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The Relationships Between Service-Learning, Social Justice, Multicultural Competence, and Civic EngagementAaron Einfeld Denise Collins
This study qualitatively examined how participants in a longterm servicelearning program described their understanding of and commitment to social justice, multicultural competence, and civic engagement. Interviews with members of a universitysponsored AmeriCorps servicelearning program explored participants’ perceptions of the effects of their service. Several participants in this study increased their awareness of inequality, but only some adopted a commitment to social justice. Participants also developed several multicultural skills while interacting with their clients, such as empathy, patience, attachment, reciprocity, trust, and respect. All participants expressed a commitment to continued civic engagement.Thegoalsofhighereducation includemorethanhighacademicachievement.Themissionstatementofnearlyeveryinstitutionofhighereducation refers to educating its students“morally, and for good citizenship” (Kezar,2002, p. 15). One of the ways in whichAmericanhighereducationfostersthedevelopment of good citizens is through servicelearning, a unique form of experientialeducation. Students in servicelearning programs complete tasks that address humanneedswhilealsoaccomplishinglearninggoalsthroughreflectiveanalysis(Kendall,1990). Debate over how to describe the relationshipbetweenserviceandlearninghasbeenongoing for over 30 years (Kendall, 1990).However,Jacoby(1996)providedadefinitionofservicelearningthateffectivelysynthesizes
muchoftheliterature:
Servicelearningisaformofexperientialeducation in which students engage inactivitiesthataddresshumanandcommunityneedstogetherwithstructuredopportunitiesintentionallydesignedtopromotestudentlearninganddevelopment.Reflectionandreciprocityarekeyconceptsofservicelearning.(p.5)
Servicelearningcanbecurricularorcocurricular(Jacoby).Itisbothatypeofprogramandaformofpedagogythatenablesparticipantsto learn about the “historical, sociological,cultural,andpoliticalcontextsoftheneedorissue being addressed” (Kendall, p. 20).Experience,reflection,andreciprocityarekeyaspectsofservicelearning. This study examined a servicelearningAmeriCorpsprogramcoordinatedbyauniversityoutreachoffice.Studentsandcommunitymembersparticipateinthisprogramandcomplete considerably more service hours thanmost college or university servicelearningprograms. AmeriCorps members in thisprogramareplacedatavarietyofsocialserviceagenciesandcommittoservinganagencyfor300675 hours over the course of severalmonths or an entire year. Participants arerequired to attend conferences and trainingsessions and to complete various reflectionactivities. Participants also receive a modestlivingstipendandaneducationawarduponcompletionoftheirservice. AmeriCorpsisfundedthroughtheCorpor
Aaron Einfeld is a Resident Director at Calvin College. Denise Collins is Assistant Professor of Educational Leadership
and Women’s Studies at Indiana State University.
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ation for National and Community Service(CNCS), an independent federal agency,whichhasasaprimarymissiontofostercivicengagementincollegestudents.AmeriCorpsservesthecommunitytoaddresspublicsafety,education, community and economicdevelopment,humanneeds,health,andfamilyselfsufficiencyandstability.Since1994over$1billionofAmeriCorpsEducationAwardshavebeenearned,andoneinfourinstitutionsofhighereducationhasreceivedfundingforprograms(CNCS,n.d.).Moreover,theCNCShopestoengagefivemillioncollegestudentsinserviceby2010andtoensurethatthereisatleastonefulltimestaffpersondedicatedtocoordinatingandsupportingserviceonatleastone half of college campuses nationwide(CNCS). Because of the strong presence ofAmeriCorpsoncollegeanduniversitycampusesand the goal to increase that presence, it isimportant to examine the experiences ofAmeriCorpsmembers.
Charity Versus Social Change ParadigmsScholars have varying beliefs regarding eventhemostfundamentalnatureandpurposeofservicelearning.Kendall(1990)positedthatservicelearning experiences should have aspecific goal of moving students along acontinuum from a mindset of providingcharity toward promoting social justice. Asocial justice paradigm posits that servicelearning experiences should equip studentswiththeknowledgeandskilltomovebeyondactsofcharityandtoaddresstherootcausesof systemic social inequality (Eyler&Giles,1999). IncontrasttoKendall’s(1990)continuummodel of servicelearning, Morton (1995)argued that we should describe the variousapproaches to servicelearning in terms ofparadigms.These paradigms have uniqueworldviews, or “ways of identifying and
addressingproblems,andlongtermvisionsofindividual and community transformation”(Morton, p. 21). Instead of trying to movestudents from a mindset of charity towardsocial change, educators should challengestudentstoworkmoreeffectivelywithintheirexisting paradigm (Morton). Additionally,studentsmustbechallengedtograpplewiththetensionsthatexistbetweenservicelearningparadigms(Morton).Thereareseveralservicelearning paradigms: (a) charity, (b) civiceducation,(c)project,(d)communitarianism,and (e) social justice/change (BoyleBaise,2002; Morton); this study focuses on thecharityandsocialjusticeparadigms. Charity is typically understood as theprovisionofdirectservicewhereby“controlofthe direct service . . . [remains] with theprovider”(Morton,1995,p.21).BoyleBaise(2002)pointedoutthatapproachingservicewiththisparadigmcanhumblethereceiver,reinforcetheadvantagesofthegiver,andfailtoaddresstherootcausesforsocietalinequality.However,actsofcharityfoundedinspiritualloveorhumanisticrespectcanfosterunselfishmotivation to “relieve destitution, restorehuman dignity, and build a more humaneworld”(BoyleBaise,p.31).
