Theoretical Foundations
KNR 273
What is theory?
Theory is a possible explanation or description of the relationship between various ideas or actions
It encourages people to specify what might happen and why
Hood & Carruthers, 2002, p. 138 Provides a strong base from which
to plan interventions Shank & Coyle, 2002
What theories are used in TR?
TR often uses borrowed theory The theories are not unique to TR The theories have not been developed
through TR research The theories are borrowed from other
fields TR uses a variety of theories
because our practice is so diverse Shank & Coyle, 2002
Stumbo & Peterson, 2009
Perceived freedom and personal choice Intrinsic motivation Self-efficacy, locus of control, and causal
attribution Optimal experiences/flow
4 major theories that are related to leisure behavior
Other theories have also been identified/used
Perceived Freedom
Activity or setting is more likely to be viewed as leisure when individuals attribute their reasons for participation to themselves (i.e., actions are freely chosen) rather than determined externally by someone else or by circumstances
Stumbo & Peterson, 2009, p. 16
Perceived Freedom
Perception that one has the freedom to make choices, engage in an activity, or embark on a course of action of his or her own choosing
Shank & Coyle, 2002, p. 65 Implies people have sufficient skills,
knowledge, and attitudes to have options from which to choose
Stumbo & Peterson, 2009, p. 16
Perceived Freedom & TR
TR helps build skills TR provides options for participation TR assists individual in expanding
personal choice
Intrinsic Motivation
People are motivated toward behavior where they can experience competence and self-determination
Increased motivation to participate comes from within and they are not forced to participate
Stumbo & Peterson, 2009
Optimal Experiences/Flow
Csikszentmihalyi Flow experiences are an end in
themselves They are driven by self-directed goals
Early model Balance of challenges and skills Anxiety and Boredom
Optimal Experiences/Flow
Optimal Experiences/Flow & TR
Match between skill and demands of activity Programs for various skill levels
Minimize distractions Identify how activities relate to
things the individual values
Learned Helplessness(Seligman, 1992)
Refers to 3 interlocked things An environment in which some
important outcome is beyond control Response of giving up The expectation that no voluntary
action can control the outcome Thought to lead to depression
Learned Helplessness(Seligman, 1992)
Way of explaining good and bad events represents “explanatory style’
3 critical dimensions Permanence Pervasiveness Personalization
Learned Helplessness(Seligman, 1992)
Permanence (time/how long someone gives up): Permanent (pessimistic)
People who give up easily Think always/never Produce long-lasting helplessness
Diets never work You never talk to me
Temporary (optimistic) People who resist helplessness because cause is
temporary Produce resilience
Diets don’t work if I eat out You haven’t talked to me lately
Learned Helplessness(Seligman, 1992)
Pervasiveness (space) Universal (pessimism)
People give up on everything when fail in one area
Produce helplessness across many situations College is horrible
Specific (optimism) People may become helpless in one part of
their life yet work hard in others Produce helplessness only in original area
KNR 370 is hard but I can understand KNR 273
Learned Helplessness(Seligman, 1992)
Personalization Internal (low self-esteem)
Blame ourselves I have no talent at poker
External (high self-esteem) Blame other people or circumstances
I have no luck at poker
Learned Helplessness(Seligman, 1992)
Helplessness Saps motivation to initiate responses
Generalizes to other situations Disrupts ability to learn Produces emotional disturbance
Activity
Self-Efficacy
Person’s belief about whether or not s/he can successfully engage in an activity
Judgments an individual makes regarding his or her ability to perform a particular behavior
Shank & Coyle, 2002
Self-Efficacy
Can be influenced through 4 sources Performance accomplishments Vicarious experiences Persuasion Physiological arousal
Self-Efficacy: Performance Accomplishments
Prior or current experiences where person does activity and has the desired outcome
Repeated success builds sense of competence
When people think they are capable of doing a task, they are more willing to engage and persist if they experience problems
Thought to have strongest influence on self-efficacy
Shank & Coyle, 2002
Self-Efficacy: Vicarious Experiences
Situations where the person observes someone else doing the activity
Impacted by how similar the role model is to the person
Shank & Coyle, 2002
Self-Efficacy: Verbal Persuasion
Persuading the person that s/he can do something
Most often used Least effective Effectiveness is influenced by
credibility of persuader Shank & Coyle, 2002
Self-Efficacy: Physiological Arousal
Internal state of individual when performing an activity
Degree of comfort or discomfort provoked in person
Shank & Coyle, 2002
Applying Self-Efficacy to TR Practice
Think back to juggling activity, which of these sources of information did I use to get you to juggle? Performance accomplishments Vicarious experiences Persuasion Physiological arousal
Other ways of using the techniques?