cor
al c
over
(%)
Year
a) Hard corals
Ishakani Kiunga Rubu Kiwayu Mkokoni Pethali
0 5
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Soft
cora
l cov
er (%
)
Year
b) Soft corals Ishakani Kiunga Rubu Kiwayu Mkokoni Pethali
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
100
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Cor
allin
e al
gae
(%)
Year
b) Coralline algae
Ishakani Kiunga Rubu Kiwayu Mkokoni Pethali
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
100
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Alg
ae c
over
(%)
Year
d) Algae
Ishakani Kiunga Rubu Kiwayu Mkokoni Pethali
8
Source:CordioEastAfrica
Figure4:Mapofin-situcoralreefsurveysitesconductedbyCORDIOthroughsupportfromTNCin2015intheconservanciesestablishedundertheNRTCoastprogramme.Table1:DensitiesofcoraladultsandrecruitssampledinKiungaMarineNationalReservefrom1998to2002
Source:OburaandChurch2003
Coralmortalityandbleaching
Increasesinseasurfacetemperaturecoupledwithvarioususeofcoralreefsbycoastalcommunitieshaveincreasedpressuresoncoralreefs.The1998/1999ElNinoledtobleachingofmorethan80%ofthecoralreefsintheLamu-Kiungaseascape(Oburaetal.2007).StressorssuchasharmfulalgalbloomsanddiseaseaswitnessedinJanuary-March2002,aswellasbleachingremaintheprimarycauseofcoralmortality in thearea (ChurchandObura2004).Other than that, theeconomicdevelopmentwitnessedinKenyaoverthepastfewyearshasseenmajorprojectscommenceinthenortherncoast,
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notably the Lamu Port Southern Sudan-Ethiopia Transport (LAPSSET) project and oil explorations.Theseactivitiesare likelytofurtheraffectthecorals inthearea,butthe impactof theseactivitiesremainstobeassessed.
Resiliencestatusofreefs
Globallycoralreefshavedemonstratedsomeformofresilienceandresistancetobothphysicalandbiologicalstressorssuchasfluctuationsinseawatertemperature.Forexample, inthePersianGulf,reefs have demonstrated resilience by thriving under extreme conditions of fluctuating waterseawatertemperatures.SuchscenarioshavealsobeendocumentedinKenyawherethereefsshowedgoodrecoveryafterthe1997/1998bleachingandafterinstancesofcoraldiseasescausedbyharmfulalgalblooms in2002 (ChurchandObura2004).Following theElNiñoSouthernOscillation (ENSO)event, thecoral reefsof theKMNRshowedvarying levelsofresistanceandresiliencetobleaching(WestandSalm2003,Obura2004,2012).Bleachingwasevidenteverywherebutmortalitywasleastintheinnerchannelreefsdemonstratingresilienceandresistancetobleachingasaresultofinfluenceon turbidity and water flow (Obura and Church 2004). However, resilience in the overall systemdeclined dramatically in 2002 because of coral disease culminating in decreased coral cover andrecruitment.Withindicationsofarisingseawatertemperaturewithinthenext50yearsontheEastAfricancoast,managementmeasuresareurgentlyrequiredtoincreaseresilienceofcoralreefsalongtheLamu-Kiungaseascape.
Coralreeffishdiversity
Over30generaand150speciesoffishwerereportedintheKiungaReservein2001(Weruetal.2001).Deeperforereefsaswellas innerreefsofKui,BomaandRubureefsshowedhighdiversityof fishspecies. Notable fish species found in the Lamu-Kiunga seascape include Red Sea/Arabian GulfangelfishApolemichthysxanthotisandtheEndangeredNapoleonwrasseCheilinusundulatus.Atotalof189speciesofreeffishwereobservedduringthePatetoKiunga2015survey(Appendix3),outofatotalnumberfortheWIOof>350inthe19familiessurveyed(SamoilysandAlvarezFilip2012).Thisdiversityislow,comparedwithreefsfurthersouthinTanzaniaandMozambique,buttobeexpectedforthesenorthernmosteastAfricanreefs,whicharemarginal.Speciesrichnessbasedonthelistof19families ranged from 45 at Chongo Chachano/Mvundeni (combined sites) to 81 at Kui (Table 2).FamiliesthatwerenotablypoorlyrepresentedwerethePomacentridaeandLabridae,twooffivemostspeciosefamiliesthatareconsideredthebestindicesforassessingreeffishdiversityandareusedintheCoralFishDiversityIndex(CFDI)byAllenandWerner(2002).NumbersofspeciesofthesefamiliesandthechaetodontidswereverylowatChongoChachano,Mvundeni,RubuandMongoShariff(Table2). These are the offshore deep plateau type reefs dominated by algae. Clearly species richnessimprovesontheinnerreefsandbayswherethereismorecoralformation,asseenintheCFDIfamiliesandthetotalspeciescountsattheseotherinnersites.ComparisonswithotherreefsystemsfurthersouthontheeastAfricancoastlineandinMadagascarhelpputthesevaluesinperspective,withtotalspeciescountsinNEMadagascarat271andnorthernMozambiqueat263(Table2).SpeciesdiversityforbalistidsandhaemulidsisrelativelyhighattheLamu-Kiungasiteswhilethespeciesdiversityforscaridsandserranidsisverylow.
10
TheCFDIdiversityindexprovidesarelativeglobalindexforassessingreeffishdiversityasameasureofreefhealth.TheoverallCFDIforthePate-Kiungareefswas122,considerablylowerthanthatofreefselsewhereintheWIO(Table3).FawachoandRasMabiyuinPateConservancybothscoredthehighestCFDIat55,withKuiat51andIweniandPethalibothwith42.OtherinnersitesinKiungascored<36(Table2).
11
Table2:Totalnumberofreeffishspeciesperfamilypersite Pethali Fawacho Ras
MabiyuKiwaiyu Kiw/Rubu Rubu Kiunga
Family Madag-ascar2010
NorthMozamb2015
AllsitesLamu-Kiunga
Iweni* Pethali Fawacho RasMabiyu
ShimolaTewa*
UsoWatafau*
Chano/Mvund
Chole* Rubu/Sharif
Kui
Pomacentridae* 38 40 30 13 10 20 13 5 11 4 6 6 13Pomacanthidae* 6 7 4 1 1 3 3 1 1 2 0 2 2Labridae* 57 50 40 12 15 16 19 11 12 15 12 18 15Chaetodontidae* 22 21 17 6 4 7 2 2 1 4 2 5 6Scaridae* 20 26 9 3 3 6 4 6 2 1 3 2 6Acanthuridae* 28 23 22 4 7 6 9 10 5 6 7 11 10Serranidae 14 18 8 0 1 1 4 2 1 1 1 2 4Lethrinidae 10 9 3 2 1 1 1 1 2 0 0 1 1Lutjanidae 11 10 7 4 1 2 2 2 5 1 3 1 6Caesionidae 7 8 7 2 2 3 5 2 1 1 3 1 3Haemulidae 6 8 9 1 2 3 3 4 3 0 2 3 8Nemipteridae 2 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0Mullidae 8 6 6 1 4 1 0 1 2 1 2 3 4Siganidae 6 6 4 2 2 1 1 1 1 0 2 1 1Balistidae 12 9 10 1 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 10 1Monacanthidae 7 2 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Ostraciidae 2 5 2 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0Tetraodontidae 8 8 4 2 1 1 1 0 3 0 1 1 1Carangidae 7 4 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 1Total 271 263 189 57 58 68 72 48 53 45 48 75 81
ValuesfromMadagascarandMozambiqueareprovidedforcomparison.*=5familiesusedtocalculatetheCoralFishDiversityIndex(CFDI).Blue=Pate;pink=Kiungasites
12
Table3:Coralreeffishdiversityindex(CFDI)valuesforLamu-KiungaandfromotherWIOcountries
Location CFDI Source/dateofsurveyLamu-Kiunga
122 CORDIO-TNCsurvey/2015
Mozambique–MocimboaandPalma
167 Samoilysetal.2015/2015
NortheasternMadagascar 172 Samoilys and Randriamanantsoa2011/2010
NorthwesternMadagascar 176 Allen2005/2002Comoros-GrandeComoreandMoheli
147 Samoilysunpubl.,2010
CFDI=totalno.speciesin6families:Chaetodontidae,Pomacanthidae,Pomacentridae,Labridae,ScaridaeandAcanthuridae.Source:AllenandWerner2002
Trendsinfishabundance
Comparisonsofthefishsurveysconductedusingstandardunderwatervisualcensus(UVC)methods(SamoilysandCarlos2000) from1999to2008(surveysbyWWF/CORDIO),revealvariability infishdensitiesof11selectedfamiliesacrosstheyearsandmanagementareas(Figure5).Thedensitiesofsevenfamiliesin1987atthreeareasofRubu,MkokoniandKiwayuwereaddedasreferencepoints.Thedensitiesofacanthurids,haemulids,lutjanids,lethrinidsandscaridsweresignificantlydifferentwithrespecttoyearsandareas(p<0.05).Chaetodontids,serranidsandsiganidsshowedsignificantdifferences across years. The density of Acanthuridae remained low after the 1997/8 El Niño.However,in2001asharpincreaseintheirdensitieswaswitnessedinRubu.Thismaybearesultofthepresenceofschoolingfishfeedingonthehighalgalcoveronthereefs.The Balistidae have shown stable densities in all areas since 1998 (Figure 5). The high numbersexperiencedin2001couldresultfromincreasedseaurchins,whichhadinvadedthedegradedreefsafter the El Niño event. Balistids feed on sea urchins and may be important in controlling theirpopulations.Carangidae,whicharepiscivoreshaveremainedrelativelylow.Chaetodontidae,whicharegoodindicatorsofcoralreefhealthwerelowin1999,likelyduetolossofcoralcoverfollowingthe El Niño event. Their continuous presence in Mkokoni, Rubu and Kiunga management areas,although in lowdensities,suggestsagradualrecoveryofcorals.Popular foodfish in local fisheries(Siganidae, Lethrinidae, Lutjanidae, Scaridae, Haemulidae) showed variability in density over theyears.Thepresenceofomnivores(Haemulidae,Lethrinidae)mayindicaterelativelydiversecoralreefhabitatduetotheirdietofsmallfish,invertebratesanddeadanimals.Decadaltrendssuggestthat,lethrinidsdensitydeclined in the2000swhencompared to the1980s.On theotherhand, scaridsshowedhigherabundancesinthe1990scomparedto1980sand2000s.Fromthe2015survey,thedensitiesandbiomassoffishvariedbysiteandfamily(Figure6).Bysite,Mongo Shariff showed the highest densities of fish but strongly dominated by balistids (164±441000m2),specificallytheplanktonicOdonusniger.ThelowestdensitiesoffishwerefoundatChongoMvundeni, which was dominated by acanthurids (30±6 per 1000m2) (Figure 6). Acanthurids,chaetodons,pomacanthidsandscaridswerepresentinallthesurveyedsiteswhiletheotherfamilies
13
wereeithermissingorpresentinafewsites.ThebiomasswashigheratKuithanothersitesmainlyduetolargesizedlutjanids(103.8±100.9kg/1000m2),scaridsandacanthurids.Alsoobservedatthissitewasajuvenilegiantgrouper,Epinepheluslanceolatus,estimatedat86cminlength.Incontrast,Chongo Rubu, Shimo la Tewa and ChongoMvundeni had the lowest biomass of fish families. Insummary,acrossallsitesandfamilies,densitiesweregenerallylowerin2015thanin2006(Figures5and6).