Service-Learning OutcomesAlthough servicelearning experienced significantgrowthduringthe1990s,therehasbeena relatively small base of knowledge fromwhich to advocate its implementation inhigher education (Eyler & Giles, 1999).Previousresearchhasprovidedevidencethatoutcomesofservicelearningincludeselfconfidence,socialresponsibility,civicmindedness,selfesteem, and personal efficacy (Kezar &Rhoads, 2001). Eyler and Giles found thatservicelearning is strongly correlated withtolerance,personaldevelopment,andlinkingthe college experience to the community.Research has indicated that participation in
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reflective servicelearning classes predictsincreased “complexity in analysis of bothcausesandsolutionstosocialproblems”(Eyler& Giles, p. 75).This study examines howparticipation in longterm servicelearningrelatestoattitudesaboutandcommitmenttosocialjustice,multiculturalcompetence,andcivicengagement. Social Justice. Research has shown that“students[canmake]positivechangesintheirattitudes towardsocial justice [and]equalityof opportunity” (Rockquemore & Schaffer,2000, p. 15) as a result of servicelearningexperiences.Everett (1998) found that87%ofstudentsinasociologyclasswithaservicelearningcomponentagreedthattheirserviceexperiences“enhanced[their]understandingofsocialinequality”(p.304).Howeverservicelearning should move beyond increasingawareness and should also promote actiontowardsocialjustice(BoyleBaise&Langford,2004).Acommitmenttosocialjusticeinvolvesanindividualactivelyworkingtowardequalityforallsociety(MonardWeissman,2003). Research on commitment and actiontoward social justice after participating inservicelearningisvaried.Inoneexample,moststudents from an alternative spring breakservicelearning class stated a preference forvolunteeringtomeetindividualneedsratherthanaddressingmoresystemicchange(BoyleBaise&Langford,2004).Inthisstudy“activistviews were rare for white students, butcommon for studentsof color” (BoyleBaise&Langford,p.63).Inanotherstudy,studentsin an international servicelearningprogramreported a deepened understanding of theworld,while also committing to service andactive citizenship of the world (MonardWeissman,2003). Multicultural Competence. Oneofthemostconstant findings from the servicelearningresearch is that service experience reducesnegativestereotypesandincreasestolerancefor
diversity (Eyler & Giles, 1999). Servicelearningfacilitatesan increasedawarenessofstereotypes and assumptions while studentsbegin tounderstand larger social issues thataffecttheirservicesites(Jones&Hill,2001).Studentsinservicelearningprogramsconsisting of regular interaction with people fromdifferentethnicbackgroundsweremorelikelyto report growth in selfknowledge andpersonalgrowth(Eyler&Giles).Forexample,Marullo(1998)foundthatstudentsenrolledinservicelearningsectionsofaracerelationsclass showed greater increases in diversityawarenessthansectionsthatdidnotcontainaservicelearningcomponent. Servicelearning is an effective tool fordevelopingmulticulturalcompetencebecauseit “offers a structure for community basedlearning,collaborativeinintent[and]responsivetolocalneeds”(BoyleBaise,2002,p.4).Programs with shared control listen to andconsidertheperspectivesofthosewhoare“disenfranchisedormarginalized inour society”(BoyleBaise,p.4).Inthisway,servicelearningismore thanameans for those inpower toserve the less fortunate, but rather providesstudents with a “multicultural education”(BoyleBaise, p. 5) whereby they begin tounderstand local issues from a differentperspective. Civic Engagement. Research has documentedtheoccurrencesofcivicengagementandtheadvancementofdemocraticvaluesasoutcomesofservice.Forexample,Astin,Sax,andAvalos(1999)foundthatperformingatleast 6 hours of volunteer work per weekduringthelastyearofcollegealmostdoublesthe likelihood that a college student willcontinue to volunteer after leaving college.AstinandSax(1998)foundthatparticipationin volunteer service positively correspondedwith12outcomesrelatedtocivicresponsibility.Theseoutcomesincludedincreasedcommitmenttohelpingothers,servingthecommunity,
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promotingracialunderstanding,doingvolunteer work, and working for a nonprofitorganization(Astin&Sax). Servicelearning has also been found toincreaseageneralsenseofresponsibilityandcommitmenttosocialaction(MonardWeissman, 2003). Nevertheless, one study foundconflicting results where participation inservicelearningdidnotincreasecommitmenttowardcivicorsocialresponsibilityanymorethanatraditionallecturebasedcourse(Clague,1995).Itseemsthatundersomeconditions,servicelearningisabletofosteranincreasedsenseofcivicresponsibilityandengagement. Manyservicelearningactivitiesarelinkedtoacademicclasseswhereserviceandreflectionare incorporated with traditional classroomteaching (Mabry,1998).Thesecoursebasedserviceprojectsaretypicallybrief,consistingof a 20 to 40hour commitment. Anothercommonservicelearningformatisthealternativespringbreak,wherebystudentsparticipantin intensive service and reflection over a1weekperiod.Althoughthesebriefprojectscanhavemeaningfuloutcomes for students,an extended servicelearning experience canallow students to have more transformativeand integrative learning. Research indicatesthatadequatetimespentinservicefacilitatespositive developmental outcomes (Mabry).Thisstudyexaminedtherelationshipoflongterm participation in servicelearning withthreemainareasofaparticipant’sdevelopment:socialjustice,multiculturalcompetence,andcivic engagement.The research questionsguidingthestudywere:
