THE ARCTIC TUNDRA AND ITS WILDLIFE
GROUP 10: WORLD HABITATS
The Arctic tundra-the land of the midnight sun-is a vast, frozen. wasteland at the top of the world. Surprisingly,
it supports an abundance of animal and plant life.
.... ...•.
KEY FACTS LAND ANIMALS
Polar bear, wolf, musk ox, Arctic
fox, hare, ground squirrel,
wolverine, weasel, and lemming.
SEA ANIMALS
Walrus, fur and harp seals, and
beluga and other whales.
BIRDS
Raven, ptarmigan, diver, snowy
owl, whistling swan, snow goose,
red or gray phalarope, Sabine's
gull, shore or horned lark, snow
bunting, oldsquaw, sku a and king
eider ducks, and Arctic tern.
PLANTS
Arctic willow, juniper, Lapland
rhododendron, purple saxifrage,
mountain avens, Arctic white
heather, broad-leaved willow herb,
woolly lousewort, moss campion,
Arctic lupine, cotton grass,
mountain sorrel, scurvy grass,
bearberry, and lichen.
• Area of the tundra.
AREA OF THE TUNDRA
From the northern edge of the circumpolar belt of taiga (coniferous forests) to the ice and snow surrounding the
North Pole.
WILDLIFE NOTES
Most animals are year-round residents of the tundra or its icy
waters; caribou and many birds migrate south in the winter.
ARCTIC TUNDRA FOOD CHAINS
Polar bears are at the top of the food chain; they feed on Arctic foxes, skuas, and lemmings.
Arctic foxes prey on lem- (I(
mings; they also -. take the eggs
r---- and young of Arctic sku as.
Arctic skuas are plunderers, stealing fish from other seabirds; they also prey on lemmings.
Lemmings feed on the sparse 'vegetation; they can reproduce several litters each year-of up to nine young each-enabling them to survive heavy losses from predators.
From the air, the Arctic tundra looks lifeless;
in fact, the region abounds with living things.
The tundra is also one of a few relatively
unspoiled wild areas left on earth.
~CLlMATE The tundra stretches from the northern edge of the taiga belt (coniferous forests) to the ice and snow surrounding the North Pole. It is one of the world's smallest climatic zones.
For most of the year, the mean monthly temperature is below freezing. The winters are long and severe, although some areas have only light snow cover. Summers are short, with temperatures just above freezing.
I DID YOU KNOW? • Mild weather can be more dangerous to tundra animals than cold . When snow thaws and refreezes, it locks up vegetation and prevents animals from feeding .
• The ground squirrel is the tundra's only true hibernator.
At Point Barrow in northern Alaska the sun is not visible for two months in midwinter, but it shines nonstop for about two months in midsummer. Icy winds blow constantly.
This harsh climate limits tundra vegetation mainly to lichens. They grow on rocks and permafrost ground, breaking down the surface and creating soil.. This gives other plants and shrubs a meager place to grow.
• A musk ox can live on about one-sixth of the fodder (feed) needed to feed a cow.
• Each year the Arctic tern migrates from the Arctic Circle to the Antarctic and back again : a 21 ,750-mile round trip.
SPECIAL FEATURES OF THE TUNDRA Pingos are domes that develop when shallow tundra ponds or lakes dry up. Permafrost moves in under the bed and forces the soil up.
KEY
1. Pingo 2. Polygons 3. Permafrost 4. Esker
Above: The wolf's white fur provides warmth and camouflage.
Above right: The Arctic hare's white coat is a mixed blessing: perfect camouflage in winter, conspicuous in summer.
Right: Lemmings tunnel under the snow to find food.
Polygons are geometric ground designs that result from repeated expansion and contraction of tundra soil as it freezes and thaws. A common feature is the frost mound covered by meadow grasses.
Permafrost occurs where subsoil remains frozen all year. If the insulating layer of vegetation is damaged, permafrost ground is exposed and begins to thaw, seriously upsetting the ecology of the tundra's
Right: Snowy owls nest on the ground.
S) They feed ~ mainly on ~ lemmings. o (') LL
surface. Eskers are low ridges of
sand, silt, gravel, and other glacial debris left behind by extinct rivers. Eskers provide some protective shelter for foxes and wolves.
ANIMALS OF THE GALAPAGOS GROUP 10: WORLD HABITATS
Among the most isolated places on earth, the Galapagos Islands have unique wildlife. Many of the plants and animals that flourish here are found nowhere else in the world.
KEY FACTS
HOW THE WILDLIFE ARRIVED
When the first volcanic islands of the Galapagos erupted from the sea 5 million years ago, they were completely devoid of life. Today they sustain a rich variety of exotic wildlife. So how did the first animal species reach this isolated group of islands?
It is from South America that the ancestors of today's species first came. Land birds were most likely carried out to the islands by storm winds. Other wildlife came by way of vegetation that drifted down the rivers of western South America into the sea. It is believed that insects, reptiles, and plant seeds reached the islands in this manner.
UPSETTING THE BALANCE
The isolation of the Galapagos Islands is what makes them unique, since it has lead to the evolution of species distinctly different from their more common relatives.
However, animals brought
More recently, sailors have introduced animals such as cats, rats, pigs, and goats, as well as new plants.
to the islands by man have disrupted the fragile ecosystem. Goats and rats compete for food with the native animal population. Some domestic animals carry diseases and prey on the
Like its relative the fur sea" the California sea lion has settled in the Galapagos, where it mates on rocky shores. Outside the breeding season, some migrate.
islands' wildlife. New plants introduced by man compete for space as well, often overgrowing the rarer native species.
Increased tourism is a new threat to island wildlife.
Many parts of the islands have been designated national parks, and visitors must observe strict rules if they wish to see such exotic species as these blue-footed boobies.
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The Galapagos are a rugged group
of volcanic islands straddling the equator in the
Pacific Ocean. Belonging to Ecuador, they lie, isolated,
in vast open waters about 600 miles off the
west coast of South America.
~ ORIGINS & FEATURES
The sixteen Galapagos Islands have a total land area of about 3,000 square miles and span an area of some 23,000 square miles of ocean. All the islands were formed by volcanic activity and some are 5 million years old.