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Datasource:WWF/CORDIO
Figure5:Fishabundanceof11selectedfamiliesinKiunga-Pateseascape
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Figure6:MeandensityandbiomassoffishfamiliessurveyedatsixsitesinPateIsland-Kiungaareain2015
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16
Seagrass
Seagrassaresubmergedfloweringplantsfoundinshallowmarinewaters,suchasbaysandlagoonsalongcontinentalshelves.Theyaredistributedfromintertidaltosubtidalsoftandhardbottoms,comprisingcoralreefpatches,mudflats,lagoons,sandybays,estuaries,andshelteredandexposedreefplatforms.Theyshowclearzonationpatternswithwaterdepth,sedimentstructureandexposuretoairandsunlightduringlowtide.Theyareanimportantcarbonandnutrientsink;actasahabitatformigratingcoralreefspecies,waterbirds,fish,dugongsandturtles;andarecriticaltofisheriesandcoastlineprotection(Nagelkerken2009).Seagrassmeadowsalsoplayaroleinattenuatingthecurrentsandwaves.Indoingsotheytrapsuspendedorganicmatterinthesediment.Provisioningservicesofseagrassbedsincludesupportingcommercial,subsistenceandrecreationalfisheries. TheseagrassbedswithintheLamu-Kiungaareaareextensive,butlittlestudied,andformsoneofthemostimportanthabitatsformarinefaunasuchasturtlesanddugongs(ChurchandObura2006).Thestatusofthesespeciesistreatedlateroninthisreport.ThedominantseagrassinLamu-KiungaareaisThallasodendronciliatum(ChurchandObura2006),thoughSyringodiumisoetifolium,Cymodoceaserrulata,C.rotundata,Halodulewrightii,H.uninervis,EnhalusacroroidesandZosteracapansisarealsopresent(WWF1996,Samoilysetal.2011a).SeagrassbedshavenotbeenquantifiedoveryearsintheLamu-Kiungaseascape,andonlyrecentlyin2015haveKenyaWildlifeServiceinitiatedsurveysoftheseagrassbedsofthisarea;dataarenotyetavailable.Mangroves
Mangrove ecosystems are characteristically dominant features along the tropical and subtropicalcoastlineandareamong themostproductiveecosystemswithameanproductionof8.8 tC/ha/yr(Jennerjah and Ittekkot 2002). Kenya’smangroves are found along the entire coast, which spansapproximately 640km from latitude 1°40’ North at Somali border to latitude 4°40’ South at theTanzanianborder(Figure7).Twocommunitiesofmangrovesformation,fringeandcreek,occuralongthecoastlinewiththe largestformationbeing inLamuandTanaDelta(Ferguson1993,Kairoetal.2001).
Mangrovecover
TheLamu-Kiungaseascapehosts the largest standsofmangrove forests representingover60%ofKenya’smangroves(Kairo1995,GoK2009).Thestandingmangrovebiomassoftheseascape(MlangowaChanotoKiunga)wasabout480t/hainthelate1990s(Weruetal.2001)andastanddensityofover80%andheightgreaterthan10mwasreportedin2002(Kairoetal.2002).TheextentofmangrovecoverinKenyahasbeenestimatedonmultipleoccasionswithvariablevaluesreported(Table4).Earlierestimatesof1981reported52,000ha(Douteetal.1981),whilethemostrecent cover of 2010 determined from Landsat satellite imagery estimated the total mangrovecoverageof45,590ha(Kiruietal.2013).Themethodsusedinestimatingthecoverandpossiblelossofmangroves due to increased exploitation rates are the likely reasons for this variability in theestimatedmangrovecoveroveryears.
17
Studies at single sites have shown reduction in coverage and quality depicting a scenario whereKenyanmangrovesareconformingtotheglobaltrendsofdecliningcover.ComparisonofmangrovecoverinLamu-Kiungaareain1995and2014showsadeclineincover(Okelloetal.2015).However,theoveralllossofmangrovecoverinLamu-Kiungawashighestbetween2000and2005when2,046.17haofmangroveswas lost.Thecurrentmangrovecover intheNRT-CoastconservancyareaswithinPateandKiungawereestimatedat11,277ha,which representsa22.6%cover lossover19years(Okelloetal.2015).
Figure7:SpatialdistributionofmangrovesalongtheKenyancoast
Mangrovediversity
The global distribution of mangroves indicates a tropical dominance with major latitudinal limitsrelating best tomajor ocean currents. There are 9 orders, 20 families, 27 genera and roughly 70speciesofmangrovesoccupyingatotalestimatedareaof181,000km2(Spaldingetal,1997).However,theexactnumberofspeciesisstillunderdiscussionandrangesfrom50to70accordingtodifferentclassifications.ThehighestspeciesdiversityisfoundinAsia,followedbyeasternAfrica(Maitietal.2013).
18
Table4:NationallevelmangroveareaestimatesinKenyafrom1931to2010
Year Area(ha) Methodologyandremarks Source
1931 64,427 Secondaryreference,noprimarysourceprovided
FAO1993
1971 50,000 Roughestimate.Secondaryreference,noprimarysourceprovided
FAO1993
1980 45,000 Estimationandupdating FAOandUNEP1981
1981 54,325 Remotesensing Douteetal.1981
1983 62,380 Citedin:FAO1991
ForestDepartmentKenya1983
1988 96,100 Mapanalysis Spaldingetal.1997
1989 63,783 Secondaryreference,the“Year”isthepublicationyear
FAO1991
1992 58,700 The"Year"isthepublicationyear Semesi1992
1995 52,980 Remotesensing Gang1995
1996 57,300 Secondaryreference,noprimarysourceprovided
The"Year"isthepublicationyear
WRI,UNEP,UNDP,TheWorldBank1996
2000 61,000 Secondaryreference,noprimarysourceprovided.The"Year"isthepublicationyear
WorldResourcesInstitute2000
2010 45,590 Landsatsatelliteimagery Kiruietal.2011Source:FAO,UNEP1981
MangrovespeciescompositioninLamu-KiungaareaisdiversewitheightoftheninespeciesknowninKenyapresent(Table5;Weruetal.2001).ThedominantspeciesareRhizophoramucronata,Ceriopstagal and Avicennia marina (Table 6). Others are Xylocarpus granatum, Xylocarpus molluccensis,Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Sonneratia alba and Lumnitzera racemosa (Table 5).Worth noting is thepresenceoflargestandsofHeriterialittoralisauniquemangrovespeciesmostlyfoundsouthofLamuintheTanaRiverDelta.Thisspeciesisoneofthetallest,anddevelopsbroadcanopies.Italsosupportsthegrowthofshrubsthatattractelephantstoforageinmangroveecosystems,auniquephenomenoninthecoastalregion(Samoilysetal.2011a).Thedistributionofmangrovespecies issignificantly influencedbybothhumanandnatural factors(Felleretal.2010).Thezonationpatternofmangrovesis,forexample,dynamicallyinfluencedbythelevelof inundationandsaltconcentrationinthesurroundingenvironment(VanSpeybroeck1992).Studiesofoilspills(anthropogenic) intheCaribbeanhaveshownthatmangrovesexhibit increasedmutation rates and long (approximately 20 years) recovery timesmaybe required after repeated
19
exposure(Burnsetal.1993,Klekowskietal.1994)thusreducingtheirgeneticvigorthroughdeathand retardation. Such impacts are likely to happen upon full operation of the Lamu Port andconsequentlychangethespeciesdistributionhighlightedinTable6.Table5:MangrovespeciesofLamu-Kiungaregion
Family Species Localname Geographicalrange
Avicenniaceae Avicenniamarina(Forskål)Vierh. Mchu WIO,RedSea,AGulftoWPacificOcean
Rhizophoraceae Bruguieragymnorrhiza(L)Lamarck Muia Indo-PacificRhizophoraceae Ceriopstagal(Perr)C.B.Robinson Mkandaa WIOtoWPacificRhizophoraceae RhizophoramucronataLamarck Mkoko WIOtoWPacificCombretaceae LumnitzeraracemosaWilld Kikandaa WIOtoWPacificSonneratiaceae SonneratiaalbaJ.E.Smith Mlilana WIOtoWPacificMeliaceae XylocarpusgranatumKoenig Mkomafi WIOtoCentral
PacificOceanSterculiaceae Heritieralittoralis*(L.)Dryander Msikundazi WIOtoCentral
PacificOceanaFoundinTanaDelta,southofLamu
AdaptedfromSamoilysetal.,2011a
Table6:SpeciesdistributionandcoverwithintheKiungaMarineNationalReserve
Species Area(Ha) Coverage(%)
Ceriopstypeforests 2465.77 15.38MixedCeriopstypes 445.05 2.78Ceriops-Rhizophoratype 1264.22 7.88Avicenniatype 2673.17 16.67MixedAvicenniatype 560.97 3.50Rhizophora 3871.11 24.14MixedRhizophoratype 3646.45 22.74Sonneratia-Rhizophoratype 507.98 3.17Sonneratiatype 601.22 3.75
Totalarea 16035.94 100Source:Kairoetal.2002
Mangrovezonation
Mangrovesaretypicallydistributedfrommeansealeveltohighestspringtide,andperhapsthemostconspicuous feature at first glance is the sequential zonationof tree speciesperpendicular to theshore (Smith, 1992).Mangrove zonation in Kenya, has been typically considered to follow similarpattern,developingfromtheseaandprogressivelyextendingtothelandasfollows:Sonneratiaalba,
20
Rhizophora mucronata, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Ceriops tagal, Avicennia marina, Xylocarpusgranatum,Lumnitzeraracemosa(Wild)andHeritieralittoralis,whichshowsalotofvariability(Figure8;Kairo2001,Dahdouh-Guebasetal.2002).BruguieragymnorrhizadoesnotformadistinctzonationbutoccursinterspersedwithRhizophoraandCeriopswhileAvicenniashowsadisjointedanddistinctzonationdisplayedattwozones,one landwardandoneseaward.Generally,otherspeciesmaybefound growing within mangrove forests and the zonation pattern may vary depending on thebiophysicalcharacteristicsofthelocationaswellashumaninterference.
