THE DIMENSIONS OF COUNTRY IMAGE:
A CROSS-NATIONAL STUDY OF COUNTRY IMAGE EFFECTS IN THE INDUSTRIAL MARKET
Researcher
Timo Ranta, M.Sc.(econ)
Turku School of Economics and Business Administration
Department of Marketing
Rehtorinpellonkatu 3
SF-20500 TURKU
FINLAND
Tel. +358-21-638 311
Telefax +358-21-503 131
Summary of the paper
Considerable effort has been expended in ascertaining whether country of origin affects product
evaluations. In general, it has been found that people have significantly different images or general
perceptions about products made in different countries. This holds for products in general, for
classes of products, for specific types of products, and for specific brands. It holds for both
industrial countries and less developed countries and for different markets. In many ways, however,
these research results are problematic. The research design in many of these studies has been
slightly artificial and the findings, therefore, have been more the results of methodology than
reality itself. More importantly, the present theory of country images is largely based on ad-hoc
consumer buying which usually involves little or no information processing. The present study
attempts to find out if country images have a considerable influence as the subjects are
professional buyers in the industrial market. The basic research problems considered are: (1) What
is the internal structure of country images ? (2) How do country images influence behaviour ? and
(3) What is the role of country images in industrial buying. The paper is, to a large extent,
theoretical and it is based on the author's forthcoming Licentiate Thesis 'The Dimensions of
Supplier Image: A Cross-National Study of Image Effects in the Industrial Market'.
9J4
Introduction
Products may be considered as consisting of an array of information cues. Each cue provides
customers with a basis for evaluating the product. Though most observers acknowledge that people
make inferences among product attributes, the influence of such inferences on product evaluation
is much less clear. However, inferences are theoretically important and a potentially troublesome
issue in the modeling and measurement of choice processes.(l)
In the industrial market the situation is even more problematic. The choice processes of industrial
buyers are influenced by a variety of factors, which Webster and Wind classify into four main
groups: environmental, organisational, interpersonal, and individual. To fully understand country
image effects in the industrial market, we have to be able to integrate them in this larger
framework of factors. For the industrial buyer the country of origin is an information cue among
a large number of other cues and, to measure the extent of country image effects, we need
information on these other cues as well. Image variables, however, are not insignificant in the
industrial market either. (2)
The image variable on which this paper focuses is the country of origin of a product. Country
of origin is a very influential image variable - an aspect of the product that is distinct from its
physical characteristics but that is nevertheless identified with the product. It is both a supply-
side variable and a demand-side variable; it influences the way products are presented and the way
they are perceived.(3) What is important is to be aware of this and to be able to take it into
account in international business. This study introduces a framework for considering country
images and their implications.
Composition of Competitiveness and Country Images
Traditionally, country level competitiveness has been viewed as a country's capacity to sustain and
expand its share of international markets and at the same time to improve its people's standard
of living. In other words, competitiveness means a country's capacity to employ domestic labour
and capital at increasing returns without running into balance-of-payments difficulties. Following
this, what a theory of international competitiveness must do is to establish the links between the
935
growth and balance-of-payment position of an open economy and factors influencing this
process. (4)
However, a distinction has to be drawn between competitiveness resulting from the internal
efficiency of an enterprise and that resulting from the national environment. Competitiveness,
originally, is a microeconomic concept but the macroeconomic context determines how much and
what kind of competitiveness is needed. In microeconomic terms, 'competitiveness is the ability
of entrepreneurs to design, produce and market goods and services, the price and non-price
qualities of which form a more attractive package that that of competitors'. National
competitiveness, on the other hand, determines 'how national environments are conducive or
detrimental to the domestic and global compatitiveness of enterprises operating in those
countries'.(5)
Therefore, the actual reasons for the performance of a company are always manifold and
overlapping - the explanation of competitiveness is multidimensional. The supply factors
influencing export performance include: productivity, costs and prices, exchange rates, export taxes
or subsidies, quality improvement, new products, marketing, finance, and the image of country of
origin. Accordingly, it is important to distinguish between the factors that determine the
competitiveness of a country as a production location and those that determine the competitiveness
of firms from that country.(6)
Competitiveness, by definition, includes both the sales aspect and the cost aspect, which, in
international context, are reflected in export performance and profitability.(7) The country-image
effect has an interesting role in this. It can be systematically demonstrated that a strong country
image induces the market to accept high price, which lessens the need for a strong price
competitiveness and widens the scope for competitive action. Country image is eventually related
to profitability (Figure 1).