One of the most unique features of the Galapagos Islands is their location within the body of cold ocean water
carried by the Humboldt current, which travels up to the equatorial region from the Antarctic.
The climate varies greatly among the islands. The southerly islands are arid, and prickly pear cactus is the predominant vegetation. The more northerly islands have fertile slopes and plant life there is thick and green.
Left: Galapagos is home to the only flightless cormorant in the world. Flightless birds have evolved in many isolated islands over the centuries. The absence of predators meant there was no need to make a quick escape.
Left: The aweinspiring Galapagos are home to many unique species of wildlife.
Right: The lunar-like landscape of one of the islands.
Right: The strange, primeval sight of marine iguanas soaking up the sun on harsh coastal lava before entering the cold water.
~ FIRST SETTLERS
Ocean-going birds, such as the frigate bird, together with greater flamingos and shorteared owls, were the first species to reach the islands. They found a range of habitats almost free of both competitors and predators. New species eventually developed from the original animals that settled there, adapting over time to the various habitats.
~ DARWIN'S FINCHES
The thirteen species of finches found on the Galapagos Islands are all descended from a common ancestor. They are called Darwin's finches after the great naturalist, who saw in them evidence for his theory of evolution.
The birds' beaks differ among species according to diet. Heavy bills allow some to eat large seeds; thinner bills suit others for catching insects.
Right: The giant tortoise weighs several hundred pounds and makes a convenient landing pad for the buzzard. These tortoises were once killed for food, with the result that they have been wiped out on several of the islands.
Above: The distinctive red throat pouch of the male frigate bird. This oceangoing species can soar for hours on its long wings.
Left: Both the medium and large ground finches have strong, sharp bills for cracking seeds.
~ GIANT TORTOISES The islands are named for their well-known inhabitant-the giant tortoise. Gal6pago is a Spanish word for tortoise. Today 11 subspecies of giant tortoise remain.
The tortoises on the more arid islands have arched shells, giving their head a wider range of motion. On the more fertile islands they have retained their more common flat arch.
DID YOU KNOW? • It is thought that the giant tortoise arrived on the Galapagos Islands from South America by drifting on vegetation .
• The Galapagos Islands are the only place in the world where fur seals and penguins are found on the equator. They survive due to the cold Humboldt current.
• Forty percent of all vegetation is endemic, found nowhere else in the world .
THE AUSTRALIAN OUTBACK AND ITS WILDLIFE
A vast expanse of bush and arid desert, the Australian outback may be inhospitable to people, but it is home to a huge variety
of extraordinary plant and animal life.
KEY FACTS
PLANTS: Eucalyptus, acacia, desert oak, spinifex, dryandra bottlebrush, ghost gum.
MAMMALS: Mostly marsupials; include the western gray kangaroo, red-necked wallaby, black-tailed wallaby, southern potoroo, honey possum, wombat, koala, echidna, duckbill platypus, wallaroo, dingo, banded anteater, mulgara, dunnart.
Above: The honey possum has a long snout to help it gather nectar from flower heads.
FEATURES & CLIMATE
The continent of Australia covers an area of 3,000,000 square miles. Two thirds of the land mass is known as the outback. This huge expanse of brush is composed of a wide variety of Australian desert grasses, such as spinifex, and plants belonging to the Acacia genus. These plants
REPTILES & AMPHIBIANS: Carpet python, death adder, tiger snake, king brown snake, knob-tailed gecko, pygmy spiny-tailed skink, goanna, moloch, frilled lizard, water-holder frog, golden tree frog, freshwater crocodile, estuarine crocodile, tortoise.
Above: The thorny devil is a harmless but ferocious-looking Australian lizard.
Below: The frilled lizard expands its frill to scare off predators.
require little water to survive and are thus well adapted to the arid outback conditions.
The outback is dotted with occasional rivers and swamps which widen the variety of animal and plant species in the region. It stretches across most of the country, from the Great Dividing Range in
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BIRDS: Emu, purple-crowned lorikeet, rainbow lorikeet, kookaburra, galah, lesser sulphur-crested cockatoo, New Zealand honeyeater, black swan, tawny frog mouth, Iyrebird, bower bird, rufous bristlebird, chestnut-rumped heathwren, orange-bellied parrot.
Above: The Mangles kangaroo paw has developed a long, thin beak, ideal for collecting nectar.
the east to the coastal rim along the far west.
The average daytime temperature in the outback is 86°F, and there is no specific rainy season. The climate is characterized by long periods of drought that are occasionally brok~n by violent rainstorms and floods.
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Australia has been an island for the last
45 million years, and its wildlife has been able to
evolve independently of other life forms.
Consequently, many of the animals found
in the outback are unique and cannot be found
anywhere else in the world.
~ MAMMALS Of the 223 mammal species in Australia, over half are marsupials. Marsupials are animals that carry their young in a pouch, usually in the front of the body. With the exception of the opossum in North and South America, they are found only in Australia. The best known marsupials include kangaroos, wallabies, and koalas.
Food is so scarce in the outback that many mammals have special adaptations that make the most of the natural
resources. The honey possum is one such marsupial. It is so dependent on nectar for survival that it has -developed a long, slender, beaklike snout that fits inside flowers. It also has a brush-tipped tongue like those of nectar-eating birds.
The mulgara is a carnivorous (meat-eating) marsupial which has adapted to the climate in its environment to the extent that it survives without having to drink water. It obtains necessary water from the bodies of its prey.
~ REPTILES &: AM PHIBIANS A variety of snakes inhabit the outback. Some, like the carpet python, are harmless to man, and others, such as the death adder, tiger snake, and king brown snake are deadly.
There are also many lizards in the outback. They include
Left: The gray kangaroo is one of the best known marsupials from the Australian outback.
Front inset: A knob-tailed gecko is one of many lizards found in central Australia.
Below right: Beautifully
~'tIIIM_ colored, the rainbow lorikeet will breed after the
.~~~~J rains.
Many herbivorous (planteating) marsupials can get all the water they need from the leafy vegetation they eat. In fact, the koala's name is the aborigine word for "no water."