AdaptedfromLang'atandKairo2013
Figure8:Zonationofmangrovesalongtheland-seainterface
21
Biodiversityofpelagichabitats
Introduction
Pelagichabitatsareofconservationimportanceastheyareusedbymigratoryspeciessuchaswhales,sharksandseaturtles. Incontrasttotheshallowcoastalhabitats,pelagicenvironmentsoverdeepwaterarelessproductiveandlessdiverse,butneverthelesssupportimportantoffshorecommercialfisheries(FAO2009).Somehighvaluespeciesofconservationimportanceoccurinthesehabitatsbutarenottypicallyrestrictedtothem,andthesearedetailedbelow.Keythreatstothesehabitatsincludeoverexploitationthroughcommercialandartisanalfishingandahighpotentialforoccurrenceofalienor invasivespecies.Severalhighandmediumbiodiversityvaluefishspeciesmayoccur, includinganumberofthreatenedmammalsandelasmobranchs(sharksandrays).MarineMammalsandTurtles
Dugongs,turtles,whalesanddolphinoccurintheLamuarchipelago(Table7).Ofthese,onespeciesisCriticallyEndangered,threeareEndangered,threeareVulnerableandoneNearThreatened,undertheIUCNRedListcategories(Table7).Populationsofdugongs(Dugongdugon)areknowntohaveoccurredinthePateIsland-KiungaareaespeciallyintheseagrassbedsaroundtheZiwaiyucoralreefsystem.However,recentsightingsareveryrareandthespeciesislikelytohavebecomeextinct.Inaddition,theseagrassbedsaroundtheislandsarefeedinggroundsforgreenturtles(Cheloniamydas)whiletheIslandsofMandaandLamuprovidenestingbeachesforfourendangeredturtles:hawksbill(Eretmochelys imbracata), green (C. myda), loggerhead (Carretta caretta) and leatherback(Dermochelyscoriacea).Table7:IUCNcategoriesofmarinemammalssightedinPateIsland–KiungaareaCommonName Species IUCNRedListcategoryDugongsDugongs Dugongdugon VulnerableA2bcdTurtlesGreenturtles Cheloniamydas EndangeredA2bdHawksbill Eretmochelysimbricata CriticallyEndangeredA2bdLoggerhead Carettacaretta EndangeredA1abdLeatherback Dermochelyscoriacea VulnerableA2bdWhales Humpbackwhale Megapteranovaeangliae LeastConcernSeiwhale Balaenopteraborealis EndangeredA1adSpermwhale Physetermacrocephalus VulnerableA1dShort-finnedpilotwhale Globicephalamacrorhynchus DataDeficientDolphin Indo-Pacifichumpbackeddolphin
Sousachinensis NearThreatened
22
CommonName Species IUCNRedListcategoryBottledolphin Tursiopstruncatus LeastConcernPantropicalspotted Stenellaattenuata LeastConcernSpinnerdolphin Stenellalongirostris DataDeficientStrippeddolphin Stenellacoeruleoalba DataDeficientShort-beakedcommondolphin
Delphinusdelphis LeastConcern
AdaptedfromSamoilysetal.2011a,2015
LocalresortsandlocalcommunitieshavereportedthepresenceofwhalesanddolphinsinthePatearea. Humpback (Megaptera novaengliae), sei (Balaenoptera borealis), sperm (Physetermicrocephalus)andpilot(Globicephalamacrorhynchus)whaleshavebeensightedintheregionandareknowntobreedandfeedintheoffshorewaters(Oburaetal.2012).Thewhalepopulationinthisareaisvulnerableduetotheirrarityandthreatsofthedriftinggillnetfishery.In1996atotalof500dolphinswereobservedinareasoutlyingMandaandPateIslands(Wamukoyaetal.1996).MostofthedolphinsarerelativelycommonduringtheNortheastmonsoonwiththecommonthreatbeingincidentalcapturebythegillnetfishery.Sharksandrays
Thereare137speciesofsharksandraysintheWIOregion,ofwhich15areendemictotheregion(Smith and Heemstra 1991). The highest diversity of sharks and rays has been recorded inMozambique’swaterswith73sharksand35rays(Samoilysetal.2015).InKenya,sharksaretargetedforsharkfinsandliveroil.SharkfishingisatraditionalpracticeinthePateIsland-Kiungaarea,whichhasoperatedforcenturies,thoughthedeclineincatchrateshasbeenveryhigh:estimatedat85%overthepast40years(SamoilysandKanyange2008,Samoilysetal.2015).SixsharkspeciesandninerayspecieshavebeenconfirmedasfishedandsightedinthePateIsland-Kiungaarea(Table8),butthislistisfarfromexhaustive.LittleisknownaboutthestatusofthesespeciesandtheiroccurrenceinKenyanwaters.Table8:IUCNcategoriesofsharksandraysfishedandsightedinPateIsland-Kiungaarea
Species Commonname IUCNRedlistcategory
Sharks
Rhincodontypus Whaleshark VulnerableA2bd+3d
Carcharhinusmelanopterus Blacktipreefshark NearThreatened
Triaenodonobesus Whitetipreefshark NearThreatened
Galeocerdocuvier Tigershark NearThreatened
Sphyrnalewini Scallopedhammerhead EndangeredA2bd+4bd
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Species Commonname IUCNRedlistcategory
Sphyrnamokarran Greathammerhead EndangeredA2bd+4bd
Rays
Mantabirostris Giantmantaray VulnerableA2abd+3bd+4abd
Rhynchobatusdjiddensis Giantguitarfish VulnerableA2d+3d+4d
Aetobatusnarinari Spottedeagleray NearThreatened
Taeniuralymma Ribbontailedstingray NearThreatened
Taeniuropsmeyeni Blotchedfantailray VulnerableA2ad+3d+4ad
Neotrygonkuhlii Bluespottedstingray DataDeficient
Himanturauarnak HoneycombStingray VulnerableA2bd+3bd+4bd
Torpedofuscomaculata Blackspottedtorpedo DataDeficient
T.sinuspersici Marbledelectricray DataDeficient
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BiodiversityusesandthreatsIntroductionCoralreefs,mangrovesandseagrassaswellasthepelagichabitatsarevulnerablecoastalhabitatsthatprovide economic goods and services, contributing to the livelihoods and food security ofcommunitieslivingintheLamu-Kiungaarea.Coralreefsprotecttheshorelinefromerosionwavesandstormsurges,bothofwhicharelikelytoincreaseinthefaceofsea-levelrise.Coralreefsaresourcesof livelihoods of local people through subsistence and semi-commercial fishing, tourism andrecreationalactivities(Oburaetal.2012,ConservationInternational2008).
Thepresenceandabundanceofseagrassesareregardedasindicatorsoftheoverallenvironmentalqualityofthecoastalzone(TerradosandBorum2004).Seagrassprovidehabitatsforawiderangeoforganisms and also fix carbon dioxide using light energy, thus promoting local biodiversity andbiologicalproductivity.Seagrassmeadowsproduceanarrayofgoodsandservicesincludingprovidinghabitat for finfishandtrapssedimentparticlestoenhancewater-quality,maintainthebiodiversityandshorelineprotection.
