E_English Grammar Course E_English Grammar Course
Chapter I
Elements of grammar
IssuesIssues
1. Introduction to Grammar
2. Morphemes and Words
3. Ways of word formation
4. Parts of speech
5. Parts of a sentence
6. Types of phrases, clauses, sentences
Introduction to GrammarIntroduction to Grammar
GrammarGrammar
In global senseIn global sense
In narrow senseIn narrow sense
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Introduction to GrammarIntroduction to Grammar
GrammarGrammar
In global senseIn global sense
In narrow senseIn narrow sense
• equals competence, a body of knowledge that a
native speaker has about his/her language which
enables him/her to speak and understand it.
• includes word and sentence structure rules,
pronunciation rules, meaning of words/ sentences,
and discourse organization rules.
• equals competence, a body of knowledge that a
native speaker has about his/her language which
enables him/her to speak and understand it.
• includes word and sentence structure rules,
pronunciation rules, meaning of words/ sentences,
and discourse organization rules.
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Introduction to GrammarIntroduction to Grammar
GrammarGrammar
In global senseIn global sense
In narrow senseIn narrow sense
• refers only to the formation of the word and sentence
structures.
• consists of morphology, the study of words and word
formation, and syntax, the study of phrases, clauses,
and sentences.
• refers only to the formation of the word and sentence
structures.
• consists of morphology, the study of words and word
formation, and syntax, the study of phrases, clauses,
and sentences.
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Morphemes and WordsMorphemes and Words
discourse
sentence
phrase
word
morpheme
21/2
Morphemes and WordsMorphemes and Words
discourse
sentence
phrase
word
morpheme
I actually felt tired of sitting doing nothing. And I hated enjoying the unemployment benefit. I found myself useless. Then I decided to look for a job.
I found myself useless.
hated enjoying
hated,
enjoying
enjoy,
-ing
22/2
Lexical item – meaning
LEXICAL ITEMLEXICAL ITEM = A basic unit of meaning …
• A single word
(E.g.: man, boy)• Less than a word
(E.g.: terr in terror)• More than one word
(E.g.: to rain dogs and cats)
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Lexical item – meaning
LEXICAL ITEMLEXICAL ITEM MEANINGMEANING&
Lexical item and meaning has arbitrary relationship.
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Morpheme - Word
MORPHEMEMORPHEME = A minimal meaningful unit
E.g.: re/try
boy/s
5/2
2
Morpheme - Word
WORDWORD = An independent meaningful unit.
E.g.: try
boy
turn
return
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Occurrence
Types
Free
(words)
Bound
(affixes)
Grammatical Function words:
prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions....
inflectional
(suffixes)
Lexical Content words:
Nouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives
derivational (prefixes, suffixes)
Types of morphemes 27/2
Inflectional morphemes Derivational morphemes
Inflectional vs. Derivational morphemes
modify the meaning of an item but not change its parts
of speech.
can change meaning of the stem and typically, they
change the part of speech.
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Inflectional morphemes Derivational morphemes
Inflectional vs. Derivational morphemes
are changes in words to express their semantic and syntactic relationships to
other words in the sentence.
E.g.: ‘-s’ in ‘Bush says’ indicates the present tense and the subject is third person and singular.
indicate semantic relationships within words.
E.g.: the morpheme ‘-ful’ in ‘beautiful’ has no connection with other morphemes beyond the word.
29/2
Inflectional morphemes Derivational morphemes
Inflectional vs. Derivational morphemes
are regularly distributed. They occur with all or most
members of a word class.
E.g.: ‘-s’ (3rd person singular present) occurs with most verbs.
do not occur across whole classes.
E.g.: not all verbs take the derivational suffix ‘-al’ as refuse, propose.
210/2
Inflectional morphemes Derivational morphemes
Inflectional vs. Derivational morphemes
typically occur away from the root.
E.g.: the plural morpheme ‘-s’ occurs at the end of a
word, after all other morphemes.
occur close to the root, before inflectional
morphemes.
E.g.: organizations.
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Inflectional morphemes Derivational morphemes
Inflectional vs. Derivational morphemes
-s: 3rd person singular present
-ed: past tense
-ing: present participle
-en: past participle
-s: Plural
-s: possessive
-er: comparative
-est: superlative
There are a large number of derivational morphemes, which can be prefixes or
suffixes.