COUNTRY
IMAGE
(high/low)
PRICE
(high/low)
PROFITABILITY
(high/low)
Figure 1: The Country Image Effect
936
Influence of Country of Origin
Since the mid-1960s, considerable effort has been expended in ascertaining whether country of
origin affects product evaluations. In general, it has been found that consumers have significantly
different country images or general perceptions about products made in different countries. This
holds for products in general, for classes of products, for specific types of products and for
specific brands. It holds for both industrial countries and less developed countries and both
industrial purchasing decisions and consumer purchasing decisions.(8)
This research, however, has had serious limitations. First, most country image studies involve only
a single cue, the country of origin, which tends to bias results in favour of finding a particular
country-of-origin effect. Second, in much of this research the brand-image effects are neglected
because the products are described merely as 'made in (name of country)' - not as specific brands.
Third, semantic scales are used in several of the studies and the validity of attitude measurement
with semantic scales can be questioned. Moreover, Jaffe and Nebenzahl found that country image
studies that have different questionnaire formats may not be comparable, even if the scale items
are the same. (9)
The more recent studies of country-of-origin effects have taken these methodological limitations
into account and adopted a multicue approach in examining the impact of country of origin.
Erickson, Johansson and Chao conducted an empirical investigation to determine the effects of
image variables on beliefs and attitudes in the multiattribute model framework.(10) Johansson,
Douglas and Nonaka presented a system of simultaneous equations (11) and Min Han and Tcrpstra
(12) examined the effects of country-of-origin and brand name cues on consumer evaluations of
uni-national and bi-national products. This, on the other hand, only added to the conceptual and
methodological dispersion in the field.
Furthermore, relatively little is known of how country images work in the industrial market. It has
been found that many buyers are reluctant to buy abroad because of the difficulties that can arise
due to a group of factors. Contact with the supplier is more difficult, the time required for
negotiation is generally longer and the use of foreign currency can cause problems. This, however,
is to a large extent history; there are many good reasons for buying abroad in almost every
industry. Some products are simply not available in the domestic market and, at times, the
937
domestic capacity can be insufficient to meet demand. By buying abroad it is possible to maintain
continuity of supplies during shortages or strikes and in many cases overseas sources are simply
more competitive, i.e. offer lower prices, improved delivery, or better quality. Multinational
companies and reciprocal trading further contribute to the increased foreign sourcing in many
industries and the country of origin is more and more relevant in the industrial market as
globalisation proceeds in every field.(13)
Concept of Country Image
In marketing literature, country images have been conceptualized in a variety of ways. Bilkey and
Nes defined country image as consumers' general perceptions of quality for products made in a
given country.(14) Etzel and Walker (15) and Hafhill (16), on the other hand, emphasize the fact
that such perceptions are typically specific to product categories. Johansson, Douglas and Nonaka
(17) are even more specific and state that these effects occur predominantly in relation to
evaluation of specific attributes rather than overall evaluations.
Min Han and Terpstra integrated country image effects quite eloquently when stating that the
country-of-origin effects are product dimension specific but that distinctive characteristics of
country images at the level of product dimensions appear to travel, or be generalizable relatively
well accross product categories. (18) The most general definition was given by Erickson, Johans
son and Chao who defined an image variable generally as 'some aspect of the product that is
distinct from its physical characteristics but that is nevertheless identified with the product*.(19)
In the industrial market, the situation is again a bit more complicated. Because of the complexity
of buying abroad the buyer will have to acquire specialist knowledge regarding the country from
which he intends to buy, the supplier from whom he intends to buy, and the legal and commercial
considerations and procedures involved in buying abroad. Therefore, country image in industrial
purchasing can be defined as the perception of factors influencing the process of buying from a
particular country.(20)
Although the extent and the nature of country images seem to be unclear it can be concluded that
country image is the impact of the product's country of origin on product evaluations (Figure 2).
