The Indus River Basin as an Emergent Garden

James L. Wescoat Jr., Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture, MIT – LUMS Indus Conference – 29 January 2017

Problem Statement

• Late-20th c. concepts of Indus water management:

– “Indus Waters”

– “Great Indus food machine”

– “Indus Basin Irrigation System” (IBIS)

– “Integrated Water Resources Management” (IWRM)

– “Water-energy-food nexus”

– “Political economies & political ecologies”

• Something seems to be missing …

• The Indus River Basin as a Garden?

Paper Outline

GARDEN CONCEPTS

1. Mughal gardens -----------------

2. Colonial gardens -----------------

3. Late 20th c. garden research --& conservation

4. 21st c. “gardens” ---------------

WATER CONCEPTS

Mughal waterworks & subahs

Colonial irrigation landscapes

Indus Basin development, modeling & management

21st c. Indus River basin regionalism & placemaking

1. Early Mughal Gardens & Waterworks

Kallar Kahar, Salt Range

Kamran’s Baradari, Lahore

Scales of Garden Ideology in Mughal Culture

Mughal garden sites and spatial metaphors Babur laying out the Bagh-i wafa near Jalalabad

Mughal Subahs – late 16th c.

Indus subahs

“My Garden is Hindustan!” (Ebba Koch, 2007)

Revenue Survey of the Mughal Empire, ~1595 CE

Map: Shireen Moosvi

Political Economy of Mughal CultivationSources: Irfan Habib, Agrarian System of Mughal India (1999); Shireen Moosvi, Economy of

the Mughal Empire, c. 1595 (1987); Panniker et al. (2002); and related essays.

1. Agricultural production: 2/3 of GNP from agriculture (higher yields in 1600 than 1872). Mainly well irrigation.

3. Population: 145 million (~22 million urban)

2. Land revenue: tax = 50% of gross production; (~30% needed for food, leaving a margin of ~20%).

4. Local claims to agricultural surplus: zamindari; rich peasants; farm labourers & intra-family transfers.•

Mughal Watercourse & Landscape Maps

Mughal map of the Indus & its Tributaries Painted map of irrigation canal landscape

Sultanate &Mughal Canalson the Plains

Sultanate canals

Mughal canals [Ali Mardan Khan and others].

Well & floodplain farming.

After Habib, 1982

The Shift Northwest in late-16th c. Mughal Garden Events

Kashmir & Lake Dal as a Regional Garden

Mughal Gardens & Canals at the Urban Scale

Shalamar Bagh

Mian Mir complex

ShahNahr

Gardens & Waterworksin Historical Texts

Gardens & Rivers in Mughal Poetic Manuscripts

“It’s a Day for the Garden” -- Mahesh “A Sinner’s Plea before God” -- Sadi

Mian Mir shrine area with gardens and waterworks

Part 2. Intersections between Colonial Gardens & Canal Irrigation

“Hindoostan divided into Soubahs according to the Ayeen Ackbaree,” R. Wilkinson, 1815

Irrigated Gardens & Landscapes of the Indus

Alexander Burnes, Memoir on the Indus, 1830s Sketch map of canals 1850s

Company Baghs & Cantonment Gardens

Company Garden, Sheikhupura Company Bagh, Saharanpur

Contributions of theAgri-Horticultural Society of the Punjab

Agri-Horticultural Society of the Punjab

• On Tree Planting in the Punjab – proposed tree & shrub plantings along canals and roads.

• Agriculture in the Punjab – some references to irrigation and gardens in district reports.

• Horticulture in the Punjab – more references to gardens in district reports.

• Wool and Silk manufactures – high-value products

• On Plant Introductions – collection & testing.

Edenic Analogies & Reclamation Ethics

Part III: Indus River, Indus Basin, Indus River Basin, Indus Waters

1960

Brief references to gardens in the Indus Waters Treaty of 1960

National Basin Modeling: Water, Climate, Energy & Food Security Planning

WB Indus Basin Model Agroclimatic Zones & Canal Commands

Applications of the Indus Basin Model:From Development to Management

Indus Basin Management: Toward “Principled Pragmatism”

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CanalDiversions (MAF)

Estimated Pumpage Irrigated Area

Decreasing surface water supplies have led to increased ground water pumping Increased energy input for irrigated agriculture.

Further Developments: Water-Energy-Food NexusBridging the Water Supply Gap with Pumped Water

Electric Pumps (2008-09) Diesel Pumps (2008-09)

1 Dot = 100 Pumps

Return to Groundwater & Conjunctive Water Management

Linking Energy Intensity with Water Use Efficiency

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Food Crops Cash Crops Edible Oilseeds Vegetables Fruits Pulses

Source: Agricultural Statistics of Pakisan

Food in the Water-Energy-Agriculture Nexus

y = 1414.4e0.0456x

R² = 0.9545

y = 2036e0.0278x

R² = 0.9322

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Edible Oilseeds Vegetables Fruits Pulses Expon. (Vegetables) Expon. (Fruits)

And Horticulture: Fruits and vegetables show

exponential growth in production in Punjab

Particularly, with precision land leveling, watercourse lining, drip irrigation, grading & marketing.

Future work: Integrated systems dynamics modeling of water, energy, crop production, nutrition & equity

Something still seems to be missing …

Part IV. Synthesis and Prospect: Selected Qualities of Gardens & Gardening Relevant for the Indus

– Care (riʻāyat) for land, plants, animals & people

– Dignity (waqr) of cultivation and (cultivators

– Balance (mizan) & harmony

– Gratitude (shukr) & patience

– Good works (khairat) & sharing

– Beauty (bahar), order, diversity & composition in a garden

– Signs (ayat) in this world

IV. Synthesis and Prospect: The Indus Basin as a Garden Reconsidered

Upper Indus Waterworks and Gardens

Kreutzmann, 2000

Irrigated Gardens on the Plains

IV. Synthesis and Prospect: The Indus Basin as an Emergent Garden

SRI – System of Rice Intensification – substitution of labor & care

Meeting Plant Water Requirements w/o WasteETlandscape = ETreference * Kcspecies * Kcdensity * Kcmicroclimate

Irrigation Losses and Gains: IE: Assume 50% irrigation efficiency for a “new mali”RH: Assume 80% rainwater harvesting efficiency

Sheesh Mahal Water Requirement Example:Irrigation depth = [(2000mm * 0.5 * 1.0 * 0.75)-310mm]/0.5 = 880 mm/yrIrrigation volume = (0.88 m * 400 m2)-42m3 = 310 m3/yr

IV. Synthesis and Prospect: The Indus Basin as an Emergent Garden

Paraphrasing Dr. Abubakr Muhammad: Imagine how a gardener meticulously takes care of plants. Such attention to detail on a vast,

basin-wide scale is possible with water informatics and related water technologies … values, policies, and politics.