Mangroves provide valuable ecosystem services including habitat functions such as breeding,spawning and nursery grounds for commercial fish; provision of timber, fuelwood, and charcoal;regulationoffloods,stormsanderosion;andpreventionofsaltwaterintrusion.ArangeofenvironmentalthreatsoccurintheLamu-Kiungaarea.Theyincludeincreasingpopulationgrowth, high poverty levels, deforestation of mangroves, clay mining for pottery, unclear landownership and insecurity that has decimated opportunities in tourism, overfishing due to anincreasingpopulationsizeanddestructivefishing,unsustainableandillegalfishingparticularlytheuseofbeachseinesandpoachingof turtles (Samoilysetal.2011a).Anotherpending threat tomarinehabitats is theLamuPortandLamu-SouthernSudan-EthiopiaTransportCorridor (LAPSSETproject)thatislikelytoleadtooilspills,urbanizationandindustrializationofLamu.Numerousexistingocean-relatedactivitiesoccurringintheLamu-Kiungaareaarealreadythreateningthemarineandcoastalhabitats and resources. These activities include artisanal fisheries, offshore commercial fisheriesincluding those by foreign fishing vessels in Kenya’s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), mangroveharvesting, boatmaking, coastal tourism, offshore oil and gas exploration and port development.Theseocean-relatedactivities,combinedwiththeeffectsofglobalwarmingandtheenvironmentalthreatsmentionedabovecanaffectmarinehabitatsandcommunitiesinavarietyofways.Mangrovescontinuouslyfacebothnaturalandanthropogenicthreatsandpressure(FAO2007),withtheirglobalcoveragereducingby23%withinaspanoftwodecadesfrom1990to2010(Spaldingetal.2010).Anever-growingpressureoncoralreefresourcesposesagreatthreattothesurvivalandconservationofcoralreefhabitatsglobally(Ginsburgetal.1994,Oburaetal.1998)andthisistrueofthenorthernKenyacoast.Fishinghasimpactsonhabitatandonthediversity,structureandproductivityofbenthiccommunitiesandtheirassociatedfisheryresources,includingfinfishandcrustaceans.Itisoneofthemain activity affectingmarine habitats and communities in this northern region and is discussedfurtherbelow.
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Useoffishandthreatstofisheries
ThefisheriesofLamu-Kiungaaretheprimarysourceoflivelihoodof70%to75%ofseascaperesidentseither directly or indirectly (Ochiewo et al. 2009). These fisheries are threatened by the use ofdestructiveandillegalfishinggearssuchasbeachseinesandever-increasingfishingeffortduetoverylimitedalternatives,whichhaveresulted inoverexploitationof fisherystocks.Anumberof factorsinstigateoverexploitationinthesefisheries:
• Inadequateenforcementoflegislation(StateDepartmentofFisheriesregulationsandKenyaWildlifeServiceregulationsintheReserve)
• Highpopulationgrowthrates,whichintheabsenceofalternativelivelihoodsincreasesthenumberoffishersandconsequentlyfishingpressure
• Highpovertylevelsandpovertytrapslimitthepossibilitiesforschooling,whichmaintainslowliteracylevelsandcompetencies,whichlimitspossibilitiestodevelopalternativelivelihoodsoutsidefisheries
• Inadequatecommunityinvolvementinresourcemanagementandinadequatesensitizationandawarenessontheimportanceofbiodiversityasabasisfortheirlivelihoods
• Increasingmarketdemandforfishandshellfishcommodities,whileimprovedpricesareabenefittofisheries,improvedaccesstomarketcanincreasepressureonresources
Resourceutilizationandextraction
Thenumberof fishers inLamuCounty isabout3,100and isprojectedto increaseatarateof127fishers/year(Figure9).Thesefishersusedifferentfishinggearsandvessels.Commongearsincludegillnets,handlines,beachseines,longlines,fencetrapsandbaskettraps.Longlineswithdrophooksareby far themost deployed gear in LamuCounty representing 60%of all gears (Figure 10). 881monofilaments gillnet and 97 beach seines, both illegal, are in use in the area (Figure 11).Monofilamentnetshaveincreasedenormouslysince2008,thoughbeachseineshavedeclined(Figure11).Norecordsofspearguns,theotherillegalgearcommonlyusedfurthersouth,werefoundinLamuduringtherecentframesurvey(GoK,2012).BeachseineuseishighestinLamuCountyaccountingfor45 % when compared to other coastal counties (GoK, 2012) despite their damaging impacts onbreeding and nursery grounds of fish. The gear is associated with high by-catch, which includescatchinglargequantitiesofjuvenilefish(68%)andturtles(MangiandRoberts2006).
26
Source:GoK2012
Figure9:TrendsinthenumberoffishersinLamuCounty
Source:GoK,2012
Figure10:DistributionoffishinggearsinLamuCounty.“Other”gearsincludesprawnseinenets(0.9%),trollinglines(0.2%),trammelnets(0.1%)andcastnets(0.1%).
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Source:GoK,2012
Figure11:NumberofillegalgearsinuseinLamuCounty.
Trendsinfishcatches
Fishlandingsfrom2000to2008rangedbetween1,500and2,000metrictonsperyear,ofwhichabout40%ofthecatchwassoldtoareasoutsideLamuCounty(Ochiewoetal.2009).Mostfishingactivitiesare undertaken during the Northeast monsoon when the sea is calm (Wanyonyi et al. 2011). Ingeneral,thecatcheshavebeenrelativelystablefrom2001to2008rangingfrom9-14.3kg/fisher/daywithameanofapproximately10.2kg/fisher/day.Thecatchperuniteffort(CPUE)from2001to2007variedconsiderablyacrossthefishinggearswithspeargunsrecordingthelowestmeanCPUE(Table10). The average daily income derived from fishing is Ksh. 398 (~$4) but income varies betweenvillages.KiungarecordshighermeanincomesofKsh.580thanMkokoniatKsh.200(Ochiewoetal.2009).NotablefisheriesthataremorevaluableintheLamu-Kiungaareaincludethelobsterandcrabfisheries.LobstersandcrabsaremainlyfishedinKizingitini,Faza,KiwayuandKiunga(Ochiewoetal.2009;MainaandSamoilys2011).Table9:Meancatchperuniteffortfrom2001-2007ofgearsusedinLamuCountyGear MeanCPUE(kg/fisher/day)Speargun 3.2Gillnet(jarife) 7.9Handline 8.6Beachseine 9.8Gillnet(nyavu) 10.7Baskettrap 11.2Fencetrap 15.7
SourceOchiewoetal.2009
Fish species taken by the local artisanal fisheries comprise rabbitfish (Siganidae), sweetlips(Haemulidae), mullet (Mugillidae), surgeonfish (Acanthuridae), milkfish (Chanidae), emperors(Lutjanidae),parrotfish(Scaridae),snappers(Lutjanidae),kingfish(Scombridae),eels,sharksandrays
28
(Samoilys, 1988; Obura, 1998; Weru et al., 2001, Samoilys et al., 2011a). Catfish, cavalla jacks,mackerel,barracuda,mullets,queenfish,sailfish,tuna,prawns,crabs,sardines,oystersandoctopusarealsocaptured.Sharksaretargetedfortheirfinsandliveroil.
Fisheriesissues
TheuseoftheillegalbeachseineinsitessuchasFazaandKizingitiniisexacerbatedbytheinabilityofthe local fishermen to purchase appropriate fishing gears to venture offshore. Beach seines andmonofilamentnetsareillegalduetotheirdestructiveimpactsandhavebeenamajorcauseofconflictbetweenlocalfishermenandtheStateDepartmentofFisheriesandconservationagencies(Ochiewoetal.2009).Theythreatenthesustainabilityofthefisheriesresourcesespeciallysincethegearsaredeployed in the Kiunga Marine National Reserve. Other fisheries-related issues include over-exploitation,uncontrolleddevelopment,pollutionandclimatechange.
LamuPortandLamu-SouthernSudan-EthiopiaTransportCorridor(LAPSSET)project
The$24.5billionLAPSSETprojectispoisedtoseverelyimpactartisanalfishingandconservationareasin the Lamu-Kiunga seascape. The construction and operationalization of the 32 berth port willinterruptthelivelihoodsofthefishersworkinginthehighlyproductivefishingareasofKizingitiniandFazabyrestrictingaccesstofishinggrounds,increasetherisksofinjuryanddeathforlobsterdiversaswellasincreaseboattrafficwhichislikelytoincreasetheriskofaccidentsatsea.Thedredgingwillalsodestroycoralreefsandmangrovehabitatsthatrepresentimportantbiodiversityareasaswellasprovidebreedingandfeedinggroundsforfish.Inthelong-termthedredgingactivitieswilllimitthecapacityoffishregenerationalongthechannel.Withportdevelopment,competitionforprimelandsurroundingtheportareaisprojectedtoincreaseleading to loss of beach access routes by fishers. A potential impact of oil spills due to shippingactivitieswill cause destruction of localmarine species and the ecosystem through pollution andphysical processed, depletion of fish stocks and thus damage the fishing industry (Valarie 2014).Spillageanddumpingof industrialchemicalsandrefusewillcontributetotheintroductionofalienmarinespecies.Portmanagementroutinesshouldthereforeincludeballastwatermanagementplanstoabateintroductionofinvasivemarinespecies.TheoutcomeofthiswillbethelossofrarespeciesintheareasuchastheendangeredDugong,turtlesandkeyfishspecies.Threatstoseagrassbeds
Growingcoastalpopulationscoupledwithhumandisturbancesuchaspollution,eutrophicationandsedimentationdue toportconstruction, fishingactivitiesandcollectionofmollusks for the touristtrade,poseabigthreattoseagrassbeds.Thesehuman-relatedactivitiessignificantlyreducewaterclarity,whichaffectsthedepthatwhichseagrassescangrow.Highabundancesofseaurchinsthatincreasethepredationonseagrassareanotherthreattotherecoveryseagrass.