The duckbill platypus and the echidna are monotremes; that is, they belong to the lowest order of mammals and lay eggs like reptiles. Yet, they have fur, a stable body temperature, and produce milk with which they suckle their young.
geckos, skinks, goannas, and the frilled lizard. The frilled lizard expands the frill around its head in order to scare off predators. The knob-tailed gecko has huge eyes and uses its tongue like a windshield wiper to clean them.
Omi. 63Smi. I I
~ BIRDS Australia's largest and most unusual bird is the emu. With its long legs, short toes, and light body, this flightless bird can reach a speed of 45 miles per hour when in pursuit of prey.
The colorful budgerigar, another native of the outback, has become one of the most popular pet and aviary birds in the world.
Many of the birds in the outback are honeyeaters. As an adaptation, they have devloped long, thin beaks to make feeding easier. To accommodate the birds and to make pollination easier, many flower species have adapted by taking on a tubular shape.
One of the most interesting lizards is the moloch, commonly called a thorny devil. This curious creature is studded with horns and spikes to deter predators. It has adapted to the scarcity of water by surviving on as little
o Area of outback
of it as possible. At night it absorbs dew through its skin, where it passes to the mouth to be drunk.
Frogs have adapted surprisingly well to outback conditions. They mate only in wet conditions, so that the tadpoles have time to develop enough to survive the next dry season. One species, the water-holding frog, fills its body with water, burrows deep into the mud, and lives underground inside a mucous cocoon until the next rain.
The outback rivers and swamps are home to two different types of crocodile: the small, freshwater variety and the large and dangerous estuarine crocodile of the inland rivers and lagoons.
THE ANDES MOUNTAIN RANGE AND ITS WILDLIFE
The mighty Andes form the longest mountain range in the world, extending almost 4,500 miles along the western coast of South
America from northern Colombia to southern Chile.
KEY FACTS
LANDS OF ICE AND FIRE
The Andes mountains are full of contrasts: the northern climate is hot and humid, while winds in the southern ice areas reach 100 miles per hour. The Andes have some of the most treacherous landscapes in the world.
Right: The Andes start in the Colombian cordilleras and end
Right: The rainforests of Ecuador.
Below: Tatio geysers in the desert, Chile.
Right: Frozen beech trees, Patagonia.
Below: The Paine Towers in Chile.
Ecuador, the land of volcanos, includes Mount Sangay, with its almost constant gush of lava, ash, and steam. Mount Cotopaxi's highest crater is encrusted with glaciers. When Cotopaxi erupted in 1877, molten lava melted the ice and caused
Above: A lone candelabra cactus frames a view of the western Andes desert near Nazca, Peru.
Below: The northern Andes are on the same altitude as West
200 miles of flooding. The fjords and geyser
fields of southern Chile and the glaciers of the Patagonian ice cap give way to the freezing, windlashed wastes of Cape Horn and Tierra del Fuego (land of fire).
Africa, but the southern parts of Pacific Atlantic Ocean
the range extend almost to Ant- Ocean arctica.
Arid (low 0 rainfall)
Medium rainfall 0
High rainfall
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The Andes' forbidding peaks tower over
a wide range of habitats. Rain falls in some places
at a rate of 16 feet per year, giving rise to steaming
rainforests. Elsewhere in high, semidesert plains,
mammals rely on extra-large lungs to survive
the thin mountain air.
~ DESOLATE PLAINS High, arid steppes range from Chile, Argentina, and Bolivia through Peru up to Ecuador. On the southern plateau, called the puna, sand-laden, stinging winds bend the sparse vegetation into strange forms, and nights are bitterly cold.
Lizards, rodents, and birds equipped to retain body heat live among the thin vegetation under harsh conditions.
The Andean condor, the world's largest bird, feeds on carrion. With its huge wing span reaching up to 10 feet, it soars on mountain thermals and glides long distances
Front inset left: A relative of the falcon, the Audubon's caracara feeds on carrion.
Front insert right: The viscacha lives on the dry Andes plains.
Top left: Puya plants, Peru.
Left: The tinamou of Argentina can barely fly.
Right: Vicunas graze in front of EI Misti Volcano, Peru.
~ THE ANDEAN RAINFOREST The temperate forests and tropical rainforests near the equator have the most exotic plant and animal species in South America. The dimly lit steaming rainforest floor smells of decomposing vegetation. Liana vines grow up tree trunks that also support parasitic fungi, orchids, and air plants. Wildlife live in the jungles' trees over 100 feet above the forest floor.
Cries of animals and birdsong fill the forest. Th~ howler monkey's call can be heard as far as three miles away. In southern Chilean forests, the huet-huet bird has a song that sounds like its name. Few bees live in the forest, so the red flowers attract mostly
searching for food. Pumas, antlered deer, and
relatives of the camel-vicuna, llama, alpaca, and guanacolive on the high steppes. Now protected, the vicuna was
hummingbirds. More than three million
species inhabit the rainforest, including marsupials, frogs, jaguars, parrots, and Chile's rarest mammal, the opossum.
hunted almost to extinction for the soft, fine wool on its hide.
Other animals, like the chinchilla rodent, have also survived large-scale hunting.
Leeches can grow to two feet here. Chile also has a forest of araucarian pine-known as monkey puzzle trees. More than 70 insect species live in the trees.
Left: Howler monkeys swing through the forests at the northern end of the Andes.
Above right: Scarlet cock-ofthe-rock in the eastern Andes.
Right: An army of leafcutter ants at work in the jungle.
~ A LIVING DESERT Many cacti live in the Atacama desert, including the giant candelabra cactus of Peru. Strangely, in summer, far from any sign of water, thousands of honey-scented Calandrina, malvilla, and yellow ananuca plants bloom briefly.
The desert sand extends to the Pacific shoreline. The tropidurus lizard and oasis hummingbird hunt crustaceans and worms from weeds exposed by the receding surf.
Mist created by winds blowing over the cold sea current shrouds the coastal desert. Sparse vegetation grows near heavy mist, but winds suck much of the moisture from the ground and carry it over the peaks to fall on the other side.
