Why is geodiversity important?
Geodiversity is all around us. It provides the raw materials
for building, the fuel we put in our cars and the soils in
which our crops grow. It also produces the spectacular
landscapes we visit on holiday and the countryside we see
every day.
References in:
•http://www.naturalengland.org.uk/ourwork/conservation/geodiversity/important.aspx
Landscape and sense of place
•Geodiversity plays a major role in defining the landscapes. It is the
diversity of England’s geology and natural processes that has produced
the wide range of landforms and soil types. These influence land use, the
distribution and nature of habitats and the character and location of our
cities and towns.
•The cultural influence of geodiversity on people is extremely strong. The
location of many of our cities is influenced by the distribution of mineral
resources, especially coal, and many people feel strong cultural ties with
their industrial past.
•Building stones give character to many of our cities, towns and villages,
for example the red desert sandstones in Chester and the Carboniferous
Limestone in Bakewell.
What is Geodiversity? References in:
• Murray Gray (2004). Geodiversity: Valuing and Conserving Abiotic Nature. John Wiley & Sons Ltd,
Chichester.
•Tom L. McKnight , Darrel Hess (2002). Physical geography: a landscape appreciation. Seventh Edition,
Prentice Hall, Inc.
•http://www.thefreedictionary.com/
•http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geodiversity
Geodiversity is the variety of earth materials, forms and processes that constitute
and shape the Earth, either the whole or a specific part of it. Relevant materials
include mineral, rocks, sedimets, fossils, soils and water. Forms may
comprise folds, faults, landforms and other expressions of morphology or relations
between units of earth material. Any natural process that continues to act upon,
maintain or modify either material or form (for example tectonics, sediment
transport, pedogenesis) represents another aspect of geodiversity. However
geodiversity is not normally defined to include the likes of landscaping, concrete or
other significant human influence.
Geodiversity is neither homogeneously distributed nor studied across the planet.
The identification of geodiversity hotspots (eg. the islands of Great Britain and
Tasmania) may be indicative not simply of the distribution of geodiversity but also
of the status of geoconservation initiatives. In this regard it is worth noting that the
biodiversity of an ecosystem stems at least in part from its underlying geology.
Rocks:
rock or stone is a naturally occurring solid aggregate of minerals and/or
mineraloids (like opal, which have the appearance of a mineral but lack any
definite internal structure)
Percentage of rocks
in the Earth crust
SEDIMENTS:
A. Sediments are loose Earth materials such as sand that accumulate on the land
surface, in river and lakebeds, and on the ocean floor.
B. The sediments are the result of various processes of rock-weathering
A. Erosion and transport of sediments from the site of weathering are caused by
one or more of the following agents: gravity, wind, water, or ice.
There are three basic types of sediment:
1. rock fragments, or clastic sediments;
2. mineral deposits, or chemical sediments;
3. rock fragments and organic matter, or organic sediments.
Sedimentation is a general term for the processes of erosion, transport, and
deposition.
Gravity
Water
Ice
Water
Wind
Soils and Pedogenesis
The loose top layer of the Earth's surface, consisting of rock and mineral particles
mixed with decayed organic matter (humus), and capable of retaining water,
providing nutrients for plants, and supporting a wide range of biotic communities.
Soil is formed (PEDOGENESIS) by a combination of depositional, chemical, and
biological processes and plays an important role in the carbon, nitrogen, and
hydrologic cycles. Soil types vary widely from one region to another, depending on
the type of bedrock they overlie and the climate in which they form. In wet and
humid regions, for example, soils tend to be thicker than they do in dry regions
Podzolic soil Calcic soil Soil profile scheme
FOLDS:
an undulation or wave in the stratified rocks of the Earth's crust. Stratified rocks
were originally formed from sediments that were deposited in flat, horizontal sheets,
although in some places the strata are no longer horizontal but have warped. The
warping may be so gentle that the inclination of the strata is barely perceptible, or it
may be so pronounced that the strata of the two flanks are essentially parallel or
nearly flat. Folds vary widely in size; the tops of large folds are commonly eroded
away on the Earth's surface.
FAULTS:
is a fracture in the rocks of the Earth's
crust, where compressional or tensional
forces cause the rocks on the opposite
sides of the fracture to be displaced
relative to each other. Faults range in
length from a few inches to hundreds of
miles, and displacement may also
range from less than an inch to
hundreds of miles along the fracture
surface (the fault plane). Most, if not all,
earthquakes are caused by rapid
movement along faults. Faults are
common throughout the world. A well-
known example is the San Andrea Fault
near the western coast of the U.S. The
total movement along this fault during
the last few million years appears to
have been several miles.
Faults system
LANDFORMS
All the physical, recognizable,
naturally formed features of land,
having a characteristic shape;
includes major forms such as a
plain, mountain, or plateau, and
minor forms such as a hill, valley,
or alluvial fan.