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Threatstomangroves
Despitetheaccumulatedbenefitsfrommangroveecosystems,threatstomangroveforesthavebeenontheincreasefrombothanthropogenicaswellasnaturalpressures(AbuodhaandKairo,2001)aswitnessedbytheeverdecreasingtrendsintheirglobalcoverage(Spaldingetal.,2010).Thelossofmangroves for pond aquaculture (i.e. prawn farming) is considered one of the largest threats tomangroveforestsworldwide(Alongi,2002).However,naturalfactorscannotberuledout,forinstanceintheSunderbansofBangladesh,nearly20%ofHeritierafomestreeswereseverelyaffectedby‘topdying’diseasethatslowlykillsthetreesbymovingfromleaves,branchesandtwigstothemainstem(Spaldingetal.,2010).ThreatstoKenyanmangrovesandbyextensiontothoseintheLamu-Kiungaareaincludehighratesofconversionforalternativeusesparticularlyforthesaltextraction,andmostrecently fromrapidmega structure construction such as the Lamu Port Southern Sudan-Ethiopia Transport (LAPSSET)infrastructureaswellaspoorandselectiveenforcementofpolicies(NEMA,2013).Morethan10,310haor20%ofthetotalmangroveareainKenyahavebeenlost(KairoandAbuodha2001)inthepastthrough:
a) Dredging–whereupto100hawaslostinLamu;b) Conversion–100haofmangroveconvertedformaricultureatNgomeni,c) Fuelwoodexploitation,e.g.,inGaziwhere100hawaslost;d) clearance–about10,000haofmangroveclearedforsaltextractionbetweenNgomeniand
Karawa;e) Oilspill–where10haofmangrovewerelostinMakupa
Communityutilization
Mangroves are heavily used traditionally and commercially worldwide (Kathiresan and Bingham,2001). They provide a resource base that is ecologically, economically and socially important topeople,eitherdirectlyorindirectly.Economically,mangrovesforestservesasanavenueforimportantproductsandby-productstothecoastalpopulationaswellastothenationaleconomies(Kairo2001).IntheEastAfricaregion,mangroveshavehistoricallyplayedimportanteconomicrolesnotably:theyformedpartoftheslaveandivorytradeinthe9thcentury(Rawlins1957).Bythen,houseconstructionin theArabcountriesdependedon thepoles from theEastAfricancoast,particularly fromLamu-Kiunga.Bythebeginningofthe20thcentury,Kenyawasexportinganannualaverageof24,150scoresofmangrove poles from Lamu, equivalent to 483,000 poles per year (Grant 1938). To date, localcommunitieswithintheLamu-Kiungaareacontinuetothriveontheeconomicsofmangroveproductsfor trade, boat making as well as for the sustenance of the ever growing construction industry(AbuodhaandKairo2001,Samoilysetal.2011a,Mainaetal.2011).UtilizationofmangrovesbycoastalcommunitiesofKenyaisspecies-specific.RhizophoramucronataandCeriopstagalareconstantlybeingtargetedforconstructionofhouseswhileSonneratiaalba isused in boat construction. The preferential cutting of certain mangrove species may favor otherspeciessuchasAvicenniamarinaandthusaffectspeciescomposition,ecosystemfunctionandspeciesrichness(Kairo2001).
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LAPSSETproject
Port construction will involve dredging of shallow inland channels and logging and clearing ofshoreline-stabilizing mangrove forests. The excavation process and siltation caused by dredgingactivitieswilldramaticallyreducefishbreedingsitesandthecoverofmangroveforestsinthearea.Manypoor localswill therefore lose their primary sourceof livelihood– fishing and/ormangroveharvesting.Theimpactonmangrovesisimminentbutfurtherassessmentisrequiredtoascertaintheseverityofthedamage.Moreimportantly,mangroveconservationshouldbeconsideredinlanduseplanningofLamuCounty.
Useoffishesandthreatstothepelagicmarinesystem
Thereislittleinformationonthenatureoftheecosystemservicesinthepelagicmarineenvironmentof the Lamu-Kiunga seascape. Nevertheless, pelagic ecosystems generally offer services such asenergydevelopment,commercialfishing,shippinglanesandrecreationaluses(Rogersetal.2014).ThepelagicmarinesystemofLamu-Kiungahostsinvertebrates(e.g.squid),fish(e.g.tunas,sharksandrays),largemarinemammals(e.g.whales,dolphins),seaturtlesandseabirds.Planktonicorganisms,phytoplanktonandzooplankton,areabundantbutnodetailedstudiesfromthisareaareavailable.Theseorganismsarevitalelementsofthefoodchainandforsupportingrichoffshorefisheries.Operationsoftheportwillnecessitateclosingtraditionalfishinggroundsusedbyasignificantnumberof fishermenwhodependon thewaters for their livelihood. It is likely that theywillbe forced toabandonthesaferandmoreshelteredfishinggroundsandventureinthehighseaorincreasefishingpressureonotherfishinggrounds.Moreover,portconstructionwillchangethewaterflowaroundManda and Lamu islands that may result in silting of the key channel used in transport andcommunication fromLamu to thenorth.Clearly, ifoil andgasextractionandexcavationproceed,marinetrafficandpollutionofthesewatersisinevitable.
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Opportunitiesforimprovedmanagement
Introduction
TheDrivingForce-Pressure-State-Impact-Responseframework(DPSIR)providesanoverallmechanismforassessingenvironmentalproblems, therebydefiningpotentialopportunities.TheDriving forcesexertPressures,leadingtochangesintheStateoftheenvironment,whichthenleadtoImpactsonecosystemgoodsandservicesthatwillinturnrequireasocietalResponse.TheDPSIRanalysisoftheshallowandpelagichabitatsoftheLamu-KiungaseascapearesummarizedinTable9.In response to the impacts of natural and anthropogenic events on marine ecosystems, severalinstitutionshaveengagedinprovidingsolutionstothependingthreats.Theprincipalinstitutionswitha mandate of management of marine and coastal resources comprise government agencies,communitygroupsandNGOs.Enactmentofawiderangeofnational,coastalandenvironmentallegislationispartofpolicyresponseto the pending problems. Several pieces of legislation governingmanagement of the coastal andmarineenvironmentincludeEnvironmentalManagementandCoordinationAct,FisheriesAct,WildlifeConservationandManagementAct,ForestsAct,Agriculture,FisheriesandFoodAuthorityAct,TheLandAct,ThePhysicalPlanningAct,TheUrbanAreasandCitiesAct,TheDevolvedGovernmentAct,KenyaMaritimeAuthorityAct,MaritimeZonesActandContinentalShelfAct(Samoilysetal.2011c).These regulationshavebeenpivotal in themanagementof resourcesalong theKenyancoastandprovideanexcellentbaseforfuturemarinespatialplanningandintegratedcoastalzonemanagement.Worth noting is the adoption of co-management structures for fisheries through the BeachManagementUnits,enactedin2007andunderthemandateoftheStateDepartmentofFisheries,toimproveresourcemanagement.Whilsteffortshave increasedcommunityparticipation inresourcemanagement,anumberofbarriershavereducedtheireffectiveness,notablytheinabilitytoenforceby-lawsandstrongtraditionalandculturalattitudes.Moreisstillrequired,especiallywithregardstoenablingcommunitiestobemoreresilienttothependingthreats,particularlyofclimatechange.
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Table10:DPSIRanalysisofenvironmentalproblemsaffectingbiodiversityintheshallowandpelagicmarinehabitatsoftheLamu-KiungaareaHabitat Drivers Pressures State Impact Response
Shallowm
arineha
bitats
• Climatechangeandvariability
(ENSO,watertemperature,
oceanacidification)
• Populationgrowth• Pooreducationandilliteracy• Insecuritydecimating
opportunitiesintourism
• Increasingpoverty• Destructivefishingtechniques
• Landuse,riversedimentload
andeutrophication
• Introductionexoticspecies• Risingdemandformarine
commodities
• LAPSSET:openingAfricanhinterland,developmentof
Lamuportandshipping
• Fishingpressure• Habitatdamagefrom
destructivefishing
techniques
• Temperaturestresscausing
coralbleaching
• Mangroveoveruse
• Pollutionandturbidity• Harmfulalgalbloomsand
disease
• Potentialoilspills• UrbanizationandindustrializationinLamu
• Damagedbenthichabitats
frombottom-contacting
fishinggears
• Decliningcoverofhardcoralandmangroves
• Decliningpopulationsoffisherystocks
• Coralmortality
• Increasedcoraldiseases• Increasedalgalcover• Inadequatescientificinformationonstateof
seagrassbeds
• Reducedfishcatchandbenefitsfromfisheries
• Reducedincomefrom
tourism
• Reducedbenefitsfrom
otherecosystem
servicesincluding
ecologicalproductivity
fromhighbiodiversity
• Conflictbetweenfishersandotherreef
users
• Conflictbetweenresidents/local
communitiesandoil
andgasbusiness
• Lossofendemic,rare
andthreatenedspecies
(corals,fin-fish,sharks,
dugong)
• Improvecomplianceto
fisheriesandNational
Reserveregulations
• Improvecompliance
withbiodiversity
conservationpolicies
• Implementeffective
regulationsforport
andshippingindustries
• PlanlanduseofLamu
county
• Developtourism
• Supportmarine
conservanciesor
locally-managed
marineareas(LMMAs)
• Buildmarineresource
managementcapacity
infishingcommunities
33
Habitat Drivers Pressures State Impact ResponsePe
lagicmarineha
bitats
• Climatechangeand
variability(CO2,ENSO)
• Risingdemandformarine
commodities
• Introductionmodernand
foreignfishingequipment
• Introductionexoticspecies• LAPSSET,openingupAfricanhinterland
• Inadequateenforcement
• Oceanacidification(CO2)
• Fishingpressure• Destructivefishingtechniques(by-catch
mortality)
• Pressuremarineshipping
lanes
• Oilspills• IllegalUnregulatedandUnreported(IUU)fishingin
EEZwaters
• Reducedmarineproductivity
andfoodwebs(acidification)
• Reducedstocksofcommercialfishspecies
• Reducedpopulationsofprotectedmarinefauna(e.g.