1. WhateffectdoesparticipationinAmeriCorpshaveonparticipants’understandingofsocialinequality?
2. WhateffectdoesparticipationinAmeriCorpshaveonparticipants’multiculturalselfawareness,knowledge,andskill?
3. WhateffectdoesparticipationinAmeriCorpshaveonparticipants’attitudes,values,andbeliefstowardcivicresponsibility?
4. WhateffectdoesparticipationinAmeriCorpshaveonparticipants’commitmenttocontinuingserviceaftercompletingatermofservice?
MEthOD
ThisstudyinvestigatedhowparticipationinauniversitysponsoredAmeriCorpsprogramrelatedtothedevelopmentofaparticipant’smulticultural competence, understanding ofandcommitmenttosocial justice,aswellasunderstanding of and commitment to civicengagement.Methodologyforthisstudywasdictatedbyaconstructivisttheoreticalperspective(Broido&Manning,2002).Qualitativedatawerecollectedviainterviewsandanalyzedthroughaconstructivist,inductiveprocessinwhich themes and patterns were discoveredratherthanpredetermined(Manning,1999).The guiding constructivist epistemology inthisstudyaffirmsthatrealityissubjectivelyexperiencedandinterpretedbypeople(Manning).Therefore,thisstudydoesnotassumecontinuity and similarity between contexts, butratherinvestigatesandhighlightsthedifferencesfrom one context to another (Manning).Moreover, this study acknowledges the constructivistassumptionthatcontext—researcher,research setting, methodology, underlyingtheory,andrespondents—cannotbeabsolutelydetached from their subjective beliefs andvalues(Manning).
Participants and ProcedureParticipantswere selected fromauniversitysponsored AmeriCorps program that is nottiedtoanycurriculum.AmeriCorpsmemberswhohadsuccessfullycompletedafulltermofservice—atleast300hoursofserviceinalocal
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nonprofitagency—wereeligible forparticipationforthisstudy. ThestudywasconductedatamidsizedpublicuniversityintheMidwest.TheAmeriCorpsprogramhasbeenactiveonthiscampussince2005,witha totalof105AmeriCorpsmemberssinceitsinception. TenAmeriCorpsmemberswere selectedfrom 40 eligible participants. Purposivesamplingmethodswereused to collect datafromadiverserangeofparticipantsatmultipleservice sites so thatcomparisonandanalysisofmultipleviewswithinavarietyofcontextsand settings was possible. Additionally,purposive sampling was used to ensure thatthesamplepopulationreflectedadiversegroupin terms of age, gender, ethnicity, and thevarietyofmemberplacementsitesandservicesperformed. Participantsreceivedanemailexplainingthepurposeofthestudyandinvitingthemtobe interviewed.All10agreed toparticipate,however,onestudentwasunabletoschedulean interview session, making 9 the finalnumberofparticipants.Participantsweregivena$20giftcertificatetotheuniversitybookstoreasanincentivetoparticipateinthestudy. The9participantsincluded6womenand3men.SevenoftheparticipantswereWhiteandtwowereAfricanAmerican.Mostoftheparticipants were traditionalaged collegestudents,19–23yearsold,butoneparticipantwas 65. Agencies where the participantscompletedtheirserviceincludedacommunitycenter, a juvenile teen court program, aresidential facility for “atrisk” teenage girls,anafterschoolcenter,acenterforclientswithdevelopmentaldisabilities,andanEnglishasaSecondLanguage(ESL)program. Interviews followed a semistructuredprotocol,withquestionsbasedoneachoftheresearch questions as initial prompts.Theinterviewslastedfrom45to80minutesandwereheldinaprivateconferenceroomatthe
university.Interviewswereaudiotaperecordedandtranscribed,andpseudonymswereassignedtoeachparticipanttoensureconfidentiality.
Data AnalysisInterviewtranscriptionswereanalyzedthroughaprocessofopencoding,usingtheconstantcomparative method (Strauss & Corbin,1990).Thismethodwasutilizedbecauseofitseffectivenessinallowingconsiderableflexibilityinassigningandreassigningcodestovariouscategoriesasthemesemergedandevolvedfromthedata.Thisstudyincorporatedasystemofchecks to be sure of the highest degree ofaccuracy,authenticity,andtrustworthinessinitsfinalanalysisandinterpretation. Membercheckingensuredtrustworthinessandauthenticityoftheconclusions.Reflectivelisteningtechniquesemployedduringtheinterviewgaugedtheaccuracyofunderstandingofthe participants’ responses as the interviewprogressed.Additionally,interpretationswereconfirmed through external reviews with anexpert who has considerable expertise andfamiliaritywithservicelearningresearchandpedagogy.
Limitations
Although the interview data allowed forconsiderabledepthofanalysis,theconclusionsinthisstudyarebasedoninterviewsfromasmall sample size from a single institution’sAmeriCorpsprogram.Replicatingthisstudyonalargerscalewouldallowtheconclusionstobemadewithmoreconfidence. Thedatacollectedforthisstudywereselfreported,which can skew the resultsdue toparticipantselfmonitoring.Participantshavevaryingabilitytoreflect,express,andaccuratelyarticulate their experiences. Furthermore,several participants reported on experiencesthatoccurredoverthecourseofmanymonths.Thetimedelaybetweentheirearlyexperiences
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and interviews for this study might haveaffected or biased certain perceptions andrecollections.Inaddition,theinterviewsaskedforparticipants’perceptionsoftheeffectsoftheir servicelearning experiences on socialjustice, multicultural competence, and civicengagement.This does not imply a causalrelationship,butrathertheparticipants’selfreportsofchange.