Processes and landforms Reference in:
•Murray Gray (2004). Geodiversity: Valuing and Conserving Abiotic Nature. John Wiley & Sons Ltd
•Ashley D. Cody. Geodiversity of geothermal fields in the Taupo Volcanic Zone. Doc Rewsearch &
Development Series 281,
•Volcanic and Tectonic Processes and Landforms. Chapter 14,
In : http://academic.cengage.com/resource_uploads/downloads/0495555061_137454.pdf
Igneous forms
Landforms resulting from igneous processes may be related to eruptions of
extrusive igneous rock material or emplacements of intrusive igneous rock.
Volcanism refers to the extrusion of rock matter from Earth’s subsurface to the
exterior and the creation of surface terrain features as a result. Volcanoes are
mountains or hills that form in this way. Plutonism refers to igneous processes
that occur below Earth’s surface including the cooling of magma to form intrusive
igneous rocks and rock masses. Some masses of intrusive igneous rock are
eventually exposed at Earth’s surface where they comprise landforms of
distinctive shapes and properties.
Volcanic eruptions
Photos in : http://gregvaughn.photoshelter.com/gallery-image/Hawaii-Volcanoes-National-
Park/G0000gmqz8M0jkQc/I00003M9HvEGVI4E
Eruptions can vary greatly in their size
and character, and the volcanic
landforms that result are extremely
diverse. Explosive eruptions violently
blast pieces of molten and solid rock
into the air, whereas molten rock pours
less violently onto the surface as
flowing streams of lava in effusive
eruptions. Variations in eruptive style
and in the landforms produced by
volcanism result mainly from
temperature and chemical differences
in the magma that feeds the eruption.
The eruption of Vesuvius in AD 79, which destroyed Pompeii, is an
example of an episodic process. It is often difficult for humans to fully
comprehend the potential danger from Earth processes that operate with
bursts of intense activity, separated by years, decades, centuries, or even
millennia of relative quiescence. (b) A plaster cast shows a victim who
attempted to cover his face from hot gases and the volcanic ash that
buried Pompeii.
Shield Volcanoes When numerous successive basaltic lava flows occur in a given region they can
eventually pile up into the shape of a large mountain, called a shield volcano, which
resembles a giant knight’s shield resting on Earth’s
References in: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mauna_Kea_from_Mauna_Loa_Observatory,_Hawaii_-
_20100913.jpg
Cinder Cones The smallest type of volcano, typically only a couple of hundred meters high,
is known as a cinder cone.
Lassen Volcanic National Park, California.
References in: http://academic.cengage.com/resource_uploads/downloads/0495555061_137454.pdf
Oregon’s Mount Hood
Composite Cones
A third kind of volcano, a composite cone, results when formative eruptions
are sometimes effusive and sometimes explosive.
References in: http://academic.cengage.com/resource_uploads/downloads/0495555061_137454.pdf
Plug Domes Where extremely viscous silica-rich magma has pushed up into the vent of a
volcanic cone without flowing beyond it, it creates a plug dome.
R.P. Hoblitt/USGS Volcano Hazards Program
Plug dome volcanoes extrude stiff silica-rich lava and have steep slopes.
Lassen Peak, located in northern California, is a plug dome and the southernmost
volcano in the Cascade Range. The lava plugs are the darker areas protruding from
the volcanic peak. Lassen was last active between 1914 and 1921.
References in: http://academic.cengage.com/resource_uploads/downloads/0495555061_137454.pdf
Great pressures can build up creating the potential
for extremely violent explosive eruptions, including
pyroclastic flows.
In 1903 Mount Pelée, a plug dome on the French
West Indies island of Martinique, caused the deaths
in a single blast of all but one person from a town of
30,000.
Why are plug dome volcanoes considered dangerous?
References in: http://academic.cengage.com/resource_uploads/downloads/0495555061_137454.pdf
Calderas Occasionally, the eruption of a volcano expels so much material and relieves
so much pressure within the magma chamber that only a large and deep
depression remains in the area that previously contained the volcano’s
summit. A large depression made in this way is termed a caldera.
Crater Lake, Oregon, is the best-known caldera in North
America..
References in: http://academic.cengage.com/resource_uploads/downloads/0495555061_137454.pdf
Processes and landforms
The most important processes that act on and below the surface of a
hillslope, affecting the regolith and bedrock are:
Slopewash and Mass-movement,
.
•References in:
http://scholar.google.it/scholar?q=slope+processes+and+landforms&hl=it&as_sdt=0&as_vis=1&oi=scholart
•http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorphology
• Panizza Mario (2007). Geomorfologia, Pitagora Editrice Bologna, Italy
•Tom L. McKnight , Darrel Hess (2002). Physical geography: a landscape appreciation. Seventh Edition,
Prentice Hall, Inc.