sharks,rays,whales,turtles)
• Inadequatescientificinformationonpelagic
environments
• Reducedbenefitsfromfisheries
• Reductionintheprovisioningofother
ecosystemservices
suchasbiodiversity
• Poorcomplianceto
international
conventions
• Supportacquisitionofdeepseavessels
• Improvecompliance
biodiversity
conservationand
pollutionregulations
34
Governmentinstitutions
StateDepartmentofFisheries
StateDepartmentofFisheries(SDF)isthemanagementbodymandatedtoprovidefortheexploration,exploitation,utilization,management,developmentandconservationoffisheriesresources.SDFinpartnershipwiththeprivatesectorhasbeenakeyplayerinstrengtheningco-managementofmarinefisheriesresourcesthroughrollingBeachManagementUnits(BMUs).Theyhavealsobeeninvolvedinactivitiesgearedtowardspromotingfishqualityassurance,valueadditionandmarketing,facilitationoficeproductionandcoldstorageatlandingsitesinLamu-Kiunga.
BeachManagementUnits
TheBeachManagementUnits (BMU) isaco-management institution legallyanchored in theBMUregulationsof2007oftheFisheriesActCap378,2001andhavingadministrativeoversightoverawell-definedareaofjurisdiction.Thereare13BeachManagementUnits(BMUs)inPateIslandcomparedtonineinKiunga(Table11).NoneoftheBMUshaveaworkingcoldroomforfishstorage(GoK2012).
Table11:ListofBMUsinLamu-Kiungaarea
Pate area Kiunga area Faza Mvundeni Pate Rubu Kizingitini Kiunga Tchundwa Ishakani Mtangawanda Mwambore Mbwajumwali Chandani Nduweni Mkokoni Kibaoni Kiwayu Kiangwe Ndau Siyu Magilini Shanga Ishakani Shanga Rubu
KenyaWildlifeService
TheoverallmandateoftheKenyaWildlifeService(KWS)istoconserveandmanageKenya’swildlifeand enforce related laws and regulations. An Act of Parliament, Cap 376, (revised edition 1985),establishedKWS. In thenorthcoast region,KWS is involved in themanagementofKiungaMarineNationalReserve(gazetted1979),whichissituatednorthofPateandextendstotheSomaliborder.ItisadjacenttotheBoniandDodoriNationalReservesinland.KWShasthefollowingfunctions:
a. Solejurisdictionovernationalparksb. Supervisoryroleinthemanagementofnationalreserves,localandprivate
sanctuaries,license,controlandsuperviseallwildlifeconservationandmanagementactivitiesoutsidetheprotectedareas
c. Conservation,educationandtrainingd. Wildliferesearch
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KenyaMarineFisheriesResearchInstitute
TheKenyaMarineFisheriesResearchInstitute(KMFRI)istheresearchbodymandatedtocarryoutresearchonmarineandfreshwaterfisheries,aquaticbiology,aquaculture,environmentalchemistry,ecological, geological and hydrological studies, as well as chemical and physical oceanography.KMFRI’sresearchmandateisenshrinedinarticleNo.4oftheScienceandTechnologyActof1979,Cap250.
Policyandinstitutionsformanagementofmangroves
As a demonstration of policy and management failure, in 1982, the government, through apresidentialorder,bannedfurthermangroveexportduetolackofproperaccountingbytheForestDepartmentonwoodproducts leaving the forest (Box 1). This banhowever,wasnot effective asproved by a series of successive forest inventories, notably the 2nd national mangrove survey of1992/3.Thisledtoafurtherbanonlocalmangroveexploitationin1997andsincethentherehasbeennoformalmanagementplaninplace.Under the Forest Act of 2005, the Kenya Forest Service (KFS) ismandated to protect all forests,woodlandsandmangroveforestsundertheirjurisdiction.TheratificationoftheKenyanconstitutionin2010gaverisetothefederalformofgovernanceelsereferredtoascountiesleadingtodevolutionof services including revenue generation.With this, conflicts of interests are bound to emerge innaturalresourcemanagementwithinlocalandnationalsetup.Whereasthelatterwillbeadvocatingfor conservation measures, the former (local government) would be targeting such resource forrevenuemaximizationleavingthefutureofmangroveecosystemonthemercyofpoliticalgoodwill.Box1:Chronologyofmangrovemanagementfrompre-colonialeratopostcolonialperiod
• 1891 Earliest registration
• 1932 Gazettement of mangroves
• 1949/50 1st national mangrove survey
• 1965/67 Survey of Lamu mangroves
• 1981 2nd survey of Lamu mangroves
• 1982 Ban on mangrove exportation
• 1993/95 2nd national mangrove survey
• 1997 Ban on local mangrove exploitation
• 1998/99 3rd survey of Lamu mangroves (Kiunga)
• Today NO MANAGEMENT PLAN
AdaptedfromKairoandDahdouh-Guebas2004
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Non-governmentinstitutions
FisheriesCooperatives
LamuhassomefishermencooperativesocietiesincludingtheRasiniFishermenCooperativeSociety,KizingitiniFishermenCooperativeSociety,andKiungaFishermenCooperativeSociety(Ochiewoetal2009).EstablishmentofthesecooperativeisenshrinedintheCooperativeSocietiesAct(CAP490.Thecooperativesfaceseveralchallengesnotably:
• Lackfinancialresourcestoprovidecreditforthememberstoacquirenewfishingequipment.• Lackof education to fishermenabout thebenefits of having aplatform forbargaining for
betterpricesforfish;• Theneedtominimizeexploitationbyfishdealers;and• Theneedtocushionthemselveswithopportunitiesforcreditthatcanbeveryusefulduring
hardseasons.
WorldWideFund
TheWWF, in partnershipwith KWS, havebeen involved in programmes geared towards effectivemanagement of Kiunga Marine National Reserve (KMNR) for over 15 years, by initiating theimplementationofaseascapemanagementapproach.WWFisinvolvedinresearchandmonitoringactivitiesoncoralreef,fisheriesandothermarineresources,withanaimofsafeguardingbiodiversityandtheintegrityofphysicalandecologicalprocessesofthemarineecosystem.Otherareasinclude:
• Carryingouteducationandawarenessprogrammes• Developmentofwomen’slivelihoodproject• CollaboratingwiththeMinistryofHealthandcommunitygroupstoimproveaccesstohealth
care• Supportingdevelopmentofcommunityconservationareas
CORDIOEastAfrica
CORDIOEastAfricaisaregionalresearch-basednot-for-profitorganizationestablishedin1998,whichisfocusedonmarineandcoastalecosystemsintheWesternIndianOcean(WIO).CORDIOgeneratesandsharesscientificallysoundknowledgefordevelopingsolutionstotheproblemsandchallengesfacingcoastalandmarineenvironmentsandpeopleintheWIO.InnorthernKenyaCORDIOhasbeenactivethroughthefollowingactivities
i) Coral reef research and monitoring in Kiunga Marine National Reserve (since 1998) andaroundLamu.