FinDingS
Thefindingsofthisstudyareorganizedintoparticipant learning and development thatoccurred in threemajor areas: social justice,multiculturalcompetence,andcivicengagement.Lengthofservicewasanimportantfactorinfacilitatingmulticulturalcompetence.
Social JusticeParticipants had varying attitudes and approaches toward societal equality and socialjustice. Emergent themes within the largercategory of social justice were equality andempowerment. Equality. Attitudes toward the provisionof equal treatment in society ranged fromageneralbelief inthepresenceofequalrightsto an understanding of pervasive systemicinequalityinsociety.Severalstudentsreportedthat serving in AmeriCorps increased theirawarenessofsocietalinequality.ForexampleJack,a20yearoldWhitemanwhoservedinajuvenilecourtsystem,stated,“Ialwaysknewit,but I reallyhadnot seen it andnowI’veseenitformyowneyesthatsomepeopledoget, fall inbetween thecracks and they justgetpushedaway.”Increasingone’sawarenessofsocialinequalitydidnotautomaticallycauseparticipantstofeelresponsibleforpromotingsocialjusticeandequality.AlthoughLindsay,a 22yearold White woman, professed acommitmenttocontinuevolunteeringattheresidential“safehaven”forteengirlswhereshe
served her hours, she also commented thatpeopleareresponsibleforhelpingthemselves.Studentswiththismindsetexpressthatthereis a degree of inequality within society, butthat people are able to better themselvesbecausethereishelpavailable.Ifamemberofsocietyispoor,thereareservicesavailablethatwouldleveltheplayingfieldonceagain. Two students generalized the inequalitythattheyhadexperiencedand/orwitnessedattheir service sites to other populations. Forinstance,Danielle,a21yearoldWhiteESLtutor,hadwitnessed theunfair treatmentofherclientsbecauseoftheiraccentandnationality, as well as the significant barriers toobtaining legal citizenship. Danielle alsodiscussed how one of her female clientsexperiencedgenderdiscriminationinadditiontothediscriminationthatshereceivedbecauseof her nationality. Veronica, a 21yearoldAfricanAmericanwomanworkingatanafterschool center, spoke of witnessing racialinequality and also described gender andreligiousintoleranceandunfairtreatment.Inthisway,sheunderstoodinequalityatamorepervasiveandsystemiclevelbeyondherownexperience. Veronicaconnectedsocialinequalitytosystemicmulticulturalinsensitivity. Empowerment.Educationforsocialjusticebegins by increasing one’s awareness ofinequality, however social justice educationmustalsoequipandempowerstudentstobechangeagentstowardequality(Adams,2007).Although most participants in this studybecamemoreawareofsocialinequality,somestudents reported only a limited sense ofempowerment,whereasothersreportedhavinganinfiniteamountofpowerforchange. Manyoftheparticipantsreportedasenseof empowerment that can be likened to a“ripple effect,” whereby the impact of oneaction is felt in widening circles. DanielleexplainedhowthisrippleeffectwouldimpactherESLstudents:
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I’vealwaysfeltthisway,but[AmeriCorps]definitely helped me realize a broaderspectrumofhowmuchyoucanaffectinlife.Imeanmaybemejustbeingabletohelpthose17students—nowthey’regoingtobeabletohelptheirchildren,andtheirchildrenaregoingtobeabletohelpotherpeople,andthey’regoingtobeabletodobetter in their jobs.They’regoing tobeable to do better in their life here inAmerica.
Brooke, a 19yearold White woman, alsospokeofdiscoveringherpower.Afterservingclientswhoweredevelopmentallydisabledshesaid,“IlearnedthatIwasalotstrongerthanIthoughtIwas.”Brookespokeofhernewfoundpatience and perseverance, which gave herpower.Whenaskedifshehadpowertochangethings, Brooke said, “Everyone does. I justfoundit.” Althoughseveralparticipantsdescribedasense of personal empowerment at theirspecificservicesite,someparticipantsdescribedempowermentatamoresystemiclevel.Julia(a 22yearold White woman working at acommunity center) andVeronica explainedtheir empowerment in terms of groups andorganizations. Julia noted the power of acollective agegroup toflex theirmusclesbyvoting and speaking out, and Veronica described the power of organizations such asNAACPorlargecorporationsandgovernmententitiestomakesocietymorejust.
Multicultural Competence
Awareness, knowledge, and skill are threecomponents of multicultural competence(Pope,Reynolds,&Mueller,2004).Awarenessin this study refers to an individual’s selfawarenessandhowcognizanttheyareoftheirownvalues,culture,andassumptions.Knowledgereferstoanindividual’scontentknowledgeof other culture groups. An individual withhigh multicultural skill uses her or his self
awarenessandknowledgeofotherculturestoengageinculturallyappropriatebehaviorwithotherculturegroups(Popeetal.).Lengthofservicewasanimportantfactorinfacilitatingthedevelopmentofmulticulturalawareness,knowledge,andskillintheparticipants. Awareness. Some of the participantsreportedanincreasedawarenessoftheirprivilege in terms of economic status or familialstability and upbringing. For example, Jacksaidabouthisservicetojuvenileoffenders,
I didn’t realize how lucky I was until Istarteddoingall this,andthinkingwellI’ve reallyhad agood life. . . . I’vehadeverything that I’ve ever wanted andeverythingwheresomeofthesekidsjustdon’t.
