Test and Measurement
The Newnes Know It All Series
PIC Microcontrollers: Know It AllLucio Di Jasio, Tim Wilmshurst, Dogan Ibrahim, John Morton, Martin Bates, Jack Smith, D.W. Smith, and
Chuck Hellebuyck
ISBN: 978-0-7506-8615-0
Embedded Software: Know It All
Jean Labrosse, Jack Ganssle, Tammy Noergaard, Robert Oshana, Colin Walls, Keith Curtis,
Jason Andrews, David J. Katz, Rick Gentile, Kamal Hyder, and Bob Perrin
ISBN: 978-0-7506-8583-2
Embedded Hardware: Know It All
Jack Ganssle, Tammy Noergaard, Fred Eady, Lewin Edwards, David J. Katz, Rick Gentile, Ken Arnold,
Kamal Hyder, and Bob Perrin
ISBN: 978-0-7506-8584-9
Wireless Networking: Know It All
Praphul Chandra, Daniel M. Dobkin, Alan Bensky, Ron Olexa, David A. Lide, and Farid Dowla
ISBN: 978-0-7506-8582-5
RF & Wireless Technologies: Know It AllBruce Fette, Roberto Aiello, Praphul Chandra, Daniel Dobkin, Alan Bensky, Douglas Miron, David Lide,
Farid Dowla, and Ron Olexa
ISBN: 978-0-7506-8581-8
Electrical Engineering: Know It AllClive Maxfield, Alan Bensky, John Bird, W. Bolton, Izzat Darwazeh, Walt Kester, M.A. Laughton,
Andrew Leven, Luis Moura, Ron Schmitt, Keith Sueker, Mike Tooley, D.F. Warne, and Tim Williams
ISBN: 978-1-85617-528-9
Audio Engineering: Know It AllIan Sinclair, Richard Brice, Don Davis, Ben Duncan, John Linsley Hood, Eugene Patronis,
Andrew Singmin, and John Watkinson
ISBN: 978-1-85617-526-5
Circuit Design: Know It AllDarren Ashby, Bonnie Baker, Stuart Ball, John Crowe, Barrie Hayes-Gill, Ian Grout, Ian Hickman,
Walt Kester, Ron Mancini, Robert A. Pease, Mike Tooley, Tim Williams, Peter Wilson, and Bob Zeidman
ISBN: 978-1-85617-527-2
Test and Measurement: Know It AllJon Wilson , Walt Kester, Stuart Ball, G.M.S de Silva, Dogan Ibrahim, Kevin James, Tim Williams,
Michael Laughton, Douglas Warne, Chris Nadovich, Alex Porter, Ed Ramsden, Tony Fischer-Cripps, and
Steve Scheiber
ISBN: 978-1-85617-530-2
Wireless Security: Know It AllPraphul Chandra, Alan Bensky, Tony Bradley, Chris Hurley, Steve Rackley, James Ransome,
John Rittinghouse, Timothy Stapko, George Stefanek, Frank Thornton, and Jon Wilson
ISBN: 978-1-85617-529-6
For more information on these and other Newnes titles visit: www.newnespress.com
Test and Measurement
Jon WilsonWalt KesterStuart Ball
G.M.S de SilvaDogan Ibrahim
Kevin JamesTim Williams
Michael LaughtonDouglas WarneChris Nadovich
Alex PorterEd Ramsden
Tony Fischer-CrippsSteve Scheiber
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08 09 10 11 12 13 6 5 4 3 2 1
Table of Contents
About the Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
Part I: Measurement Technology and Techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Measurement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31.2 Fundamental Concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Chapter 2: Sensors and Transducers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1 Basic Sensor Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152.2 Sensor Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312.3 Application Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362.4 Sensor Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382.5 System Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382.6 Instrument Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382.7 Data Acquisition and Readout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422.8 Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432.9 Measurement Issues and Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Chapter 3: Data Acquisition Hardware and Software. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.1 ADCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493.2 Types of ADCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513.3 ADC Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613.4 Sample and Hold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623.5 Real Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643.6 Microprocessor Interfacing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653.7 Clocked Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713.8 Serial Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723.9 Multichannel ADCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773.10 Internal Microcontroller ADCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783.11 Codecs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
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3.12 Interrupt Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803.13 Dual-Function Pins on Microcontrollers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803.14 Design Checklist. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Part II: Measurement Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Chapter 4: Overview of Measurement Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.1 Transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 854.2 Methods of Measurement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 864.3 Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 874.4 Zero, Range, Linearity, and Span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 894.5 Resolution, Hysteresis, and Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904.6 Fourier Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 924.7 Dynamic Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 934.8 PID Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 954.9 Accuracy and Repeatability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 964.10 Mechanical Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Chapter 5: Acceleration, Shock, and Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1015.2 Technology Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1025.3 Selecting and Specifying Accelerometers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1185.4 Applicable Standards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1215.5 Interfacing and Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1235.6 Machinery Vibration Monitoring Sensors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
References and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Chapter 6: Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1536.2 Differential Pressure Flowmeters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1536.3 Turbine Flowmeters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1596.4 Vortex Shedding Flowmeters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1606.5 Electromagnetic Flowmeters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1616.6 Ultrasonic Flowmeters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1626.7 Hot Wire Anemometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1636.8 Mass Flowmeters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Chapter 7: Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
7.1 Temperature Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1697.2 Types of Temperature Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
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7.3 Measurement Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1737.4 Selecting a Temperature Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1757.5 Thermocouple Temperature Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1757.6 RTD Temperature Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1807.7 Thermistor Temperature Sensors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1947.8 Integrated Circuit Temperature Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Chapter 8: Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2198.2 SI and Other Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2198.3 Absolute, Gauge, and Differential Pressure Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2208.4 Primary Standards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2218.5 Spinning Ball Gauge Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2248.6 Secondary Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2258.7 Working Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2268.8 Pressure Measuring Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2328.9 Calibration of Pressure Standards and Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Chapter 9: Position. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
9.1 Mechanical Switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2559.2 Potentiometric Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2569.3 Capacitive Transducer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2589.4 LVDT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2609.5 Angular Velocity Transducer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2619.6 Position-Sensitive Diode Array. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2629.7 Motion Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Chapter 10: Strain Gauges, Load Cells, and Weighing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26710.2 Stress and Strain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26810.3 Strain Gauges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27010.4 Bridge Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27210.5 Load Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27610.6 Weighing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Chapter 11: Light. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