DID YOU KNOW? • South American tribes make cigarette holders from the Andean condor's bones; and they eat its eyeballs, believing it will improve their sight. • The solidified front of a lava flow from an Andean volcano can reach 1,600 feet.
• Off Cape Horn, giant kelp seaweed grows to 300 feet in water 150 feet deep. • South America has twice as many bat and rodent species as Africa and more freshwater fish species than any other continent. • The alerce tree in Chile lives for more than 2,000 years. • The Peru-Chile Trench, under the Pacific Ocean off the western South American coast, is, in some areas, as deep as the Andes are high.
THE KALAHARI DESERT AND ITS WILDLIFE
CARDS
GROUP 10: WORLD HABITATS
A seemingly uninhabitable inland basin, parts of which are over 100 million years old, Africa s Kalahari desert supports one of the
richest collections of wildlife in the world.
KEY FACTS
THE KALAHARI'S WILDLIFE
MAMMALS: Elephant, zebra, hippopotamus, wildebeest, lion, springbok, gemsbok, buffalo, baboon, cape fox, African hunting dog, meerkat, spring hare, pygmy mouse, fruit bat, gerbil. BIRDS: Avocet, barn owl,
Egyptian geese, reed cormorant, L-~~~~--=::T-----fish eagle, egret, flamingo, heron, pygmy goose, kingfisher, ostrich, oxpecker, green pigeon, crowned cranes, stilt, whiteheaded vulture, sandpiper. REPTILES: Crocodile, Long's reed frog, sand lizard, python, egg-eating snake, striped snake. INSECTS: Ant, ground beetle, mayfly, scorpion, brine shrimp. FISH: Catfish, mouth brooder, African pike, tiger fish.
- Kalahari in Africa b:iJ Desert area Mountain ranges t
HOW SALT PANS ARE FORMED
Salt pans are dry lakes that occur where water evaporation exceeds the rainfall. They are found in various parts of the Kalahari and are the flattest of all land forms.
Salt pans are ever-present
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features of arid and semiarid environments. They are formed over a period of many years through a cycle of rainfall and subsequent evaporation of the water. The minerals and salts contained in the
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water become more concentrated the longer the water remains stagnant. However, once the water evaporates, only the minerals and salts remain, forming a hard, cracked surface.
Left: The Kwong salt pan in Gemsbok National Park covers a vast area.
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The Kalahari extends for some 160,000
square miles and is part of South Africa's
tableland. Its vegetation becomes sun-bleached
during the dry season but recovers with astonishing
speed in the rains to provide food for wildlife.
~ FEATURES OF THE DESERT Although it is known as a desert, the Kalahari is more accurately described as semidesert, or thirst/and, since its average rainfall is higher than in true deserts. The Kalahari is a vast plateau, 1,650-5,000 feet above sea
1
level, with a relatively flat surface that has an occasional hill and some rocky outcrops.
In some areas, erosionresistant termite nests have formed islands. Salt pans occur particularly in the drier southern Kalahari region.
C T Stuart/Natural SCience Photos
~ CLIMATE Unlike the Sahara, Africa's vast desert to the north of the equator, the Kalahari has a wet summer season which sustains a rich variety of wildlife. Only during the wet season is food abundant.
The rainy season lasts from October to March, the southern hemisphere's summer.
Throughout the Kalahari, rainfall is erratic. As much as 17 inches falls in the north ana east, and less than half
this amount falls in the southwestern region. The month of April signals the beginning of the dry season. Even the areas that receive the most rainfall are almost completely dry by September.
Temperatures in the Kalahari can soar up to 1160 F in the southern region. As in all deserts, temperatures can drop dramatically at night, and it is not unusual for ground frosts to occur.
~-V-E-G-rr-A-T-IO-N----------------- I DIDmUKNO~ The Kalahari's vegetation varies the south, the trees become scrubby vegetation. In the I • One definition of a desert is from tall savannah woodland more widely spaced and hottest regions, only plants an area that receives less than to scrub areas and grassland. In smaller than the trees found with deep or tuberous roots 10 inches of annual rainfall. the northern region sycamore in the north. Grass grows in are able to survive. , , I • When the Boers crossed the fig, African ebony, and baobab occasional patches. Wildflowers grow through- I Kalahari from the Transvaal trees are numerous. Most of the Kalahari, out the desert in the rainy
As the land becomes drier to however, is covered with season.
~ MIGRATING WILDLIFE The Kalahari's rainy season is a time of marked change in the desert, and signals the great influx of migrating wildlife. Water cascading down from the highlands of Angola floods the Okavango River in the north which in turn overflows
Left: A beautifully marked gemsbok, one of the species of gazelle found in the Kalahari desert.
to form an expansive, marshy delta. The watercourses are rich in fish during the rainy season, and attract birds which feed on the fish. Although many of the lakes and lagoons dry up during the winter drought, those that
Left: A herd of springbok shares the desert with wildebeest.
remain are home to crocodiles and hippopotamuses.
The change in desert conditions brings huge seasonal migrations of buffalo, elephant, springbok, wildebeest, and zebra in search of fresh grazing pasture.
province in the northeast in 1878, 250 people and 9,000 cattle died due to the extreme climatic conditions. • The Kalahari's mouth brooder fish holds its eggs in its mouth until they hatch. Even after hatching, the
I young still seek the safety of their parent's mouth to .
L escape predators.
Left: The rains produce a variety of vegetationflowers, fruit, and plants-in the otherwise almost barren ground.
KP-M/Premaphotos Wllalife KP-M/Premaphotos Wildlife
KEY TO SPECIES 1 Elephants 2 Lion 3 Green
pigeons 4 Herd of
Wildebeest
8
5 Egg-eating herds of snake animals.
6 Mayfly 9 Sand lizard 7 White-headed 10 Egyptian
vultures 8 Migrating
WILDLIFE OF THE GREAT BARRIER REEF
Built by tiny marine animals, Australia IS Great Barrier Reef is so large that it is visible from the moon. Within it lives a variety of
life as vast as that found in a tropical rainforest.