Veronica had a good understanding ofmultipledimensionsofdiversityasshecitedexamples of how religion, race, and genderimpactedhowpeoplearetreated.Forexample,Veronicanoticedfromherownexperiencethatshehadahardertimegainingtherespectofthechildreninherafterschoolprogramsthanthemalevolunteers.Shepointedoutthat
IcouldyellasmuchasIwantedtobutthey’renotlisteningtomeuntil[amale]volunteerstartsyellingatthem....Theotherpersonhastomediatebecausetheyjust won’t listen to me ’cause I’m afemale.
Knowledge. James described how hisupbringinginasmallruraltownlimitedhismulticulturalknowledgeandpreconceptionsatthebeginningofhisservice.Hestated,
Igotfedthatlike,assadasthisis,thatallAfricanAmericansarejustmoochersandtheyalwayswantstuff....Iwasalwaystoldyouknow,they’renothingbutscumandstayawayfromthembecausethey’retrouble.
James said that at the beginning of hisservicethathe“hatedmostofthekids.”He
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describedhowhisservicetransformedhimbychallenginghisstereotypes.
Butnow,[I]lovethekids.OnceI’mhereIcan’tshutuptalkingtopeople.MywholeviewoftheAfricanAmericancommunityhaschangedbecausethere’ssomekids[atthe community center] that act betterthan kids that go to my church backhome.Andthathasbeenlikethebiggestthing,youknow,changingmymindandmyviewofit,likeallofthem.
Jamesalsogainedknowledgeofthehistoryof “White flight,” and how it impacted theracialmakeupoftheneighborhoodwhereheserved. Skill.Multiculturalskillmanifesteditselfininterpersonalandrelationshipskills.Manyfacetsofmulticulturalskill,suchasincreasedcapacitiesforempathy,patience,attachment,trust,andrespect,emergedfromtheinterviews. Oneofthemostconsistentfindingsfromthis studywas theabilityof theparticipantsto empathizewith thosewhom they served.Every participant described gaining a betterunderstandingofthestoriesandlifeexperiencesofherorhisclients.Inadditiontobeingmoreable to empathize with other people, theparticipants frequently reported they hadbecomemuchmorepatientasaresultoftheirservice. Manyparticipantsexpresseddeepattachmentstotheirclientsthatformedovertime.Forexample,whenaskedifshewasattachedtoanyofherclients,Veronicaexclaimed,“Ohyea.Ohmygoshyea!”Shesaid,“Yougottoknowallthekids....Youknowthemdeeply.AndIdidn’treallygetthatexperience[with]any[previous]volunteering.” Several participants described reciprocalrelationships with their clients in whichmutual learningoccurred.Forinstance,Ericnoted, “You learn more through and fromthem by listening rather than speaking.”Veronica stated, “You’re helping out.You’re
here...tolearn,...toabsorbeverythingthatthese people have to offer you. And you’retryingtobetterthem,butyouhavetorealizethatthey’rebetteringyouaswell.” As the participants worked to buildrelationships, themes of trust and respectconsistentlyemergedfromtheinterviewdata.Someparticipantsarticulatedtheirrespectfortheirclientswhilealsodiscussingtheireffortsto earn the respect of their clients. Jamesexplained,
Thekidsneedmeandneedapositiverolemodel, especially guys because the onlyopinionthatthekidshaveaboutguysisthey come in, maybe sleep with theirmom, beat her, use her, and then he’sgone....Andbeingmale,thesupervisorhas told me numerous times, you arealreadyatthedisadvantagewiththekidsbecausetheydon’tthinktoohighlyofyouandthatactuallyhasbeenastrugglewithsome of them, you know, like gainingtheirtrust.
Length of Service. The significant lengthofservicewasacontributingfactortodevelopmentofmulticulturalcompetenceintheparticipants.Veronicadescribedtheimportanceoftimeinherexperience:
AmeriCorps is continuous. Itwas everydayprettymuch.AndIjustgottoknoweveryone so much better than normalvolunteering experiences because I wasthere foralmostayear. . . .Peoplewhowereonlythereforlike2hoursaweek,or3hoursaweek,theystarttocomplain,“Ohthesekidsdon’tlistentome.”
Increasing the lengthof service at a siteprovidesparticipantswiththenecessarytimetodeveloprapportandmeaningfulrelationships with their clients. Moreover, servingseveral hours per week at a site is likely toincrease participants’ comfort with clientinteractionmorequicklythanepisodicservice.Formingtheserelationshipsovertimeisessen
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tial in continually developing multiculturalcompetence(Popeetal.,2004).
Civic EngagementForthepurposesofthisstudy,civicengagementwas broadly defined as an understanding ofactivecitizenshipandacommitmenttoservingone’scommunity.Severalparticipantsexpresseda commitment to volunteerism and civicengagement that was in place before theirservice with AmeriCorps. Most participantsarticulated the necessity for citizens to be“otheroriented.”Severalparticipantsarticulatedadesireto“giveback”tothecommunity.Eric described a particularly strong need togivebacktohiscommunity.
Iwantedtogivebacktothecommunitybecause,forexample,mybeinginvolvedwith selling drugs and things of thisnature,ItookfromthecommunityandI know in so many ways corruptedchildren’sheartsandminds....ButwhenIsawthelight,Iwasabletotryandhavehopefullybeensuccessfulwithinfluencingalotoftheotherkidsandturningthemawayfromthestreetsandtoacknowledgehowbaditisoutinthestreets.