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Inflectional vs. Derivational morphemes
• Work in groups of 3
• Each group make a list of 5 inflectional and 5 derivational morphemes
• What are their meanings?
• The fastest group win the game
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Prefixation:Prefixation: adding a prefix to the base
E.g.: Non-stop
Predict
Morphological processes of word formation
1/3
3
Suffixation:Suffixation: adding a suffix to the base
E.g.: Economist
Grammatical
Morphological processes of word formation
2/3
3
Conversion: Conversion: a change of word-classes without affix.
E.g.: Import (n), (v)
Abstract (n), (adj)
Morphological processes of word formation
3/3
3
Compounding: Compounding: word formation from two or more bases.
E.g. Greenhouse effect
Desktop computer
Morphological processes of word formation
4/3
3
Clipping: Clipping: shortening a word
E.g.: Phone from telephone
Photo from photograph
Flu from influenza
Morphological processes of word formation
5/3
3
Reduplication: Reduplication: word formation from two or more either identical or slightly different elements.
E.g.: Goody-goody
Tick-tock
Seesaw
Wishy-washy
Tip-top
Morphological processes of word formation
6/3
3
Blending: Blending: word formation from two separate forms.
E.g.: Motel from motor and hotel
Smog from smoke and fog.
Morphological processes of word formation
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3
Acronym:Acronym: word formation from initial letters of a series of words.
E.g.: TV from television
FAQ from frequently
asked question.
Morphological processes of word formation
8/3
3
OthersOthers CoinageCoinage
BorrowingBorrowing
Morphological processes of word formation
BackformationBackformation
Sound + stress interchangeSound + stress interchange
Sound imitationSound imitation
E.g.: aspirinE.g.: aspirin
E.g.: boss, pianoE.g.: boss, piano
E.g.: opt (option)E.g.: opt (option)
E.g.: conductE.g.: conduct
E.g.: kiwi, cooE.g.: kiwi, coo
39/3
See more in Appendix I
Morphological processes of word formation310/3
• Each student receives an affix
• Group yourselves into prefixes and suffixes
• Each student gives an example of his/her affix
Parts of speechParts of speech
Parts of speechParts of speech
Closed systemClosed system Open classOpen class
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See more in 2.12 - 2.17
Parts of speechParts of speech
Parts of speechParts of speech
Closed systemClosed system Open classOpen class
4
• comprises functional words such as
articles, demonstratives, pronouns
prepositions, conjunctions, and
interjections
• comprises functional words such as
articles, demonstratives, pronouns
prepositions, conjunctions, and
interjections
2/4
Parts of speechParts of speech
Parts of speechParts of speech
Closed systemClosed system Open classOpen class
4
Features:
• unextendable number of members
• reciprocally exclusive
• reciprocally defining
• unstressed in spoken language
Features:
• unextendable number of members
• reciprocally exclusive
• reciprocally defining
• unstressed in spoken language
3/4
Parts of speechParts of speech
Parts of speechParts of speech
Closed systemClosed system Open classOpen class
4
• comprises notional/ lexical words
such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and
adverbs
• comprises notional/ lexical words
such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and
adverbs
4/4
Parts of speechParts of speech
Parts of speechParts of speech
Closed systemClosed system Open classOpen class
4
Features:
• extendable number of members
• combinability
• having certain syntactic functions
• stressed words in spoken language
Features:
• extendable number of members
• combinability
• having certain syntactic functions
• stressed words in spoken language
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Parts of speechParts of speech46/4
• Decide if the following words belong to closed-system or open class
blueheadthethatsummarizewhichyou
openopenclosedclosedopenclosedclosed
Parts of a sentenceParts of a sentence
Parts of a sentenceParts of a sentence
SubjectSubject PredicatePredicate
5
OperatorOperator
1/5
See more in 2.2 - 2.9
Parts of a sentenceParts of a sentence
Parts of a sentenceParts of a sentence
SubjectSubject PredicatePredicate
5
OperatorOperatorWhat is being discussed – theme.
E.g.: Her parents visit her sick uncle
every day.
What is being discussed – theme.
E.g.: Her parents visit her sick uncle
every day.