Hillslope Environemntal
Slopewash
Rainwater may produce important geomorphological effects whether by
raindrop impact or by surface runoff
Slopewash is discontinuous in time and depends on the intensity and
duration of the rainfall.
SPLASH EROSION is a
direct mechanical effect
produced by raindrops
SHEET EROSION (SE): is the areal effect of runoff or diffuse runoff
RILL EROSION (RE) : the initial concentration of runoff or embryonic channelling.
SE
RE
GULLY EROSION: concentreted runoff
Badlands - Calanchi
Mass-wasting
By mass-wasting is meant the chaotic transport of rock masses or detritus down a slope under the direct influence of gravity.
CLASSIFICATION
(After Scharpe, 1938, modified)
SLOW FLOW,
RAPID FLOW,
LANDSLIDE
SLOW FLOW
Creep: slow movement along the slope of soil or debris, usually
imperceptible except through repeated observations
Solifluction: the slow movement of detrital masses or saturated rock.
RAPID FLOW
Earth flow: the movement of
saturated soil on gentle slopes
Mud flow: the movement
slow or fast of clayey and marly
sediment along drainage lines
or channels
Debris flow: the movement, from slow to rapid, of detrital material from
fine to coarse which is saturated with water along drainage lines or
channels.
Cancia Alta
Rain-gauge stationCancia
Cancia Bassa
Villanova
Ultrasonic echometer
Traffic light
Borehole
Courtesy: CNR-IRPI Padua, Italy
Landslides Reference:
Varnes D. J.: Slope movement types and processes. In: Schuster R. L. & Krizek R. J. Ed.,
Landslides, analysis and control. Transportation Research Board Sp. Rep. No. 176, Nat. Acad. oi
Sciences, pp. 11–33, 1978.
M.Panizza (2007). Geomorfologia. Pitagora Editrice Bologna. Italy,
Fall Topple
Rotational slide
Traslational slide
Lateral spreading
Flow
Lanforms and processes References in : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorphology
Photos from Google Earth
Fluvial is used in
geography and Earth
science to refer to the
processes associated with
rivers and streams and the
deposits and landforms
created by them.
Fluvial processes
comprise the motion of
sediment and erosion or
deposition (geology) on
the river bed
Fluvial Environemntal
Fluvial patterns
Braided rivers
Anastomosing river
Meandering rivers
Straight river
Rivers are also capable of eroding into rock and creating new sediment, and
landforms depending on the regional topography and underlying geology
Probable delta in a crater to the
NE of Holden Crater, as seen
by Mars Global Surveyor
Nile delta
canyon
Floodplain
Terraces
Oxbow lake
Lanforms and processes References in: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorphology
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeolian_landform
Aeolian Environemntal Aeolian processes pertain to the activity of winds and more specifically, to their
ability to shape the surface of the Earth. Winds may erode, transport, and
deposit materials, and are effective agents in regions with sparse vegetation
and a large supply of unconsolidated sediment. Although water and mass flow
tend to mobilize more material than wind in most environments, aeolian
processes are important in arid environments such as deserts.
Wind Landforms
The desert pavement Barkana dune
Yardang
Yardang
Merzouga dunes in the Erg Chebbi
Landforms and processes http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorphology
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacier
M. Panizza (2007) . Geomorfologia, Pitagora Editrice Bologna, Italy
Photos from Google Earth
Glacial and Periglacial Environment
Glaciers, while geographically restricted, are effective agents of landscape change.
The gradual movement of ice down a valley causes abrasion and plucking of the
underlying rock. Abrasion produces fine sediment, termed glacial flour. The debris
left behind by a receding glacier at its front and margins is termed moraine. Glacial
erosion is responsible for U-shaped valleys, as opposed to the V-shaped valleys of
fluvial origin.
The way glacial processes interact with other landscape elements, particularly
hillslope and fluvial processes, is an important aspect of Plio-Pleistocene
landscape evolution and its sedimentary record in many high mountain
environments. Environments that have been relatively recently glaciated may still
show elevated landscape change rates compared to those that have never been
glaciated.
Maximum extension
of Pleistocene
glaciations in Europe
Moreux Crater moraines
and kettle holes, as seen by
HiRISE
Cryoclastic physical processes Processes of mechanical breakdown of rock
due to the expansion of water freezing within
it.
The products of this process are termed
cryoclastic.
The production of cryoclastic material is
proportional to the number of freeze-thaw
cycles.