Mostparticipantsdescribedagoodcitizenasanactivecitizen.Allparticipantsexpressedacommitmentoradesiretocontinueservingtheir communities, however their differingattitudestowardcitizenshipdictatedtheformof their commitment. Some participantswantedtoavoidpoliticalengagement,whereasotherssawthenecessityofbeingapartofthepoliticalprocess.Anniehopedtoworkaroundthegovernmentinsteadofthroughit.Shesaid,
I learnedpatiencebutnot thatmuch! Ithink politics are a dangerous thingbecauseit’scrooked....SoIthink[activecitizenshipis]theworkyoucandooutsideoftherealmofthegovernment.
Incontrast,Veronicafeltanobligationandaneedtoengagethepoliticalprocess.Veronicasaid,
Politically, if there is someone [who] issupposedtoberepresenting[us],andyouobviously aren’t doing what’s right, Imean,Ihavetostepin.Youknow,IhearaboutitandI’mgoingtosaysomethingandI’mgoingtodosomethingaboutit.
DiSCuSSiOn
Thewiderangeofattitudes,beliefs,andlevelsofcommitmenttosocialjustice,multiculturalcompetence,andcivicengagementexpressedbytheparticipantsinthisstudyunderscoresthecomplexityofservicelearningexperiences.Jones(2002)pointedoutthatalthoughservicelearning experiences can spark significantdevelopment, this development is not automatic.Instead,therearesomeinstanceswhereservicelearningexperiencescanbedamagingtostudentsandthecommunity(Jones).Thedatafromthisstudyreinforcethepotentialforpositive transformation through servicelearning. Therearecountlesspersonalcharacteristicsandsituationalvariablesthataccountforthepersonal developmental outcomes of theparticipants in this study. However, somemajorvariablesareimportanttomention.Theparticipantswhohadpreviouslyexperiencedinequalitygenerallyhadabetterunderstandingof how inequality impacts individuals on adaytoday basis than those who had not.These participants included two people ofcolorandaWhitewomanwhohadexperiencedbeing treated unfairly as a minority whenvolunteeringabroad. Each participant had been selected andplaced at his or her service site through aninterviewandscreeningprocess.Thisprocessattemptedtoplaceindividualswhoexhibitedprior commitment to and participation inserviceactivities.Mostoftheparticipantshadpreviousvolunteerexperience.Therefore,thepoolofparticipants for this studymayhavebeenpredisposedtoacertainserviceparadigm.
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A high frequency of volunteering did notnecessarily imply a deep desire for socialchange. Much of the participants’ previousvolunteering had a charity paradigm ratherthanasocialjusticeparadigm(Morton,1995)andprobablyshapedtheinitialexperienceofparticipantswhenplacedattheirservicesites.Howeverallparticipantsexpressedadesireandcommitmenttocontinuedcivicengagementupon completing their service, regardless oftheirmotivationforcharityorsocialchange.Thisindicatesthatalongtermserviceplacement can foster a desire and commitmenttocontinued civic engagement and activecitizenship. Forsomeparticipants,theirunderstandingof civic engagementwas influencedby theirhighmulticulturalcompetenceandcommitmenttosocialjustice.Fortheseparticipants,multiculturalismprovidedtheworldviewfromwhich to address inequality through activecivicengagement.Otherparticipantsbecameawareofsocial inequalityasaresultoftheirservicebutdidnotintegrateanunderstandingofmulticulturalandsocialjusticeissuesintotheirunderstandingandcommitmenttocivicengagement.
Social Justice and CharityEachparticipantacknowledgedandwitnessedinequality,however someparticipantsdeveloped a social justice paradigm and othersadoptedacharityparadigm.Itispossiblethatthesedifferencesinparadigmsweretheresultofvariedbackgroundsandpersonaldifferences.Howeveritisalsopossiblethatsomeparticipantsdidnotadoptasocialjusticeparadigmbecause the ongoing training and reflectionthey received was not an effective form ofsocialjusticeeducation.Socialjusticeeducationshouldinclude“theanalysisofoppressionatindividual, cultural, and institutional levels”(BoyleBaise & Langford, 2004, p. 55).
Participantsinthisstudyreflectedaboutsocialissues in their journals,however therecouldhavebeenmorestructuredanalysisatmonthlymeetings to stimulate discussion about thesocial,cultural,andinstitutionalsystemsthatcontribute to inequality.When students areexposedtofrequentandhighqualityreflection,theyaremorelikelytoreportagreaterdegreeoflearninganddevelopment(Eyler&Giles,1999).Thefindingsofthisstudyemphasizethe importance of the educator in helpingstudents make sense of servicelearningexperiences.
Social Justice Education: Awareness and EmpowermentSpreadingawarenessofsocialinequalitywhilealsoempoweringstudents toworkforsocialchange are two key components of socialjustice education. In this way, social justiceeducationproducescitizenswhoareawareofsocial injustices.Thesecitizensalso feel empowered and committed to working towardsocial justice. Servicelearning provides studentswiththeopportunitytowitnessinequality first hand while also providing tangibleexperiences that can build confidence andfeelingsofempowerment.Participantsinthisstudyreportedpersonalempowermentbecausethey could see the impact of their service(Everett, 1998) in the personal lives of theclientstheyserved.Providingexperiencesforstudentstoengagesocialissuesatinstitutionallevelssuchasalocalschooldistrict,university,orcitygovernmentmightenhancetheconfidenceofstudentsandempowerthemtopursuesocialchangeattheseinstitutionallevels.