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Parts of a sentenceParts of a sentence
Parts of speechParts of speech
SubjectSubject PredicatePredicate
5
OperatorOperator
What is being said about the subject – rheme.
E.g.: Her parents visit her sick uncle every day.
What is being said about the subject – rheme.
E.g.: Her parents visit her sick uncle every day.
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Parts of a sentenceParts of a sentence
Parts of speechParts of speech
SubjectSubject PredicatePredicate
5
OperatorOperatorWhat helps to change a sentence into:
- interrogative
E.g.: Do her parents visit her every day?
- negative
E.g.: Her parents do not visit her every day.
- emphatic
E.g.: Her parents do visit her every day.
What helps to change a sentence into:
- interrogative
E.g.: Do her parents visit her every day?
- negative
E.g.: Her parents do not visit her every day.
- emphatic
E.g.: Her parents do visit her every day.
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Parts of a sentenceParts of a sentence
Parts of speechParts of speech
SubjectSubject PredicatePredicate
5
OperatorOperator
5/5
Lexical verbsLexical verbs
AuxiliariesAuxiliariesPrimaryPrimary
ModalModal
• include BE & HAVEE.g.: I am a student and I have a part-time job.• include BE & HAVEE.g.: I am a student and I have a part-time job.
• include BE & HAVE E.g.: I am cooking.
• include BE & HAVE E.g.: I am cooking.• include will, shall, should, can, might, etc. E.g.: I can cook.
• include will, shall, should, can, might, etc. E.g.: I can cook.
Parts of a sentenceParts of a sentence
Sentence elementsSentence elements
5
SubjectSubject
VerbVerb
ObjectObject
ComplementComplement
AdverbialAdverbial
6/5
See more in 2.10
Parts of a sentenceParts of a sentence
Sentence elementsSentence elements
5
SubjectSubject
VerbVerb
ObjectObject
ComplementComplement
AdverbialAdverbial
indirect (Oi)
direct (Od)
E.g.: He sent me (Oi) a postcard (Od).E.g.: He sent me (Oi) a postcard (Od).
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Parts of a sentenceParts of a sentence
Sentence elementsSentence elements
5
SubjectSubject
VerbVerb
ObjectObject
ComplementComplement
AdverbialAdverbial
E.g.: His brother who is a teacher (Cs)
considers me his best friend (Co).
E.g.: His brother who is a teacher (Cs)
considers me his best friend (Co).
Object Complement (Co)
Subject Complement (Cs)
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Parts of a sentenceParts of a sentence
Sentence elementsSentence elements
5
SubjectSubject
VerbVerb
ObjectObject
ComplementComplement
AdverbialAdverbial
E.g.: He goes fishing on Tuesday. (A opt)
His birthday is on Tuesday. (A obli)
E.g.: He goes fishing on Tuesday. (A opt)
His birthday is on Tuesday. (A obli)
obligatory
optional
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Parts of a sentenceParts of a sentence
Sentence elementsSentence elements
5
SubjectSubject
VerbVerb
ObjectObject
ComplementComplement
AdverbialAdverbial
Intensive
Extensive
+ Cs (1)
+ A (obli)(2)
intransitive(3)
transitive
mono-transitive (4)
di-transitive (5)
complex-transitive (6,7)
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Parts of a sentenceParts of a sentence
Sentence elementsSentence elements
5
SubjectSubject
VerbVerb
ObjectObject
ComplementComplement
AdverbialAdverbial
He is lovely. SVCs (1) intensive
He is out of the office.
SVA (obli) (2)
He is crying. SV (3) intransitive
extensive
He broke the vase. SVO (4)
transitive
He sent me an e-mail.
SVOO (5)
He found the play boring.
SVOCo (6)
He put the vase on the table.
SVOA (obli) (7)
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Parts of a sentenceParts of a sentence
Sentence elementsSentence elements
5
SubjectSubject
VerbVerb
ObjectObject
ComplementComplement
AdverbialAdverbial
Stative
Dynamic
Not progressive form
Progressive form
E.g.: The food he cooked tasted very good. E.g.: The food he cooked tasted very good.
E.g.: She is tasting the food he’s cooked. E.g.: She is tasting the food he’s cooked.