LIFE AMONG THE CORAL
COOPERATIVE FISH
Many species of reef fish maintain symbiotic (mutually dependent) relationships. Groups of small reef fish seek out the larger wrasse and certain shrimps and then feed on their parasites and diseased tissue. The benefit to the small fish is a guaranteed supply of food.
Pairs of alpheid shrimps dig and maintain tunnels that are shared with pairs of gobies. The sharp-sighted gobies flick their tails against the shrimps' antennae to warn them of danger. All four animals then hide in the burrow together.
Right: A blue dams elfish is cleaned by shrimps.
FISH OF THE GREAT BARRIER REEF
Right: The Queensland grouper can grow to a half a ton in weight. Groupers have been known to stalk skin divers. This Queensland grouper can be seen skulking around the edge of a reef, waiting for a meal to swim by.
A wide variety of animals lives on the reef, from very small drifting jellyfish to huge sharks. Sea turtles breed here in greater numbers than anywhere else in the world . Dugongs, marine relatives of elephants-similar to the manatee-are found here, and birds such as the reef heron spear fish here.
The reef contains 400
species of coral, 200 species of cowrie shells, and probably as many as 2,000 species of fish (about a tenth of all known species).
Many animals burrow and bore into the solid reef itself, including sponges, worms, bivalve mollusks, and sea urchins. Snails and sea slugs actually eat the reef.
Other animals eat the living
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coral. Parrot fish bite off small chunks with their sharp, beaklike front teeth and grind the coral to extract polyps.
Starfish turn their stomachs inside out and secrete digestive juices onto the polyps. They then eat the partially digested meal. The crown-ofthorns starfish is capable of eating a square yard of coral in a single day.
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The Great Barrier Reef is actually a system
of reefs that are parallel to the northeast coast of
Australia. It extends for 1,250 miles,
from Lady Elliott Island, off southern
Queensland, to the Gulf of Papua,
New Guinea.
~ ORIGINS & FEATURES The Great Barrier Reef began growing some 18 million years ago. The present growth phase started 8,000 years ago and is building new layers upon older ones.
The reef occupies an area of about 90,000 square miles; its distance from shore varies from 10 to 125 miles. The main barrier contains over 2,100 individual reefs, and about 540 islands closer inshore have fringing reefs.
The reefs lie close together in the north and the south; in the central section they are generally widely scattered. The northern section provides shelter for mangrove trees to
grow in the many mangrove swamps.
The Great Barrier Reef Lagoon, generally about 325 feet deep, lies over a siltcovered plain and is sheltered between the shore and the reefs. The seaward edge of the reef, or reef slope, is exposed to the full fury of waves and storms and drops sharply thousands of feet to the seabed.
The seaward side has the most active coral growth. It also suffers the greatest losses from the elements. Much dislodged material is eventually cemented back into place to form rock.
~ HOW CORAL REEFS FORM Coral reefs are made up of thousands of tiny anemonelike creatures called polyps. They embed themselves in cups of limestone, which they secrete from their outer skin cells.
Every year the reef expands upward and outward as the polyps reproduce. Each polyp is connected to its neighbors by strands of living tissue, so the reef is "tied" together.
Pink seaweeds called calcareous algae are also important reef builders, adding limestone
rock to the structure. Other red algae at the edge produce a substance that cements areas of sediment together.
In time a huge structure is formed that contains only a thin veneer of living coral on the surface of many layers of empty limestone skeletons.
Each species of coral has its own growth pattern that results in a variety of reef shapes, from mounds to structures resembling fans, branches, and antlers.
Above: A coral fish startled by a diver swims for cover.
Left: The deep water gorgonian coral has intricate patterns.
Right: Blue damselfish patrol the reef in search of food.
Left: Live polyps of hard coral combine with seaweed to produce limestone, which slowly builds new and variously shaped layers of coral on top of old. This may then be covered with colorful soft corals-polyps without skeletons.
~ COLORS OF THE REEF Much of the coral, which is formed by the skeletons of dead polyps, is white, but live polyps are often brightly colored. Such relatives as sea fans and sponges also display hues of red, orange, pink, yellow, purple, and green.
Fish that add to the display are blue and yellow damselfish, pink, purple, and yellow wrasses, red and white sea slugs, green brittle-stars, and blue starfishes. These brilliant colors are confusing to predators.
THE AFRICAN SAVANNAH AND ITS WILDLIFE
The African savannah-with more than 40 kinds of browsing or grazing animals-is popular with naturalists. But it is also where
predators and prey constantly battle for survival.
ACTION FILE
MAMMALS
Grant's and Thomson's gazelles, wildebeest, impala, anubis and western baboons, vervet, chimpanzee, common jackal, African wild dog, striped polecat, ratel, African civet, common genet, white-tailed mongoose, spotted hyena, African wild cat, lion, leopard, cheetah, aardvark, African elephant, Grevy's zebra, white rhinoceros, warthog, giraffe, giant eland, and buffalo.
INSECTS
There are three groups of insects on the savannah: locusts and grasshoppers, termites, and ants.
Grasshoppers and locusts are a valuable food source for lizards, snakes, and many mammals. Plagues, or sudden increases in the numbers of locusts, are a constant threat. Large swarms can ruin vast areas of vegetation in minutes.
Termites playa vital role in the life of the savannah. They help to aerate the soil and increase water penetration. Some species build hills that may be over 20 feet high.
Other common insects are
VEGETATION
One-third of Africa's land surface (4 million square miles) is made up of savannah.
The vegetation of savannah lands is well adapted to
Above: Several gecko species live in the savannah. A Bibron 's gecko feeds on a moth.
wasps, bees, and the many ticks that live on the mammals of the African savannah.
a climate that alternates between heavy rainfall and months of drought: acacia trees have needlelike leaves to min imize water loss, and baobab trees are able to
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BIRDS
Ostrich, vulture, red-billed horn bill, bustard, secretary bird, hoopoe, golden sparrow, African hawk and fish eagles, and peregrine. Reptiles and amphibians African python, black mamba, Egyptian cobra, puff adder, and skink and gecko species. Insects Dung beetle, African migratory locust, grasshopper, termite, moth, fly, bee, wasp, scorpion, and tick species.