This impact, of course, can be of any kind or extent.
938
Country A
Sender Product X
Country B
] image of 1 country A
Figure 2: The Role of Country Images in Marketing
Country Images and Behaviour
The major concepts for analyzing preference formation are beliefs, attitudes, intentions and
behaviour. A belief is a probability judgement that links some object or concept to some attribute.
The strength of the belief is defined by the person's subjective probability that the object-attribute
relationship exists, or is true. An attitude is an evaluative and affective judgement of an object.
One may have attitudes towards concepts, people, institutions, events, behaviours, outcomes, etc.
An intention is a probability judgement that links the individual to some specific action, i.e., the
individual's belief that he will perform some specific behaviour. Behaviour is an observable
action.(21)
In general, when including beliefs and attitudes in product evaluation models three basic
approaches are available. In the Fishbein model, attitude is determined by beliefs, intention is
determined by attitude and subjective norm, and behaviour is determined by intention.(22) The
behavioural approach concludes that affective reactions are primary, basic, inescapable, irrevoca
ble and difficult to verbalize, and that affective judgements involve the self, can become separated
from content and need not involve cognition.(23) The third approach suggests that causation could
proceed in the other direction - i.e. from attitude to beliefs.(24) No matter which approach is used,
rather low or non-significant relations between attitudinal predictors and behavioural criteria are
relatively common.(25)
According to Fishbein and Ajzen, there are three kinds of beliefs: descriptive, inferential and
informational. Descriptive beliefs derive from direct experience with the product. They link
physical characteristics with product perceptions. Informational beliefs are those influenced by
outside sources of information such as advertising, friends, relatives, and so on. This study is
9?9
primarily concerned with the remaining type of belief - inferential beliefs. This type of belief is
formed by making inferences (correctly or incorrectly) based on past experience as this experien
ce relates to the current stimulus.(26) Image variables may have inferential effects on product
beliefs but an image variable could have direct influence on attitude, aswell. Therefore, image
variables might be the 'missing link' between attitudes, beliefs and behaviour - explaining their
ambiguous relationships.(27)
Holsti and Ray integrated this decision making process in the belief system of the subject. A
belief system is an ordered set of ideas, theories, principles, etc. which are regarded as real and
true. They present country images as models used for organizing information which otherwise
would be unmanageable and further integrate country images into belief systems to demonstrate
the process in its entirety. Country images are thus viewed as a filter for processing environmen
tal information; only after information has been processed in the belief system it can influence
behaviour.(28-29)
To sum up, country images appear to have an influential role in decision making - they help the
subject to relate the current stimulus to past experience. Consequently, they have a self-defensive
function, aswell. Country images make the subject feel in control of the decision making process
and this indeed involves the self, can be seperated from context and need not involve cognition.
Therefore, a relatively behavioural approach is adopted in the present study. The basic framework
is outlined below (Figure 3).
STIMULUS RESPONSE
Environmental information
The belief system
Country imagedirect
indirect
Brand image
Behaviour
Figure 3: The Role of Country Images in Decision Making
940
Structure of Country Images
Comstock and Kaufmann have emphasized the importance of images in organizing information.