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Types of phrases, clauses, Types of phrases, clauses, sentencessentences
SyntaxSyntax
PhrasePhrase ClauseClause
6
SentenceSentence
1/6
Types of phrases, clauses, Types of phrases, clauses, sentencessentences
SyntaxSyntax
PhrasePhrase ClauseClause
6
SentenceSentence
Adverb phraseAdverb phrase
Adjective phraseAdjective phrase
Verb phraseVerb phrase
Noun phraseNoun phrase
Prepositional phrasePrepositional phrase
E.g.: All these books are mine.E.g.: All these books are mine.
E.g.: John has been looking for Jane.E.g.: John has been looking for Jane.
E.g.: Tom is a very interesting man.E.g.: Tom is a very interesting man.
E.g.: He ran quite fast.E.g.: He ran quite fast.
E.g.: He’s lecturing on the new technology.E.g.: He’s lecturing on the new technology.
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Types of phrases, clauses, Types of phrases, clauses, sentencessentences
SyntaxSyntax
PhrasePhrase ClauseClause
6
SentenceSentence
In terms of Clause’s elements & verb patterns
In terms of Clause’s elements & verb patterns
In terms of kinds of verb phrases
In terms of kinds of verb phrases
In terms of functions of the clause
In terms of functions of the clause
3/6
Types of phrases, clauses, Types of phrases, clauses, sentencessentences
SyntaxSyntax
PhrasePhrase ClauseClause
6
SentenceSentence
In terms of Clause’s elements & verb patterns
In terms of Clause’s elements & verb patterns
In terms of kinds of verb phrases
In terms of kinds of verb phrases
In terms of functions of the clause
In terms of functions of the clause
• SVA: John is at home
• SVCs: John is a doctor.
• SVO: John has cured many serious patients.
• SVOO: He gives his patients the same
prescription.
• SVOA: He put the prescription in a secret file.
• SVOCo: He calls his patients big fish.
• SV: He’s going out.
• SVA: John is at home
• SVCs: John is a doctor.
• SVO: John has cured many serious patients.
• SVOO: He gives his patients the same
prescription.
• SVOA: He put the prescription in a secret file.
• SVOCo: He calls his patients big fish.
• SV: He’s going out.
4/6
Types of phrases, clauses, Types of phrases, clauses, sentencessentences
SyntaxSyntax
PhrasePhrase ClauseClause
6
SentenceSentence
In terms of Clause’s elements & verb patterns
In terms of Clause’s elements & verb patterns
In terms of kinds of verb phrases
In terms of kinds of verb phrases
In terms of kinds of verb phrases
In terms of kinds of verb phrases
• Finite clause
E.g.: He took her out of the blue.• Non-finite clause
E.g.: Coming to the town, he visited his parents. • Verbless clause
E.g.: If possible, come to see us.
• Finite clause
E.g.: He took her out of the blue.• Non-finite clause
E.g.: Coming to the town, he visited his parents. • Verbless clause
E.g.: If possible, come to see us.
5/6
Types of phrases, clauses, Types of phrases, clauses, sentencessentences
SyntaxSyntax
PhrasePhrase ClauseClause
6
SentenceSentence
In terms of Clause’s elements & verb patterns
In terms of Clause’s elements & verb patterns
In terms of functions of the clause
In terms of functions of the clause
In terms of functions of the clause
In terms of functions of the clause• Subordinate
• Superordinate
E.g.: She said that you hit her first.
subordinate
superordinate
• Subordinate
• Superordinate
E.g.: She said that you hit her first.
subordinate
superordinate
6/6
Types of phrases, clauses, Types of phrases, clauses, sentencessentences
SyntaxSyntax
PhrasePhrase ClauseClause
6
SentenceSentence
Complex compoundComplex compound
ComplexComplex
CompoundCompound
SimpleSimpleE.g.: All these books are mine.E.g.: All these books are mine.
E.g.: He was watching T.V and she was cooking.E.g.: He was watching T.V and she was cooking.
E.g.: He didn’t want to talk to whoever he met in the London workshop. E.g.: He didn’t want to talk to whoever he met in the London workshop.
E.g.: Having seldom talked to anyone before, the child simply wide opened his beautiful eyes and looked at the stranger.
E.g.: Having seldom talked to anyone before, the child simply wide opened his beautiful eyes and looked at the stranger.
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HomeworkHomework
• Exercises 4-13 Workbook