ii) Researchoncoralreefresiliencetoclimatechangeiii) Fisheries research and management projects (lobster fisheries, fish genetics), livelihood
opportunitiesiv) BMUcapacitybuildingincollaborationwiththeStateDepartmentofFisheries
37
ProtectedAreaapproaches
Marine ProtectedAreas (MPAs) are awell-recognized approach to conservingmarine biodiversitywhilemanagingfisheriesforthebenefitoffishersandthewidercommunity.MPAsareestablishedtoprotect marine species and habitats and are an effective tool for maintenance or restoration ofbiological diversity and abundance or marine resources as well as for fisheries management,particularlyintropicalcoralreefecosystems(Kelleher1999,IUCN2004,Govanetal.2009).MPAisagenerictermusedtocovernationally-gazettedmarineparksandreservesaswellasLocally-ManagedMarineAreas(LMMAs),alsodubbedcommunityconservationareasorconservancies(Kawakaetal.2015). InKenyathereareninenationalmarineparksandreserves,establishedbetween1968and1995,coveringanestimated10.4%ofterritorialwaters (Table12).Theparksareno-takezonesorareaclosureswherenoextractionisallowedatall,andatleastsincethe1990shasbeenwellenforced(SamoilysandObura2011).Thesenationalparkshaveprovedeffectiveatrestoringfishabundance(McClanahan and Graham 2005, Samoilys et al. in press). However, the reserves are having littleimpact on fish populations, because the legislation around Reserves, which allows for traditionalfishingmethods,isnotbeingenforced.KiungaMarineReserve,whichwasestablishedin1979,isthelargest Reserve in Kenya, covering 250 km2 (Table 12) and therefore this poor effectiveness is ofconsiderableconcern.Table12:NationallygazettedMarineProtectedAreasinKenyaSite IUCNCategory Size(km
2) Dateestablished Managementtype
Malindi II 6.3 1968 ParkWatamu II 10 1968 ParkMalindi-Watamu
VI 245 1968 Reserve
Kisite II 28 1978 ParkMpunguti VI 11 1978 ReserveKiunga VI 250 1979 ReserveMombasa VI 200 1986 ReserveMombasa II 10 1986 ParkDiani-Chale VI 75 1995 Reserve
Source:IUCN,2004
LocallyManagedMarineAreas(LMMAs)
The adoption of LMMAs by local fishing communities, primarily though the BMUs, has increasedexponentiallyinKenyainthelast10years(Kawakaetal.2015)withatotalof24LMMAsestablishedby2015(Figure12).TheestablishmentofLMMAsalongtheKenyancoasthasbeenmotivatedbytheneedto improvethehealthoftheecosystem,toreduceoverexploitation, livelihooddevelopment,eco-tourism and habitat and species protection. They are a spatially-based conservation andmanagement approach that is now well recognized as suitable for shallow coastal habitats withdependentfishingcommunities(Govanetal.2009,Rocliffeetal.2014)suchasthoseoftheLamu-Kiungaarea.TheformationofcommunityconservanciesaroundPateIslandin2015hasbeenledbyTNCandNRT-Coast.TheyareanchoredintheWildlifeConservationandManagementAct2013.Theywereestablishedtointerweaveconservationeffortswithimprovinglocallivelihoods.It isexpected
38
thattheconservationmeasureswillreversethedecliningtrendsinthenumbersofmarinewildlife,particularlyfin-fishaswellasvaluablemacro-invertebrates(e.g.lobsterandcrab)thusboostingeco-tourismprojects,whichwill bring income to the community. The formationof theKiungaMarineCommunityConservancyproposedwithintheKiungaMarineNationalReserve(KMNR)isdesignedtosupporttheReserveandimprovetheintegrationoflocaltraditionalknowledgeonenvironmentwithmodernscienceandresearch.
Source:Kawakaetal.2015
Figure12:Mapshowingthelocationof24LMMAsinKenya,outofwhich5aremangroveboardwalks
39
Recommendations
Inrecognizingthebroadrangeofdrivers,frompooreducation,toportdevelopmenttooverfishing,webelievethereisahighriskinonlyinvestingincommunity-basedconservationapproaches.Theserecommendationsthereforespanhigher-levelpolicyeffortsaswellascommunity-driveninitiativesandareallofequalimportance.Theyinclude:
• Instigatefullenforcementofexistingregulationsandpoliciessothatmarinebiodiversity is
managedproperly.ThisrequireseffectiveenforcementoftheManagementPlanoftheKiungaMarineReserve.
• Introducemarinespatialplanning(MSP)approachesinLamuCountyplanningthatincludesresilience-basedmanagementofcoralsreefs(e.g.focusedprotectiononmostresilientreefs)andtargetedconservationofhighvalue,rareandendemicspecies.
• Improvemanagementofmangroveforestssothatharvestingisstrictlysustainable.• Conduct research on the integrity of the marine ecosystems to ensure the habitats are
consideredinzoningofcommunityandgovernmentMPAs.Thereisneedtoresearchonthediversefisheriesinthepelagicenvironmenttoestablishthethreatandopportunitiesinthearea.
• Conductresearchonsharkandrayspeciesdiversityandpopulationstatusurgently.ThereisminimalinformationavailableintheLamu-Kiungaarea,andinKenyagenerally.
• Encourageongoingmonitoringandresearchonkeyecosystemsparticularlycoralsreefssothatfutureimpactsofinterventionsaremeasuredandunderstood.
• Improve compliance with international Conventions including reporting based on currentscienceandstatusofresources,particularlytotheCBD.
• Instigatefullenforcementofexistingregulationsandpoliciessothatfisheriesaremanagedproperly.Thisrequireseffectiveenforcementpatrolsandtheremovalofillegalfishinggearsnamelybeachseinesandmonofilamentgillnets.
• Introducenewfisherieslegislationwhichaddressotherdestructivegearssuchassmallmeshsizesof gill netswhich capture juvenile fish;policies forminimizingbycatchof threatenedspeciessuchassharks,dolphinsandturtles;andmarket-basedresearchtopromotefishingoflarge-sizedfish.
• EnsureVMS(vesselmonitoringsystems)areinplace,observersareonboard,andlicensesarecorrectlyadministeredforforeignfishingvesselsinEEZwaterstocombatIllegalUnregulatedandUnreported(IUU)fishing.
• EnsureapercentageofgovernmentincomefromlicensedforeignfishingvesselsisreturneddirectlytoLamuCountyforvisiblebenefitstofishingcommunities.
• Considerpaymentforecosystemservices(PES)chargestoforeignfishingvesselsthatbenefitfromthegoodmanagementofcoastalmangrovesystemsthatsupportproductiveoffshorefisherystocks.
• Influence the development of the Lamu Port so that its construction is environmentallyconsiderateandlocalcommunitiesarefullyinformedandinvolvedinmitigationprocesses.
40
• IncreasegovernmentsupporttoartisanalfishingcommunitiestomitigatenegativeimpactsfromthedevelopmentoftheLamuPort.Compensationduetoforeseenlossofcustomaryfishinggroundsisneeded.
• ProtectmangrovestothesouthandnorthoftheMandachannel(proposedportaccess)inorder to maintain some of the ecological function and hence productivity of the naturalecosystem.
• SubstantiallyimproveaccesstoeducationinallcoastalcommunitiesintheLamu-Kiungaarea,withadditionalemphasisongirlswhoaretraditionallyneglected.
• Introducelong-termeducationprogrammesthataddressenvironmentalmanagementinallcoastalcommunitiesforchildrenandadultssothebenefitsofwisemanagementtomaximizeecosystemgoodsandservicesareembraced.
• Introduce other coastal enterpriseswith local communities to reduce pressure onmarineresources.
• Empower fishing communities in co-management approaches to marine resourcemanagement(e.g.throughBMUs)sothattheycanengageasequalplayersinmanagingtheirownfisheryresources.
• Integrate local knowledge with government regulations, including in the Kiunga NationalReserve,andscience, tobenefit theecosystemsandpeopleof thisuniquepartofKenya’scoast.
41
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Appendices
Appendix1.CoralgeneraandspecieslistrecordedinPate-Kiunga2015
CoralGenera
1. Acanthastrea2. Acropora3. Alveopora4. Astreopora5. Caulastrea6. Coeloseris7. Coscinaraea8. Craterastrea9. Cycloseris10. Cyphastrea11. Echinophyllia12. Echinopora13. Favia14. Favites15. Fungia16. Galaxea17. Gardineroseris18. Goniastrea19. Goniopora20. Heliopora21. Herpolitha22. Homophyllia23. Horastrea24. Hydnopohora25. Leptastrea26. Leptoria27. Leptoseris28. Lobophyllia29. Micromussa30. Millepora31. Montipora32. Oulophyllia33. Pavona34. Platygyra35. Plesiastrea36. Pocillopora37. Porites38. Psammocora39. Pseudosiderastrea40. Scolymia41. Siderastrea42. Tubastrea43. Tubipora44. Turbinaria
50
Coralspecies
Family Genus Species Family Genus SpeciesAcroporidae Acropora anthocercis Alveopora tizardi
appressa Astreopora listeriarabensis myriophthalmabranchi Montipora aequituberculatadigitifera calcareadivaricata cryptusdonei efflorescenseurystoma foveolatagemmifera informisgrandis monasteriatahyacinthus nodosainsignis tuberculosaintermedia undatalatistella zplutkeni Agariciidae Leptoseris glabramillepora incrustansnasuta mycetoseroidesnatalensis Pavona duerdeniretusa explanulatarosaria frondiferasubulata maldivensisvalida variansverweyi venosa
51
Family Genus Species Family Genus SpeciesCoscinaraeidae Coscinaraea columna Favites abdita
crassa acuticolisexesa complanatamonile flexuosazpA halicora
Horastrea indica pentagonaDendrophylliidae Tubastrea zpp russelli
Turbinaria mesenterina vastapeltata Goniastrea australensisstellulata columella
Faviidae Caulastrea connata deformisCyphastrea chalcidicum edwardsi
serailia palauensisEchinopora gemmacea peresi
hirsutissima retiformislamellosa Leptastrea aequalispacificus pruinosarobusta purpurea
Favia danae Leptoria phrygiafavus Oulophyllia crispahelianthoides Platygyra acutalizardensis contortamaritima crosslandimatthai daedaleapallida pinirotumana sinensisspeciosa verweyistelligera Plesiastrea devantieritruncatus versipora
52
Family Genus Species Family Genus SpeciesFungiidae Cycloseris costulata Pectiniidae Echinophyllia aspera
cyclolytes echinataexplanulata Pocilloporidae Pocillopora damicornispatelliformis eydouxiwellsi indiania
Diaseris fragilis ligulataFungia granulosa verrucosa
paumotensis Poritidae Goniopora albiconusrepanda columnascutaria djiboutiensis
Herpolitha limax lobataweberi planulata
Hydrozoa Heliopora coerulea somaliensisMillepora exesa stokesi
platyphylla zp.Merulinidae Hydnophora exesa Porites annae
pilosa ColumnarisMussidae Acanthastrea echinata cylindrica
hemprichii harrisoniregularis lobata
Homophyllia australis luteaLobophyllia corymbosa nodifera
hemprichii rusrobusta stephensoni
Micromussa indiana Siderastreidae Psammocora contiguaSclerophyllia maxima Pseudosiderastrea tayami
Oculinidae Galaxea astreata Siderastrea savignyanafasicularis
53
Appendix2.Datatreatmentandanalysis
MethodsSiteswereselectedbasedontheyearsofmonitoring;thosemonitoredformorethan7years(Table111).SitesusedinanalysisofcoralreefhealthinKiunga-Patearea
Block Selectedsites
Samoilysetal.