Multicultural Development and Length of Service
Thefindingsofthisstudywereconsistentwithpreviousservicelearningresearchondiversity
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andmulticultural competence.Researchhasconsistently found that servicelearningexperiences reduce negative stereotypes andincreasetolerancefordiversity(Eyler&Giles,1999).Thefindingsinthisstudyalsoprovideinsightintohowmulticulturalcompetencecandevelop. Rhoads (1997) pointed out thatservicelearning,atitscore,isareciprocalandrelationalphenomenon.Thisrelationalphenomenon sparked the development of multiculturalcompetenceintheparticipantsofthisstudy.Participantsbecamemoreawareoftheirbackground and identity as they comparedthemselves to theclientswhomthey served.Participantsalsowidenedtheirworldviewsastheygainedcontentknowledgebylisteningtothe stories andhistoryof their clientswhileobserving how their clients experience andinteractwiththeworld. Mostimportantly,theconsiderablelengthof service required by this program gaveparticipants the time and opportunity toestablishandmaintainreciprocalrelationshipswithclientswhoweretypicallyverydifferentfromthem.Theywereabletodevelopseveralinterpersonal skills necessary for effectivelyinteractinginamulticulturalsettingsuchasempathy, patience, attachment, reciprocity,trust,andrespect.ThesefindingsareconsistentwithArmstrong’s(2005)study,whichfoundthat servicelearning experience fosteredsignificantpsychosocialstudentdevelopment,such as developing mature interpersonalrelationships.Servicelearning’stransformativepower is derived from mutually shapingrelationships,whichoftencrossracial/ethnicorsocialclasslines.Itwasevidentinthisstudythat forming crosscultural relationshipsthrough service over an extended period oftimecanenhanceanindividual’scapacitytoengage in meaningful multicultural interactions.
iMPLiCAtiOnS
Social Justice through Civic Engagement
There is general agreement that individualsand institutions should civically engage,contributingtotheircommunities.Howeverthedatafromthisstudyrevealedthatindividualshavevaryingdefinitionsof“civicengagement” because of their differing attitudes,backgrounds,andgoals.Activecitizenshipcanmeananythingfromgoingonafieldtripwithyourkidstoalifelongdedicationtofightingsystemicinequality.Thisstudyrevealsalackofconsensusregardingthedefinitionofcivicengagement and indicates the need for acommondefinition. Itisalsoimportanttoexplorethepurposeofcivicengagement.Itisnotenoughtosimplybeanactiveor“engaged”citizen.Civicengagement and active citizenship in a democracyshouldbeavehicle forpursuingdemocraticidealsofjusticeandequalityinamulticulturalsociety (Hurtado, 2007).These democraticvalues are consistent with Warren’s (1998)definitionofsocialjusticewherebysocietyisconstantly striving for equality, inclusion,peace,andactiveparticipation.Inotherwords,an ideal democratic society is a socially justsociety.Ifthegoalistoeducatefordemocraticcitizenship,thenhighereducationprofessionalsmustprovidesocialjusticeeducationandfostermulticulturalcompetenceintheirstudents.Ifthegoalistoeducatecitizensforsocialjustice,then one must carefully examine how oneshapeseducationalexperiencestofosterasenseofempowermentandcommitmentinstudentstowork for social justice.Theseeducationalexperiences include everything from coursework and cocurricular servicelearning toprogrammingeffortsinresidencehalls,studentactivities,andjudicialinterventions.
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Social Justice versus Personal Development
Althoughmostoftheparticipantsinthisstudyexpressedasenseofpersonalempowerment,amajorityoftheparticipantsdidnotexpressa commitment to actively pursuing socialchange for social justice.This was probablybecausetheeducationalfocusandstructuredreflectionof theprogram in this studyweredirectedtowardpersonaldevelopment.Reflectionactivitiesfortheparticipantsinthisstudyincludedgoalsetting,problemsolving,conflictresolution, leadership, andactive citizenshipdiscussions.Apersonaldevelopmentapproachto service is helpful but does not analyzehistorical,economic,andpoliticalfactorsthatcontribute to social inequality in variouscommunities(Snarr,2003). Theoveralllackofcommitmenttopursuesystemicsocialchangebytheparticipantsinthis study is evidence thatbeing exposed tosituations of inequality and serving underprivilegedpopulationsdoesnotautomaticallyfoster a commitment to social justice.Thisunderscorestheimportanceoftheroleoftheeducator in helping students to make theconnectionfromtheirservicetolargersocialissues. Effectively making these connectionsrequires that servicelearning educatorshaveanadequatelevelofknowledgeandexpertiseabout relevant historical, economic, andpoliticalsystemsandstructuresthataffectthepopulationsthattheirstudentsserve.Thereforeservicelearning educators must commit tolearning about these topics as they relate tosocialjustice.Collaborationwithknowledgeable faculty in areas such as history, socialwork, sociology, and political science is anessentialcomponentofacocurricularservicelearning program that seeks to educate forsocial justice.Servicelearning educators canthen draw on their personal knowledge ofsocialstructurestocreativelysparkreflection
and analysis about how social justice issuesdirectly impact their service experiences. Inthisway,servicelearningexperiencescanfosterpersonaldevelopmentinadditiontoprovidingamorecomplexunderstandingofsocialissues.Whenstudentsareexposedtofrequent,highquality structured reflection they reportsignificantlearninganddevelopment(Eyler&Giles,1999).AsRhoads(1997)pointedout,reflectionandservicemustgobeyondincreasinganawarenessofpovertyissues.Actionandreflection must work cohesively to inspireparticipantstocommittochangingstructuresthat cause social and economic inequality(Rhoads).