Images make possible simultaneous and independent mastery of extensive, percept-like informa
tion. Images can be examined and transformed and they can help in remembrance and assist in
perception. Images often appear in new and difficult situations, and they can assist in finding
solutions. However, the nature of this process and the structure of images is still in dispute. A
group of alternative views of this subject are outlined next.(30-31)
The encoding hypothesis maintains that information is encoded into memory in terms of concepts
that can be used to interpret information. Activating a concept, then, has a positive, assimilation
effect on the interpretation of information. However, when features of the information are
dissimilar to those of the activated concept, they may be interpreted as even more dissimilar to
it than they would be otherwise. This produces a contrast effect. Consequently, a product's country
of origin may activate concepts about the country and the general quality of products manufactured
there. If concepts activated by country of origin have a positive effect on the interpretation of
product attribute information, these effects are reflected in the influence of country of origin per
se. If, however, contrast effect occurs, these effects are reflected in more favourable product
evaluations when the attributes are desirable, and more unfavourable evaluations when the
attributes are undesirable.(32)
The heuristic hypothesis suggests that when an object belongs to a category whose members
typically have judgement-relevant attributes, subjects may use category membership as a heuristic
basis for judgements and form stereotypes. This is particularly evident when attribute information
is large in extent and difficult to integrate or when other information is lacking. Accordingly,
subjects who learn that a product was manufactured in a country with a reputation for a high
quality, use this information as a basis for evaluation and ignore information about the product's
specific attributes. Consequently, attribute information has less impact on evaluation than it would
otherwise. (33)
The primacy-recency hypothesis emphasizes the fact that when subjects receive several different
pieces of information to form an impression, they construct an evaluative concept on the basis of
the first information received and later use this concept as a basis for judgements. If a product's
country of origin functions simply as one of several attributes of the product the effects of both
country of origin and product attribute information are relevant. A product's country of origin has
more influence on product evaluation (and specific attributes have less) when the country of origin
is presented before attribute information rather than afterward.(34)
The cognitive elaboration hypothesis suggests that a product's country of origin exites people's
general curiosity about the quality of the product. Therefore the impact of attribute information
on evaluations is increased by prior awareness of a product's country of origin. Subjects who are
familiar with the product's country of origin think more extensively about the product's specific
attributes and assess the desirability of these attributes. As a result, the influence of country of
origin should be similar regardless of information presentation order and subject's processing
objectives. (35)
The halo hypothesis maintains that consumers use country image in product evaluation because
they often are unable to detect the quality of country's products before purchase. Most products
have unobservable attributes and the rise in the complexity of products only increases the
importance of these informational problems. The halo hypothesis has two implications. First, it is
postulated that consumers make inferences about product quality from country image. Second,
country image affects consumer rating of specific product attributes. Thus, the halo hypothesis
views the inferential process as: country image -> beliefs->brand attitude.(36)
The summary construct view maintains that individual elements of information are recoded and
abstracted into higher order units. Therefore, consumers may abstract information about a country's
products because brands with identical country of origin are perceived to have very similar product
attributes. This has two implications, aswell. First, consumers are assumed to make abstractions
of product information into country image. Second, country image directly affects consumer
attitude toward a brand - not indirectly through product attribute rating. Thus, the summary
hypothesis views the process as: beliefs > country image > brand attitude.(37)
The expectancy-value (EV) model posits that an individual's attitude toward an act (A-act) is
a function of a belief-evaluation composite. EV attitude provides an indirect, cognitive measure
of attitudinal responses by assessing a person's beliefs and evaluations about various consequences
of an act. Consequently, product attribute beliefs are likely to become accessible according to the
manner in which attributes are organized in EV attitude. People tend to make inferences about
interdependent attributes and change beliefs about these attributes in order to achieve and maintain
9U2
consistent belief systems. The decision strategy, and even control of the decision making process,
is vested in the mental representation of the decision problem and associated product class. In
short, the way information is organized in memory is held to guide decision. Accordingly, country
image can be viewed as an EV attitude used for organizing product attribute beliefs which are
specific to a decision-making process and to a product class. (38)
The schematic approach maintains that knowledge is organized into packets of information. These
include schemata, scripts, frames, prototypes and exemplars, MOPs (memory organizational
packets), and TOPs (thematic organization points). Schemas are cognitive structures representing
one's expectations about a domain). Scripts contain generalized knowledge about specific events
whereas frames are structures about classes of objects such as automobiles. A prototype is an
abstraction of a particular class of objects while an exemplar is a specific instance that is
considered representative of a set of objects. MOPs resemble scripts because they contain
generalized knowledge about specific events but they also contain linkages to specific events.
