The Need for The Need for Science/Research Science/Research
and and Research MethodsResearch Methods
Chapter 1Chapter 1
Why we need Psychological Why we need Psychological Science and ResearchScience and Research
Three reasons: 1. Intuition, 2. Hindsight Bias , 3. Three reasons: 1. Intuition, 2. Hindsight Bias , 3. OverconfidenceOverconfidence
Intuition = gut instinctIntuition = gut instinct That feeling inside of you telling you something is right or wrongThat feeling inside of you telling you something is right or wrong
Hindsight Bias = after you find out the outcome you Hindsight Bias = after you find out the outcome you believe you knew the outcome all alongbelieve you knew the outcome all along
Examples: Columbia Disaster, Gulf oil spill, Man on the Examples: Columbia Disaster, Gulf oil spill, Man on the moon(1969)moon(1969)
Overconfidence = thinking we know more than we do Overconfidence = thinking we know more than we do about something; tend to be more confident than correctabout something; tend to be more confident than correct
Examples man will never reach the moon(1957),”[Ronald] Examples man will never reach the moon(1957),”[Ronald] Reagan doesn’t have the presidential look.” 1964, “Heavier than Reagan doesn’t have the presidential look.” 1964, “Heavier than air flying machines are impossible.” 1895air flying machines are impossible.” 1895
The Scientific Attitude and The Scientific Attitude and Critical ThinkingCritical Thinking
The scientific attitude The scientific attitude includes being curious, includes being curious, skeptical and humbleskeptical and humble
Explore, ask questions and Explore, ask questions and be willing to make or admit be willing to make or admit mistakesmistakes
Accepting those three Accepting those three characteristics allows one characteristics allows one to think criticallyto think critically
Critical thinkers:Critical thinkers: Are open mindedAre open minded Can live with uncertaintyCan live with uncertainty Distinguish fact from Distinguish fact from
opinion; rely on science opinion; rely on science rather than personal rather than personal experienceexperience
Realize the world is Realize the world is complex; don’t over complex; don’t over simplifysimplify
View all available evidence View all available evidence before reaching a before reaching a conclusionconclusion
The Scientific MethodThe Scientific Method
Research MethodsResearch Methods
Descriptive MethodDescriptive Method
Descriptive MethodDescriptive Method
Observe, collect, record dataObserve, collect, record data Describes but does not explainDescribes but does not explain Easy to collect dataEasy to collect data Little or no control over variables, biases Little or no control over variables, biases
and behaviorsand behaviors Three typesThree types
Naturalistic observation, survey method, case Naturalistic observation, survey method, case studystudy
Naturalistic ObservationNaturalistic Observation
Watching and recording the behavior of an Watching and recording the behavior of an organism in their natural environmentorganism in their natural environment
Only describes the behaviorOnly describes the behavior Ex: Counting the number of people who Ex: Counting the number of people who
wear hats on a college campuswear hats on a college campus
Survey MethodSurvey Method
research asks a representative sample (target group) of research asks a representative sample (target group) of people oral or written questions people oral or written questions
to find out about their attitudes, behaviors, beliefs, to find out about their attitudes, behaviors, beliefs, opinions, and values. opinions, and values.