integrating Multicultural Education
Lackofmulticulturalknowledgeandskillarea driving force behind social inequality.Thereforeamulticulturaleducationisanecessary component of understanding structuralinequalitiesandhowtoproducesocialchangetowardequalityandjustice.Reflectionactivitiesmust be designed to foster an increase inmulticulturalawareness,knowledge,andskill.These activities are important because theyhelpstudentsconfront
therealitythatiftheytrulycareabouttheother and have a desire to alter socialconditionstheymustconsidercommunitybuildingandcommunityservicenotasaone time endeavor but as a processdemanding their continued attention.(Rhoads,1997,p.186)
Thefindingsfromthisstudyindicatethatparticipatinginalongtermservicecommitment often facilitates the development ofmulticultural competence in participants.Howeverintentionaleffortsbyeducatorscoulddeepenthemulticulturalknowledgeandskillsthat naturally develop as participants enterreciprocal relationshipswith clientswho are
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differentfromthemselves. Moreover, the findings from this studyreveal the tremendous value of developingrelationships across cultural lines. Relationshipshavethepowertoprovestereotypesandprejudicewrongandtoenablereconciliation.Educators should put students in situationswherethestudentsareabletodeveloppositiverelationshipscrossculturallythroughsustainedcontactwithpeopleofothercultures. Further research could compare theoutcomes of servicelearning programs withguided reflection that focuses on personaldevelopmentversusreflectionthatemphasizesan analysis of systemic social inequalities.Because the predominant reflection methodfortheparticipantsinthisstudywaspersonaljournaling,itwouldbebeneficialtoinvestigatethevaryingeffectsofotherformsofreflection,such as large or smallgroup discussions,artisticexpression,interactionwithknowledgeablefaculty,orinterviewswithindividualsatthe service site, on the development of andcommitment to social justice through civicengagement. Theparticipantsinthisstudywereuniquebecausetheyreceivedamodestlivingstipendand monetary education award in compensationfortheirservice.Thiscouldhavehadaconsiderable effect on the developmentaloutcomesresultingfromservice.Moreresearchis needed to understand how monetarycompensationaffectsordoesnotaffectparticipantmulticulturalcompetenceorcommitmenttosocialjusticethroughcivicengagement.Researchersshouldlooktovariouspaidinternships and community workstudy programsforinsightabouthowmonetarycompensationmightimpactstudentdevelopment.Althoughtheseprogramsdonotnecessarilyuseservicelearningpedagogy,theymightprovidevaluableinformation about money, service, socialchange,andmotivation. Future research could investigate how
servicelearning participants are impacteddifferently by different kinds of serviceplacements.Howdoesworkingwithhomelessadults impact serviceparticipantsdifferentlythanworkingwithchildrenwithlowincomesat a community center? How do personalcharacteristicsandbackgroundsmitigatethisdevelopment?Knowledgeintheseareascouldenablepractitionerstocarefullyplacestudentsatservicesiteswheretheiruniquecharacteristicshave the highest probability of stimulatinggrowthanddevelopment. Thefindingsofthisstudyaresignificantand important to educators because theyprovideuniqueandvaluableinsightintohowparticipants make meaning of an extendedservicelearning experience. Much of thepreviousservicelearningliteraturehasfocusedon the outcomes of service experiences thatare connected to a semester course and hasneglectedserviceprogramsthatrequireamoreextendedtermofservice. Participants in this study had a widevariety of backgrounds and experiences andwereplacedinseveraldifferentservicesettings.In spite of these considerable differences,common themes emerged thatprovide educatorswithhelpfulinformationforhowbetterto design service experiences to enhancestudent development. For example, participantsarenotlikelytodevelopacommitmenttosocialjusticeunlesstheyareprovidedwithopportunitiestoanalyzesocialproblemsatthesystemiclevel.Withoutsuchanalysis,servicecommitment typically takes the form ofcharity, which can reinforce positions ofprivilegeanddependence. During longterm service placements,participantsareabletodevelopstrongrelationshipswiththeirclients.Participantsmusthonetheir skills for multicultural interactions asthey strive to develop meaningful and reciprocalrelationshipswiththeirclients.Thesedeep relationships canprovide a catalyst for
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multicultural learning and development.Thereforeeducatorsshouldprovidestudentswith the opportunity to develop long termcross cultural relationships through serviceprograms. Aprimarygoalofhighereducationistocreate responsible, moral, and productivecitizens.Servicelearningprogramsprovidetheopportunity for students to explore theirunderstandingofcitizenshipandresponsibilityto society.There are many definitions ofcitizenship,howevermostofthesedefinitionsdo not address how to be a citizen in amulticulturalorpluralisticsociety(Hurtado,2007).Weproposethataresponsible,moral,and productive citizen is committed tofosteringsocial justice throughcivicengagement.Thisengagementmustbeinformedbymulticulturalcompetence.Inthisway,social
justice, multicultural competence, and civicengagementareinterrelatedandshouldnotbeseen as separate entities. Education forcitizenshipshouldnotsimplyencouragecivicengagementandactivecitizenship.Educationshouldalsoequipstudentswiththemulticulturalcompetence,understandingofsystemicinequality, and empowerment to effectivelypursuesocialjusticethroughcivicengagement.Whencarefullydesigned, longterm servicelearning experiences provide a means forteachingandexploringthistypeofsynthesizedcitizenship.
Correspondence concerning this article should be sent to
Aaron Einfeld, VanderWerp Hall, 3201 Burton St. SE,
Calvin College, Grand Rapids, MI 49546; aaron.einfeld
@gmail.com
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