Above: Swarms, or plagues, of locusts destroy vast areas of vegetation in the savannah.
store water in their swollen trunks . Grasses, too, have adapted to make the most of what little water is available through their extensive root systems.
0160200191 PACKET 19
The African savannah covers about
one-third of Africa's land surface. It ranges
west and east from Senegal and Guinea to the
Indian Ocean, covering the plains of the Sudan
and the high plateaus of the Great Lakes region.
It also spreads across the high and low
veldts, or grasslands, of South Africa.
~ MAMMALS Many of the world's largest predators-and their preycan be found in the African savannah.
More than 40 kinds of browsing (eating parts of shrubs or trees) or grazing (eating grasses) animals live here, including giraffes, ele-
phants, and many species of antelope. These herbivores (vegetation eaters) each prefer specific foods, so there is no competition among them for the available plant life. For example, the gazelle eats low, lush grasses, while the hartebeest prefers the
Dsovonnoh
dry plant stalks that are rejected by other animals .
The dominant predator is the lion, followed by the other big cats. Sometimes herbivores will browse or graze within sight of a pride (group) of lions, but they are constantly on guard. The grazing animals
Left: Zebras are sociable animals and live in herds of 5 to 20, but they gather by the hundreds during the dry season.
Below left: The lion is the chief predator on the savannah.
Right: Giraffes graze and browse the savannah. Here, Mount Kilimanjaro can be seen in the distance.
~ REPTILES &: ~ AMPHIBIANS
Snakes and lizards are plentiful on the savannah. Geckos, skinks, African pythons, and monitors are the most common lizards. Many snakes are extremely poisonous.
Right: The poisonous black mamba snake lives in southern Africa.
know that the lions could awaken hungry at any moment and attack.
Zebras often graze with the wildebeest, a fa,vorite prey of the carnivorous (meateating) lion . When the lion attacks the wildebeest, the zebras are able to run away.
~ BIRDS Birds thrive on the savannah, eating the plentiful insects, reptiles, and small rodents.
The most common birds are the ground-living species: ostrich, bustard, and sand grouse. Scavengers such as the vulture hover nearby. The easiest way to locate a car-
nivorous mammal's kill is to look for the vultures circling overhead, waiting for their chance to finish the meal.
The small, black-faced dioch lives in flocks numbering in the thousands. It feeds on seed and may ruin local cereal crops.
Left: Vultures feed on the remains ofa wildebeest.
flightless ostrich is only one of the many bird species on the savannah.
THE BLACK FOREST AND ITS WILDLIFE
"'" CARD 8
The Black Forest is famous for its scenic walks, forests, and mountains. The forest contains several types of woodland that
are home to an abundance of wildlife.
TREES AND PLANTS OF THE BLACK FOREST
Thick woodlands of conifers (cone-bearing trees) blanket the Black Forest's mountain slopes. Mature trees form areas of deep shade that are carpeted with mosses and fungi. In summer, the air carries the fragrance of fir, larch, and pine. During winter, the trees turn white with snow, and the ground is crisscrossed with bird and animal tracks.
Alpine plants grow high in the mountain gorges of the Black Forest, protected from high altitude wind and weather conditions by their rocky walls . Many of these gorges have become havens for wildlife . The Wutach Gorge, for example, has more than 1,000 different plants, 100 species of bird, and more than 500 varieties of butterfly, some of which are rare . Yellow gentian, rho-
Top left: In winter, the slopes, trees, and valleys of the Black Forest are blanketed in snow.
dodendron, arnica, and sorrel flower on the upper slopes of the Feldberg; and heather, cranberries, and bilberries grow on lower levels.
On slopes at lower altitudes there are grassy upland meadows edged with broom and foxglove, small lakes surrounded by mixed woodland of conifer, oak, birch, and beech. The woodlands have
Below: The Black Forest in southwestern Germany covers over 2,000 square miles.
• The Black Forest
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areas of bracken and lowgrowing shrubs like juniper and holly. Ferns, dwarf pines, and mountain a'sh
grow on some hillsides. Boggy areas are thick with reeds, bulrushes, and water lilies. Clear trout streams,
edged with willows and silver birch, run to isolated farms set in broad, grassy valleys.
Above: In spring, valley landscapes are transformed into lush pastures.
G~rmany
0160200191 PACKET 19
The Black Forest's name comes from
its many dark, tree-covered summits.
This mountainous area-covering more than 2,000
square miles-partially bordered by the
Rhine River, has a mixture of forests, meadows,
and valleys. Its rolling hills support
vineyards, farms, and dairies.
~ ORIGINS &: FEATURES The contours of this part of Europe developed 50 mil-lion years ago. The Alps, and mountains stretching from France through the Vosges and the Black Forest to the Erzgebirges (in Czechoslovakia), were all folded upwards by geologic pressure.
About 42 million years later, the central section of this mountain range broke free and dropped about 3,000 feet into the earth's crust to form the Rhine plain. Other changes occurred from volcanic eruptions and the beginning of the
Front cover insets: The wild boar (left) and the long-eared owl (right) are native to the Black Forest.
Ice Age that smoothed the tops of the craggy mountains on either side of the plain to low, rounded summits. Black granite, often covered with a thick layer of red sandstone or limestone, forms the underlying surface.
The west boundary of the Black Forest is steep with narrow valleys, while the eastern side has wider valleys and roIling hills. The whole area is divided by the Kinzig valley, with northern peaks as high as 3,000 feet; the highest peak in the south, the Feldberg, rises almost 5,000 feet.
The mountain slopes are covered with forests until 4,000 feet.
Top: The capercai/lie is a game bird found in the Black Forest.
Above: The fieldfare migrates from Scandinavia in winter.
left: Lower slopes provide lush pasture.
~ !l!WIi!!lI !ll!LD!!L~IF!!I!!E~O!!F!,II!!T!!I!IHII!I!E~ ~ BLACK FOREST
Red and roe deer (Copreo/us
copreo/us) are common. Protected areas have been set aside so the animals can be observed without disturbing their natural habitat. In winter, deer come out of the forest to feed on fodder, regularly dumped in cold weather at special sites.