Finally, TOPs represent a higher order organization of events.(39)
Schemas have been demonstrated to have a profound influence on the processing of new
information. Two basic processes that explain how individuals can deal with information are
assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation occurs when a new concept is integrated into the
present mental schema. Accommodation occurs when a new mental schema is created or when the
present schema is modified to interpret a new concept. Correspondingly, country-image assimilation
may occur as a new concept (e.g. a new product) is integrated into the present image of the
country concerned. Country-image accommodation, then, can be used to designate the process
when a new country image is created (e.g. a previously unknown country) or when a country
image undergoes substantial modification (e.g. Eastern Europe, the Soviet Union, Germany).(40)
The holistic view, in general, deals with problems that cannot be adequately described as a sum
of smaller, independent events. Accordingly, an image can be viewed as a gestalt, a coherent
whole with tendencies and properties not discoverable in its isolated parts. Images are part of the
individual's cognitive organization and they are influenced by it. Images in a given culture have
shared and non-shared elements and the amount of shared elements reflects cultural consistency.
Images tend toward the greatest regularity, simplicity, and clarity possible and imagining is a
natural feature of human thinking from the very beginning. Images are structured and modified
by the subject's operational thinking and they are generated sequentially, egocentrically, and a part
943
at a time. As information is being processed in long-term memory it often becomes operational
in images.(41) A holistic summation of country-image effects is presented below (Figure 4).
IMAGE COMPONENTS
Cognitive (Thinking)
Affective (Feeling)
Behavioural (Conative)
Image of Country
Similar Countries Dissimilar Countries
Perception of Product Brand Quality
1Country Discriminators
Economic System Political System Behavioural System
Foreign Product Evaluation
Figure 4: The Quality Perception of Foreign Products
Research Problem
It is quite obvious that country of origin does indeed influence byer perceptions of the products
involved. However, how much influence that cue provides is not yet decided. Olson and Jacoby
refer to several studies indicating that intrinsic cues (the product's characteristics) had a greater
effect on quality judgements than did extrinsic cues (considerations associated with the product).
On the other hand, this was observed in 1972. It would be interesting to know if this still applies
to a generation grown up with TV.(42)
Andrews and Valenzi found that the effects of price on quality evaluations of products tended to
vary inversely with brand name familiarity. A similar relationship might exist between the country
of origin and other extrinsic cues. In general, an interesting issue is whether, and to what extent,
other cues - such as a well-known brand name - can compensate for a negative country-origin cue.(43)
The determinants of country-of-origin biases are unclear, aswell. Are they related to source country
considerations (such as degree of economic development or political climate), to consuming
country considerations (such as import experiences, nationalism, or cultural affinity with the source
country), or to something else? Knowing this would assist in determining whether country-of-
origin biases are deep-seated or superficial and whether it would be more effective to combat them
or to find a way to compensate for them.
And more critically, the multidimensional nature of country images has found little empirical
support yet. Johansson, Douglas and Nonaka concluded that the impact of country of origin may
be considerably more complex than is typically assumed, and that familiarity and other factors
affecting information or experience with a product should be taken into consideration.(44)
Furthermore, Jaffe and Nebenzahl presented a group of factor analyzes which indicated that the
concept of country image is multidimensional. Country-of-origin evaluations cannot be reduced to
a single continuum (eg good - bad).(45)
On the other hand, one is tempted to ask if the concept of country image, which has been
developed by researchers of consumer behaviour has anything to do with industrial purchasing.
Lehmann and O'Shaughnessy point out that companies don't buy anything - even the industrial
buyers are human, which is not necessarily a bad thing. They respond to image and buy from
suppliers and countries which, for some reason, have a reputation for a qood quality and service.