1987sites
(distance) Reasons
Ishakani Shili Surveyedfor8yearsKiunga Bomani Surveyedfor9years
Ch.Boso Surveyedfor7years Boso Surveyedfor10years Kijiweni Surveyedfor9years Kishanga Surveyedfor9years Kui Surveyedfor10years Kupi Surveyedfor8years Mw.Mkuu Surveyedfor10years
Kiwayu Ch.ChanoKiwayuKnolls(7,000m) Surveyedin1987andlatercontinuouslysurveyedfor10years
Mike'sInner Surveyedfor10years Mike'souter Surveyedfor9years
Mkokoni_Coral
Garden Surveyedfor9years ShimolaTewa Surveyedfor9years
Mkokoni Ch.Mvundeni Arlett(2,200m) Surveyedin1987andlatercontinuouslysurveyedfor2years KwaRadi Surveyedfor10years Ml.Hindi Surveyedfor8years
Rubu Ch.magogoniSimbayaLedge(1,000m)
Ch.MongoShariff Surveyedfor7years Chole Surveyedfor10years
Pethali Iweni Surveyedfor3years PezaliRock Surveyedfor4years
Lamu Kinyika Kinyika(1,700m) Surveyedin1987andlatercontinuouslysurveyedfor4years
AnalysisDatawereanalysedbyfirstdetectingoutliersontheannualdataof11fishfamiliesusingGrubbstestandthereafterremovingtheoutliers.ThesiteswerethencategorizedintomanagementblocksaspresentedinTable111.Thedensitydatawerelog(x+1)transformedbeforerunningaone-wayANOVAtesttocomparetheyearsandmanagementblocks.
54
Appendix3.FishspecieslistrecordedinPate-Kiungain2015
Colourcodedfamiliesarethe5familiesusedtocalculatetheCFDIdiversityindex.Family SpeciesPomacentridae A.sexfasciatus
Pomacentridae A.sparoides
Pomacentridae A.vaigiensis
Pomacentridae Amblygl.indicus
Pomacentridae Amphiprionakallopisos
Pomacentridae C.atripectoralis
Pomacentridae C.dimidiata
Pomacentridae C.lepidolepis
Pomacentridae C.ternatensis
Pomacentridae C.viridis
Pomacentridae C.weberi
Pomacentridae Chry.biocellata
Pomacentridae Chry.brownriggii
Pomacentridae D.trimaculatus
Pomacentridae D.carneus
Pomacentridae Dascylusaruanus
Pomacentridae N.cyanomos
Pomacentridae Neoglyphid.melas
Pomacentridae Neopom.azysron
Pomacentridae Neopom.sp.1
Pomacentridae P.baenschi
Pomacentridae P.caeruleus
Pomacentridae P.pavo
Pomacentridae P.sulfureus
Pomacentridae P.trilineatus
Pomacentridae Pl.lacrymatus
Pomacentridae Plectroglyphid.dickii
Pomacentridae Pomacentruscaeruleopunctatus
Pomacentridae Pomacentrussp.2
Pomacentridae S.nigricans
Pomacanthidae C.multispinis
Pomacanthidae P.imperator
Pomacanthidae P.semicirculatus
Pomacanthidae Pomacanthuschrysurus
Labridae A.melanurus
Labridae A.twistii
Labridae An.lineatus
Labridae B.axillaris
55
Labridae B.bilunulatus
Labridae B.diana
Labridae C.caudimacula
Labridae C.freiri
Labridae C.oxycephalus
Labridae C.trilobatus
Labridae C.undulatus
Labridae Cheilinusbimaculatus
Labridae Cheilinuschlorourus
Labridae Cirrhilabrusexquisitus
Labridae Corisaygula
Labridae Epibulusinsidiator
Labridae Gomphosuscaeruleus
Labridae H.hortulanus
Labridae H.iridis
Labridae Halichoeresmarginatus
Labridae H.nebulosus
Labridae H.scapularis
Labridae H.zeylonicus
Labridae Halichoerescosmetus
Labridae L.dimidiatus
Labridae Labrichthysunilineatus
Labridae Labroidesbicolor
Labridae Macropharyngodonbipartitus
Labridae Oxycheilinusdigrammus
Labridae Oxycheilinusmentalis
Labridae Pseudocheilinusevanidus
Labridae Pseudocheilinushexataenia
Labridae Pseudodaxmoluccanus
Labridae S.bandanensis
Labridae T.hardwicki
Labridae T.herbracium
Labridae T.lunare
Labridae Thalassomalutescens
Labridae Thalassomaamblycephal
Labridae Thalassomasp.1-genivittatum?
Chaetodontidae C.bennetti
Chaetodontidae C.falcula
Chaetodontidae C.guttatissimus
Chaetodontidae C.interruptus
Chaetodontidae C.kleinii
Chaetodontidae C.leucopleura
Chaetodontidae C.lineolatus
56
Chaetodontidae C.lunula
Chaetodontidae C.madagaskariensis
Chaetodontidae C.melannotus
Chaetodontidae C.meyeri
Chaetodontidae C.trifasciatus
Chaetodontidae C.xanthocephalus
Chaetodontidae Chaetodonauriga
Chaetodontidae F.longirostris
Chaetodontidae Heniochusacuminatus
Chaetodontidae Heniochusmonoceros
Scaridae Calotomuscarolinus
Scaridae Chlor.sordidus
Scaridae Chlor.atrilunula
Scaridae Hipposcarusharid
Scaridae S.frenatus
Scaridae S.ghobban
Scaridae S.niger
Scaridae S.rubroviolaceus
Scaridae S.russelli
Acanthuridae A.blochii
Acanthuridae A.dussumieri
Acanthuridae A.leucocheilus
Acanthuridae A.leucosternon
Acanthuridae A.lineatus
Acanthuridae A.mata
Acanthuridae A.nigricaudus
Acanthuridae A.nigrofuscus
Acanthuridae A.tennenti
Acanthuridae A.triostegus
Acanthuridae A.xanthopterus
Acanthuridae C.striatus
Acanthuridae C.truncatus
Acanthuridae Ctenochaetusbinot
Acanthuridae N.brachycentron
Acanthuridae N.brevirostris
Acanthuridae N.elegans
Acanthuridae N.unicornis
Acanthuridae Nasoannulatus
Acanthuridae Paracanth.hepatus
Acanthuridae Z.vellifer
Acanthuridae Zebrasom.desjardinii
Balistidae Balistapusundulatus
Balistidae Balistoid.conspicillum
57
Balistidae Melichthysindicus
Balistidae Melichthysniger
Balistidae Odonusniger
Balistidae P.fuscus
Balistidae Rhinecanth.aculeatus
Balistidae S.chrysopterum
Balistidae S.fraenatus
Balistidae Sufflamenbursa
Caesionidae C.lunaris
Caesionidae C.xanthonota
Caesionidae Caesiocaerulaurea
Caesionidae Caesioteres
Caesionidae Pterocaesiomarri
Caesionidae Pterocaesiopisang
Caesionidae Pterocaesiosp.(cftrilineata)
Carangidae C.ferdau
Carangidae C.fulvoguttatus
Carangidae C.sexfasciatus
Carangidae S.lysan
Carangidae Carangoid.sp1
Haemulidae Diagrammapicta
Haemulidae P.gaterinus
Haemulidae P.gibbosus
Haemulidae P.plagiodesmus
Haemulidae P.playfairi
Haemulidae P.schotaf
Haemulidae Plectorhinchusalbovittatus
Haemulidae Plectorhinchusflavomac.
Haemulidae Plectorhinchussordidus
Lethrinidae L.harak
Lethrinidae L.obsoletus
Lethrinidae Monotaxisgrandoc
Lutjanidae L.bohar
Lutjanidae L.ehrenbergi
Lutjanidae L.fulviflamma
Lutjanidae L.fulvus
Lutjanidae L.gibbus
Lutjanidae L.monostigma
Lutjanidae Lutjanusargentimac.
Monacanthidae Pervagorjanthinosoma
Mullidae Mulloidi.flavolineatus
Mullidae P.cyclostomus
Mullidae P.indicus
58
Mullidae P.macronema
Mullidae P.rubescens
Mullidae Parupeneusbarberinus
Nemipteridae S.ghanam
Ostraciidae O.meleagris
Ostraciidae Ostracioncubicus
Serranidae C.leopardus
Serranidae Cephalopholisargus
Serranidae Dermatolepisstriolatus
Serranidae E.caeruleopunctatus
Serranidae E.fuscoguttatus
Serranidae E.lanceolatus
Serranidae E.malabaricus
Serranidae Plectropomuslaevis
Siganidae S.luridus
Siganidae S.stellatus
Siganidae S.sutor
Siganidae Siganusargenteus
Tetraodontidae C.valentini
Tetraodontidae Canthigasterbennetti
Tetraodontidae Canthigasterpetersii
Tetraodontidae Canthigastersmithae
Total 189
59
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