Wild boar and badgers also live in the forest. Foxes are common in the lower woodlands and feed on small rodents like voles, shrews, and mice, and on rabbits, hares, and birds. Pine martens, beech martins, and red squirrels climb up and down the trees hunting for food.
..... BLACK FOREST ~ BIRD LIFE
Many species of bird live both in the Black Forest and along the Rhine River, which borders the forest toward the south and west. Here, the river is wide and slow, and its banks are lined with poplars and reeds, making it an ideal site for birdwatching.
Birds of prey live high in the trees: goshawks and sparrow hawks prey on other birds and on rabbits, hares, squirrels, and small rodents. At night, longeared owls search for insects, voles, and mice.
Great spotted woodpeckers and their noisy relatives, the black woodpeckers, live among spruce, fir, and pine trees, picking holes in the tree bark as they search for wood ants and beetle larvae. Crossbills eat the seeds of pine cones. Black
grouse and capercaillies are among the game birds of the forest.-
Common in the lower woodlands are the bullfinch, crested and coal tits, and fire-
left: Red squirrels find plentiful food in the dense pine trees.
Above right: A fox searches for small rodents, such as voles and shrews, in the lower woodlands.
Below: Red deer live in the protected areas.
Above: Sparrowhawks prey on other birds in the treetops.
crests and goldcrests. In winter, fieldfares (thrushes) are found in forest clearings and along the tree line.
THE ALPS AND THEIR WILDLIFE
The mountains and meadowlands of the European Alps support a wide variety of plant and animal life. Many of the higher-altitude
Alpine plants can also be found at sea level in the Arctic.
KEY FACTS
WILDLIFE OF THE ALPS --------LAND ANIMALS: Ibex, marmot, chamois, mountain hare, red deer, snow vole, Alpine shrew. BIRDS: Golden eagle, goshawk, kestrel, ptarmigan, black grouse, rock partridge, eagle owl, black woodpecker, wall creeper, snowfinch, nutcracker, Alpine chough . REPTILES & AMPHIBIANS: Fire and Alpine salamanders, Alpine newt, yellow-bellied toad, common toad, common frog, grass snake, adder. BUTTERFLIES: Swallowtail, clouded yellow, mountain
BIRDS OF THE ALPS
ringlet, black-veined white. PLANTS: Edelweiss, king of the Alps, mountain pine, juniper, moss campion, darkstemmed sneezewort, glacier crowfoot, alpine clover, alpenrose, gentian, bell-
~-------- ------------------Some of the bird species in The Alpine chough nests in the Alps have adapted to small colonies far above the specific habitats . The snow- tree line in the narrow spaces finch, for example, breeds between the rocks. In winter among the boulders on the the colonies flock around steep grassy slopes above Alpine villages and feed on 7,500 feet, searching the refuse. rocky ridges for ripening The nutcracker bird collects seeds. seeds and nuts from pine
HOW GLACIERS ARE FORMED
flower, orange lily, orchid. WILDLIFE NOTES: All of the animals are year-round residents. Several bird species are resident year-round, but highaltitude species move to lower altitudes during the winter.
Left: The markings of the swallowtail butterfly provide protection from its Alpine predators.
cones and stores them in holes dug in the ground. Each year a nutcracker collects more than 100,000 seeds and nuts and buries them in as many as 25,000 different holes. The store of food enables the nutcracker and its young to survive the harsh winter.
-------------------------------~ 1. Layers of snow accumulate on mountains higher than 10,000 feet, and the extreme weight causes the bottom layer to melt and refreeze, eventually becoming solid ice. 2. As more weight is added, the layer of solid ice separates from the top layer of snow, forming a glacier. 3. Most glaciers move down the valleys at an average of an inch a day, collecting rocks and soil, called moraines, as they move (4).
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The Alps are 700 miles long and 160 miles wide.
They stretch across seven countries: Austria,
Yugoslavia, Germany, Liechtenstein, Italy,
Switzerland, and France.
~ CLIMATE The Alpine climate varies widely, according to altitude, rock formation, and exposure. Summer days are hot and the evenings cool. Winters are cold, with frequent snowfalls
FEATURES OF THE ALPS
1. Mountains: The Alps are divided into three sections: western, central, and eastern. Each section is made up of several separate
3. Rivers: Many of Europe's major rivers, including the Rhone and the Rhine, orig inate in the Alps. They are fed by water that has melted from
and long periods of belowfreezing temperatures. It is generally cooler and wetter on the north side of the Alps and drier and warmer on the southern side.
mountain ranges. Mont Blanc is located in the western Alps just south of Chamonix, France. At 15,781 feet, it is the
the ice and snow. 4 . Meadowland: Meadowlands are found at the lowest altitudes and are characterized by an abun-
W. Germany
highest peak in the Alps. 2. Glaciers: Glaciers play an important role in the development of the geological features of the Alps. They erode
dance of grass and w ildflowers . The plants in this area are a mixture of lowland and mountain species. Most types of orchid are found here .
mountain peaks and carve out valleys by shifting rock debris. They also create lakes and streams as they melt into the valleys.
~ VEGETATION The Alps have a wide variety of plant life that ranges from the lower meadow regions to the higher altitudes.
Coniferous trees such as pine and fir are found at altitudes up to 9,200 feet, and a variety of shrubs grow at altitudes up to 11,500 feet.
The glacier crowfoot and the
Front cover: Two Alpine inhabitants-the clouded yel/ow butterfly and the ibex.
~ CONSERVATION Huge areas of Alpine forest are bulldozed each year to make way for ski runs. Destroying the trees affects the greater stability of the Alps themselves. Trees playa vital role in maintaining the
winter months by feeding on stored seeds and nuts
underground.
dark-stemmed sneezewort are found at the highest altitudes. Both plants are found above the 14,OOO-foot level.
Many Alpine plants are found at 9,200 feet. Many of them are shaped like cushions, such as the king of the Alps and the moss campion. Their shape is a special adaptation that protects them from grazing animals, moisture loss, and wind and frost damage.
landscape. Their roots bind the soil together and prevent erosion. As the trees are felled, avalanches and mudslides become increasingly common.