Images are means of storing information - images are not inherently subconscious, subjective, or
superficial. Images are a important factor in every market; it is just that we don't really know how
they work.(46)
To sum up, the most acute problem in this field definitely is the country image itself. Not much
is known about how foreign countries are actually represented in our minds. Min Han (47)
concludes that we should really examine how people form country image: what types of informa
tion are used to form a country image and how stable this country image is. Hong and Wycr (48)
point out that country image seems to play a major role in organizing and interpreting attribute
information. What we don't know, however, is how this actually happens - what a country image
really is.
945
This study approaches the subject on three levels, which are conceptually interdependent. An
attempt is made to integrate country images in the general framework of information processing.
First, the concept of country image is decomposed. The basic dimensions used in evaluating
foreign countries are identified and a general framework for analyzing country images is
constructed. In practice, the factors that seem to explain variance most reliably are defined and
a general perceptual space for country images is outlined. The theoretical problem considered is
what are the entities of attitudinal predictors.
Second, country images are related to preferences. The impact of brand image is integrated in the
evaluation and the relevant models outlined earlier are evaluated. In general, an attempt is made
to identify which theory concerning the role of country images in product evaluation can predict
behaviour most reliably. The theoretical problem considered is what is the degree of
correspondence between the attitudinal and the behavioural entities.
Third, the concept of country image is integrated in the larger framework of industrial purchasing.
The environmental, organisational and interpersonal factors are included in the analysis and country
image effects are measured in relation to other factors influencing the choice of suppliers in the
industrial market. The theoretical problem considered is what are the entities of evaluative criteria.
The purpose of this study is to define the composition of country images and to identify their role
in behaviour. Three basic research problems considered are:
1. What is the internal structure of country images ?
2. How do country images influence behaviour ? and
3. What is the role of country images in industrial buying ?
Empirical Investigation
In general, when analysing attitudinal entities researchers have usually tried either to classify
responses into different types or to identify the dimensions in which these different types may be
located. However, as pointed out by Osgood, the typology and dimension approaches are not only
alternatives: (49)
946
" is not a matter of cithcr-or but of both. Given a space defined by several
dimensions, the labels ~ may be represented by points within the space, each point
having some projection onto each dimension ~ if the distribution of the points
representing labels were homogenous, there would be no clusters and hence no
defendable Hypes' if, on the other hand, the labels did fall into clusters - and the
space were thus unevenly populated - the 'types' could be identified and confirmed. 11
This study attempts to isolate country image effects in three ways. First, beliefs concerning foreign
countries are collected. The subjects are asked to express their mental structures of foreign
countries by thinking extensively about choosing favoured supplier countries - a very realistic
situation. This procedure follows the schema and mental paradigms and the theoretical problem
considered is what are the entities of evaluative criteria.
Second, an attempt is made to isolate attitudes towards foreign countries. This is done by
examining preferences for different products, suppliers and countries. The subjects are asked to
motivate their answers as a major theoretical aim of the study is to find out if beliefs and attitudes
are consistent or not. This procedure follows the belief-attitude paradigm and the theoretical
problem considered is what are the entities of attitudinal predictors.
Third, the actual behaviour of the subjects is inquired. This is done on two levels. The subjects
are asked to give an account of their normal patterns of behaviour when dealing with suppliers -
the routines, the contacts, and the problems. On another level, they are asked to express how
they actually use information - how they find out about products, companies, and countries. This
is done in order to place country images in a natural perspective, which is a world of trade-offs,
networks, and complicated human relations. This is, it is claimed, something that no previous study
of country images has done. This procedure owes a lot to the behavioural school in marketing
and to the network and interaction perspective. The theoretical problem considered is what is the
degree of correspondence between the attitudinal and the behavioural entities.
As is evident, this process involves a group of very elaborated thinking tasks. Therefore, the
choice of professional buyers as the target group is only natural. The incoherent nature of the
country image literature can largely be attributed to the fact that the studies have dealt with non-
elaborated choices, i.e. ad-hoc consumer buying. This has often led to a simplifying approach and
stereotyped results.