Detrital slope
Niches and steps produced by
snow accumulation
Rock glacier:
Detrital mass which m oves
slowly downvalley under its
own weight in fluid fashion
generally due toi the
presence of interstitial ice
pingo and palsa
Geomorphosites: definition and mapping
References Emmanuel Reynard & Mario Panizza (2005) . Geomorphosites: definition, assessment and mapping ,
http://geomorphologie.revues.org/index337.html
Geomorphosites are geomorphological landforms that have acquired a scientific,
cultural/historical, aesthetic and/or social/economic value due to human perception
or exploitation (Panizza, 2001). They can be single geomorphological objects or
wider landscapes and may be modified, damaged, and even destroyed by the
impacts of human activities. The value of geomorphosites is poorly known to the
public and to scientists from other disciplines. There is therefore a need to heighten
the public profile of geomorphosites, to develop new methods to assess their
scientific, cultural, aesthetic and social/economic value, and finally to protect them
within a legal framework.
In order to achieve the goal of assessing and protecting geomorphosites, the
International Association of Geomorphologists (IAG) formed a Working Group for
the period 2001–2005 which focused on four main concerns : (1) geomorphosite
definition, (2) assessment methodology, (3) mapping methods, and (4) site
protection. The most important lesson gained from the assessment issue is that it
is necessary to select clear criteria that allow the various components of a
geomorphosite to be evaluated. Scholars from the universities of Cantabria,
Valladolid, Modena, and Lausanne have developed several different methods
Researchers from the universities of Pavia and Modena created a key method
that can be used for digital mapping (GIS) and linked to a database of
geomorphosite parameters. The issue of protection raised the need to address
the vulnerability of geomorphosites. Vulnerability arises because
geomorphosites are often multifunctional sites, i.e. frequented by a range of
users with diverse and sometimes conflicting interests. In order to mitigate
vulnerability, four types of action are proposed : (1) improve assessment
methods so as to more objectively select the sites of elevated interest;
(2) improve education of non-geomorphologists in order to increase their
sensitivity to the geomorphological value of the territory ; (3) promote
management structures such as geoparks ; and finally, (4) improve the legal
basis for protection, which can be enforced either through property rights or
using public policy. Experience was shared during workshops and international
conferences in Modena (workshop, 2002), Cagliari (workshop, 2003), Mexico-
City (IAG Regional Conference on Geomorphology, 2003), Florence (32nd
International Geological Congress, 2004), and Zaragoza (6th International
Conference on Geomorphology, 2005). A 2005 issue of Géomorphologie: relief,
processus, environnement presents six contributions that provide an overview of
the working group’s activities.
Nickolas C. Zouros, Mytilene.
Geomorphosite assessment and management in protected areas of
Greece Case study of the Lesvos island – coastal geomorphosites http://www.lesvosmuseum.gr/cms_files/dynamic//c45881/file/43_el_GR.pdf
Structural sketch-map showing the three orogenic belts of the Hellenic Orogen and their
extension to the Minor Asia region. Cimmerian continental fragments and ophiolotic sutures
after Mountrakis 1986 and 2006.
DE WAELE J., DI GREGORIO F., MELIS M.T., EL WARTITI M.
Landscape units, Geomorphosites and Geodiversity of the Ifrane-Azrou
region (Middle Atlas, Morocco) Mem. Descr. Carta Geol. d’It. LXXXVII (2009), pp. 63-76 figg. 7 - tabb. 2
http://www.isprambiente.gov.it/site/_files/pubblicazioni/PeriodiciTecnici/Memorie/MemorieLXXXVII/memd
es_87_de_waele.pdf
Example of the sheet file, in French,
used in the field for the cataloguing
of the Geomorphosites.
Extract of the map of Landscape Units and Geomorphosites of the Ifrane-Azrou region.
The represented area is the basaltic plateau of Azrou, one of the landscape units with the
highest geodiversity.
Landscape systems and units of the Azrou-Ifrane area and their main characteristics.
Geosites, geomorphosites and geological landscapes of the Azrou-Ifrane area.
The itinerary map with the proposal of six
thematic itineraries (left upper corner).
In this miniature map all geomorphosites
(circled numbers), the landscape units (in
black italic letters) and the main roads are
also summarised.
The geographical position of the Fagaras Massif within Romania’s territory
Laura Comanescu, Alexandru Nedelea and Robert Dobre
Evaluation of geomorphosites in Vistea Valley (Fagaras
Mountains-Carpathians, Romania) (2011) International Journal of the Physical Sciences Vol. 6(5), pp. 1161 -1168, 4 March, 2011
http://www.academicjournals.org/ijps/PDF/pdf2011/4Mar/Comanescu%20et%20al.pdf
Steps made in studying the geomorphosites
Criteria for geomorphosite evaluation (Pralong, 2005; Reynard et al., 2007; Coratza and Giusti, 2005) modified.
The evaluation of the geomorphosites
Geomorphological
map of Vistea valley
The geographical location of
geomorphosites in Vistea valley
The global value of geomorphosites