mail, face-to-face, by telephone, and the Internet mail, face-to-face, by telephone, and the Internet Standardized, Inexpensive, replicable, large amount of Standardized, Inexpensive, replicable, large amount of
data quicklydata quickly Describes doesn’t explainDescribes doesn’t explain Ex: Student survey of risky behaviorEx: Student survey of risky behavior
Case StudyCase Study
detailed in-depth investigation of a single case detailed in-depth investigation of a single case concerning a person, a family, an organization, concerning a person, a family, an organization,
or an event. or an event. detailed in-depth information detailed in-depth information Can lead to a hypothesis for further studyCan lead to a hypothesis for further study Doesn’t explain, cannot be replicated, reliability Doesn’t explain, cannot be replicated, reliability
and validity are in questionand validity are in question Ex: effects of smoking on one individualEx: effects of smoking on one individual
Experimental MethodExperimental Method
Experimental ResearchExperimental Research
Manipulation and control of variablesManipulation and control of variables Identifies cause and effectIdentifies cause and effect Allows researcher precise control over Allows researcher precise control over
variablesvariables Ethical concerns, practical limitations, Ethical concerns, practical limitations,
artificiality, uncontrolled variables, biasesartificiality, uncontrolled variables, biases
Steps for ExperimentationSteps for Experimentation
1) Theory - idea1) Theory - idea Sugar rots your teethSugar rots your teeth
2) Hypothesis/Operational Definition – 2) Hypothesis/Operational Definition – testable, measurable, verifiabletestable, measurable, verifiable
- - Eating one bowl of sugar cereal every Eating one bowl of sugar cereal every morning rots your teethmorning rots your teeth
3) 3) VariablesVariables
-Independent Variable (IV): manipulated variable -Independent Variable (IV): manipulated variable (types of cereal, amount of cereal )(types of cereal, amount of cereal )
- Dependent Variable (DV): actual outcome (rotten - Dependent Variable (DV): actual outcome (rotten teeth)teeth)
- Confounding Variable: any variable other - Confounding Variable: any variable other
than the IV that could effect the outcome than the IV that could effect the outcome
4) Groups4) Groups
- Control Group: does not receive treatment - Control Group: does not receive treatment (Placebo)(Placebo)
- Experimental Group: receives treatment (cereal)- Experimental Group: receives treatment (cereal)
How groups are selectedHow groups are selected
PopulationPopulation People that the sample is drawn fromPeople that the sample is drawn from
• Ex: Swampscott High SchoolEx: Swampscott High School
SampleSample Subjects drawn from a particular population; target Subjects drawn from a particular population; target
groupgroup• Ex: 9Ex: 9thth grade boys grade boys
Random SampleRandom Sample Randomly choosing from a populationRandomly choosing from a population
• Ex: picking every 10Ex: picking every 10thth student who walks through the door student who walks through the door
Control MeasuresControl Measures
Single BlindSingle Blind Controls subjects awarenessControls subjects awareness Researcher knows who is receiving active drug and Researcher knows who is receiving active drug and
who is receiving placebowho is receiving placebo Researcher can influence resultsResearcher can influence results
Double BlindDouble Blind Controls both subject and researchers awarenessControls both subject and researchers awareness Third party controls distributionThird party controls distribution Less biasLess bias More scientificMore scientific
DrinkDrink BeliefBelief BeliefBelief
Vodka TonicVodka Tonic Believed drinking VodkaBelieved drinking Vodka Believed drinking Tonic Believed drinking Tonic WaterWater
Tonic WaterTonic Water Believe drinking VodkaBelieve drinking Vodka Believed drinking tonic Believed drinking tonic waterwater
BehaviorBehavior
More aggressiveMore aggressive
BehaviorBehavior
Less aggressiveLess aggressive
Conclusion: Belief affected behavior more than actual drink
Hypothesis: Drinking Vodka causes aggressive behavior
Correlation MethodCorrelation Method
CorrelationCorrelation
Correlation ResearchCorrelation Research Statistical analysis of relationships between variablesStatistical analysis of relationships between variables Identify relationships and how well one variable Identify relationships and how well one variable
predicts anotherpredicts another Helps clarify relationships between variables that Helps clarify relationships between variables that
can’t be examined by other methods and allows can’t be examined by other methods and allows predictionprediction
Does not allow researchers to identify cause and Does not allow researchers to identify cause and effect relationshipseffect relationships
Correlation causationCorrelation causation
Types of CorrelationTypes of Correlation
PerfectPerfect Rarely occursRarely occurs
PositivePositive When both factors go up When both factors go up
(left-right)(left-right) 0 - +1.00 - +1.0
NegativeNegative When one factor goes up When one factor goes up
and the other goes down and the other goes down (right – left)(right – left)
0 - -1.00 - -1.0 ZeroZero
No relationshipNo relationship
Statistical MeasuresStatistical Measures Mean (average) = Mean (average) = Median (middle) = Median (middle) = Mode (most frequent)= Mode (most frequent)= Range (difference between hi/lo) = Range (difference between hi/lo) =