Alpine forests are also being destroyed by chemical emissions from the industrialized parts of Europe. The trees lose their leaves and become weak and are therefore unable to withstand disease or galeforce winds. It has been estimated that 78 percent of the Bavarian forests in the central Alps have been damaged permanently.
The destruction of the trees also has a damaging effect on the animals and their habitats.
DID YOU KNOW? • The 14,700-foot Matterhorn has been climbed by more than 120,000 people.
• Petrified remains of plants and animals have been found in the rocks of the Alps. They have given scientists clues to the geological history of the area, which is at least 300 million years old .
MOUNT KILIMANJARO '" CARD 10 AND ITS WILDLIFE .", GROUP 10: WORLD HABITATS "\
Mount Kilimanjaro, rising from the plains of northern Tanzania, was formed by the violent eruption of ancient volcanoes and now
supports a wide variety of wildlife.
KEY FACTS
KILIMANJARO'S W ILDLIFE
ZONE 1: Galagos, genet, tree hyrax, common bulbul, whitebrowed robin chat, tropical boubou, speckled mousebird, bronze sunbird . ZON E 2: Blue monkey, black and white colobus, olive baboon, leopard, antelope, lion, civet, mongoose, Kilimanjaro bush pig, common
CLIMATE
The climate of Kilimanjaro is determined by its geographic location. It is 200 miles south of the equator and there are no mountain ranges between it and the Indian Ocean. Consequently, its lower slopes are subject to hot, humid tropical temperatures, but because of
CONSERVATION
Man is faced with several problems in maintaining the ecolog ical balance and natural beauty of Mount Kilimanjaro. The activities of poachers, farmers, and tourists threaten the native plants and wildlife and can
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Above: The augur buzzard is one of the larger hawks (Zone 3).
Above right: The African civet (Zones 2&3).
Left: Olive baboons live in family groups (Zone 2).
its great height, the upper regions have a colder, drier climate. The lower regions have a greater abundance of vegetation and wildlife, whereas the higher altitudes support little plant life.
The temperature varies, depending on the zone, from
have a devastating effect on the area's beautiful scenic and geographic features.
In 1977, Kilimanjaro National Park was established to help preserve the area for the enjoyment of present and future generations. It encom-
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and bush duiker, suni, bush buck, silvery-cheeked hornbill, hartlaub's turaco. ZONE 3: Eland, common duiker, buffalo, elephant, klipspringer, mole rat, civet, leopard, alpine or hill chat, lammergeyer, crowned eag le, augur buzzard, and a variety of other bird species. ZONE 4: Raven, spider, ground-dwelling insects. ZONE 5: No resident w ildlife.
86° F to well below freezing, and the summit is covered with a permanent layer of ice. For every 650-foot rise in elevation, the temperature drops approximately 1 ° F.
March to June is the wettest part of the year; the dry season runs June through July.
passes me 300-square-miles above the 8,900-foot level. It includes the moorland and highland zones, Shira plateau, and Kibo and Mawenzi peaks. The Forest Reserve, established in 1921, protects the forest area below the park.
01 602001 11 PACKET 11
Mount Kilimanjaro has five widely
diverse climatic zones, all within
a relatively small area. It was formed
750,00 years ago by the activity of
three small volcanoes, which today give
the mountain its distinctive shape.
~ FEATURES OF KILIMANJARO
Mount Kilimanjaro was created by the eruption of three separate volcanoes over 750,000 years ago. Today they form the three peaks.
Front inset: The striking black and white colobus monkey.
~ZONE 1
This area is a continuation of the open grassland that surrounds Mount Kilimanjaro and is fairly well cultivated and grazed. Man has turned what was once scrub, bush,
~ ZONE2 This is an area of beautiful tropical forest that encircles Mount Kilimanjaro and has the richest concentration of
Kibo is the mountain's summit at 1 9,340 feet.
The other two peaks are called Mawenzi (16,880 feet) and Shira (13,000 feet).
There are also five distinct climatic zones.
and lowland forest into grassland and cultivated crop fields. In the cultivated area, large animals are rarely found, but plenty of small animals cohabit peacefully with man.
plant and animal life. An ideal environment for a variety of wildlife, 96 percent of Kilimanjaro's water originates here.
Left: A blue monkey feeds in the forest canopy (Zone 2).
Above: Fruit trees provide food for the silvery-cheeked hornbill (Zone 2).
Lake UGANDA Victoria
RWANDA
BURUNDI Kilimanjaro
TANZANIA
KENYA
Indian Ocean
AFRICA
o mi. 125 mi. .250 mi.
~ ZONE 3 This area is a low alpine zone and is characterized by wet scrubland. It is a cool region and is easily recognized by the giant daisylike plants, senecios, and the lobelias that grow here. Because of the sparse vegetation and high altitude, few large animals are found here. There is, however, an abundance of smaller animals, especially birds.
Right top: A lammergeier surveys the landscape (Zone 3).
Bottom: A klipspringer in its rocky habitat (Zone 3).
~ ZONE 4
The climate of this high alpine zone is extremely severe. It receives strong sunlight and little rain. The ground is dry and barren, and the soil is so thin that, if it does rain, it is washed away. The variation in temperature is extreme as well, ranging from 105° F during the day to 32° F at night.
Very little wildlife is able to survive in this harsh climate. Insects and spiders are the only resident wildlife, and they use the sparse vegetation as cover from the strong winds. Large birds of prey will feed in the area but do not remain for any length of time.
The highest area of Mount Kilimanjaro is the summit zone. Its climate is characterized by arctic conditions, being freezing cold at night and subject to the sun's burning rays during the day. The oxygen level is half that found at sea level, and any rain that falls turns immediately to snow. The extreme conditions make the area inhospitable to animals, although a few plant species manage to survive.
20,000 ft
SUMMIT ZONE 5
16,500 ft.
HIGH ALPINE ZONE 4
13,000 ft.
LOW ALPINE ZONE 3
10,000 ft.
TROPICAL FOREST ZONE 2
1,250 ft.
OPEN GRASSLAND
ZONE 1