947
Furthermore, country image studies have more often than not used a slightly unrepresentative
sample - housewives in a city, college students, paid laboratory testers, etc. The present study
attempts to avoid this problem on three dimensions. First, two nationalities are used; this gives
two inherently different perspectives on the problem. Second, the samples are geographically
representative in the two countries - people from the east, the west, and the north. This makes it
possible to find out if intra-nation and inter-region differences exist, and to what extent. Third, the
sample provides a nice cross-section of industries. It is tailored to represent the major companies
in a group of geographical areas, which has led to a situation where often one company per
industry is contacted.
To get the whole picture some data is collected from the supply side as well. In-depth interviews
are conducted among marketing/sales managers in some major foreign suppliers of industrial
products in both countries. The purpose of these interviews is to find out how suppliers view the
market and what is the role of country of origin in their industry.
To sum up, the purpose of this study is to define the composition of country images and to
identify their role in behaviour. To investigate the research problem semi-structured interviews are
conducted among purchasing managers in Great Britain and Finland, and three types of data are
collected: (1) image data, i.e. beliefs concerning foreign products, suppliers, and countries
(primary), (2) preference data, i.e. attitudes towards foreign products, suppliers, and countries
(secondary), and (3) behaviour data, i.e. intentions and behaviours related to foreign products,
suppliers, and countries (tertiary). The data will be encoded and transformed into meaning-units
and higher-order categories of description. Then an image-bank, a preference-table, and a
behaviour-matrix will be constructed. As the data will have both qualitative and quantitative
properties, a group of association and correlation measures will be used. Main emphasis, however,
is on the interpretation of differences and similarities, regularities and irregularities in the data.
This, it is hoped, will eventually increase our understanding of country images and industrial
marketing.
Preliminary Results
As 75 per cent of the data is collected some general observations can be made at this stage
already. It has to be remembered, however, that these are first impressions only and none of the
conclusions would stand in a statistical testing, yet.
As regards beliefs concerning foreign countries, professional buyers are quite reluctant to express
anything they can't verify in reality. Country images are, to a large extent, based on past
experiences or contacts and it is very hard for many respondents to differentiate between factual
and evaluative data. Suppliers are evaluated first according to the information they and their
references provide but the final image is really constructed by examining the whole environment
of their production - factories, management, representatives, and the general atmosphere. Some
countries indeed have clearly identifiable images but, in general, country images are based on
actual experiences.
Attitudes in the industrial market almost invariably have a behavioural content. Negative
evaluations are always explained by some occurrences in the past, which have either decreased
trust in foreign suppliers or ended the relationship altogether. Therefore, the behavioural approach
to image analysis is strongly supported; attitudes do not come from 'nowhere' - they are outcomes
of past behaviour. Attitudes can be changed only through behaviour or, as one respondent clearly
stated, '...they'll promise you anything.'
And interestingly enough, this reliance on experience does not depend on nationality, location, or
industry. When it comes to explaining trust in some countries or suppliers and lack of trust in
others, industrial buyers are alike no matter where they come from. No piece of written or spoken
information can convince them until the supplier has delivered them acceptable products in time
for two years.
Following this, what will be said about behaviour is very logical: the correspondence between the
attitudinal and the behavioural entities is very clear and consistent. In the industrial market,
attitudinal entities are really constructed through experience. Images of suppliers or countries are
not vague, latent or intervening variables - they are means of storing information which is
invaluable for the competitiveness of production. If attitudes change through experience - for better
or for worse - this is almost immediately reflected in behaviour. The supplier is informed of the
949
dissatisfaction and, if nothing happens, a new supplier is found. And most importantly, this may
cause major problems for the suppliers from the same country if they happen to approach the
unsatisfied customer in the future.
This process, luckily enough, works the other way around also. If some foreign country has a
reliable supplier other suppliers from the same country are more easily accepted than in the case
where the country is unknown or has a bad reputation. Therefore, the heuristic hypothesis, Ihe
summary construct view, and the holistic view seem to work in the industrial market. There are,
however, many other interesting points in the data and the author welcomes requests for additional
material of the study in the future.
950
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