11.1 Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28111.2 Measuring Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28211.3 Standards of Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
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11.4 Thermal Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28411.5 Light-Dependent Resistor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28611.6 Photodiode. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28711.7 Other Semiconductor Photodetectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28911.8 Optical Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29011.9 Photomultiplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Part III: Instrumentation Design Techniques for Test and Measurement . . . 295
Chapter 12: Signal Processing and Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
12.1 Conditioning Bridge Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29712.2 Amplifiers for Signal Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Chapter 13: Interfacing and Data Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
13.1 Interfacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37313.2 Input/Output Ports. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37413.3 Polling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37613.4 Interrupts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37713.5 Direct Memory Access (DMA). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37913.6 Serial Port . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38013.7 Serial Port Addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38113.8 Serial Port Registers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38313.9 Serial Port Registers and Interrupts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38413.10 Serial Port Baud Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38513.11 Serial Port Operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38613.12 Parallel Printer Port. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38713.13 Parallel Port Registers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38813.14 Parallel Printer Port Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39013.15 Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39113.16 Byte-to-Serial Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39313.17 RS232 Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39413.18 Synchronization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39513.19 UART (6402) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39613.20 Line Drivers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39913.21 UART Clock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40013.22 UART Master Reset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40013.23 Null Modem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40213.24 Serial Port BIOS Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40313.25 Serial Port Operation in BASIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40513.26 Hardware Handshaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
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13.27 RS485 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40713.28 GPIB. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40913.29 USB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41013.30 TCP/IP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
Chapter 14: Data Acquisition Software. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
14.1 An Overview of DA&C Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41514.2 Data Acquisition and Control in Real Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41914.3 Implementing Real-Time Systems on the PC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43414.4 Robustness, Reliability, and Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
Chapter 15: Scaling and Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
15.1 Scaling of Linear Response Curves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46115.2 Linearization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47015.3 Polynomial Linearization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47215.4 Interpolation between Points in a Lookup Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49015.5 Interpolation vs. Power-Series Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49815.6 Interactive Calibration Programs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49915.7 Practical Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
Chapter 16: Synthetic Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
16.1 What Is a Synthetic Instrument? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50616.2 History of Automated Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50616.3 Synthetic Instruments Defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51016.4 Advantages of Synthetic Instruments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51516.5 Synthetic Instrument Misconceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51916.6 Synthetic Measurement System Hardware Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52316.7 System Concept—The CCC Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52316.8 Hardware Requirements Traceability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53616.9 Stimulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53716.10 Stimulus Digital-Signal Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53716.11 Stimulus Triggering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54316.12 The Stimulus D/A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54516.13 Stimulus Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54716.14 Stimulus Cascade—Real-World Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55216.15 Real-World Design: A Synthetic Measurement System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55516.16 Universal High-Speed RF Microwave Test System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55616.17 System Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
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16.18 DUT Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56016.19 Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56116.20 Software Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56316.21 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
Chapter 17: Real-World Measurement Applications: Precision Measurementand Sensor Conditioning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
17.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56717.2 Applications of Precision-Measurement S-D ADCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56917.3 Weigh Scale Design Analysis Using the AD7730 ADC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57217.4 Thermocouple Conditioning Using the AD7793 ADC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58017.5 Direct Digital Temperature Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58217.6 Microprocessor Substrate Temperature Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58717.7 Applications of ADCs in Power Meters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
Part IV: Circuit and Board Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
Chapter 18: Testing Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
18.1 The Order-of-Magnitude Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59918.2 A Brief (Somewhat Apocryphal) History of Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60218.3 Test Options. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60518.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
Chapter 19: Boundary Scan Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
19.1 Latch-Scanning Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65119.2 Enter Boundary Scan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65419.3 Hardware Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65919.4 Modes and Instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66319.5 Implementing Boundary Scan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66519.6 Partial-Boundary-Scan Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66919.7 Other Alternatives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67419.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676
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Chapter 20: Inspection Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679
20.1 Striking a Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68120.2 Postpaste Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68420.3 Postplacement/Postreflow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68620.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713
Part V: EMC and RF Emissions Testing and Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . 715
Chapter 21: EMC Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717
21.1 What Is EMC? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71721.2 Compatibility between and within Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727
Chapter 22: Measuring RF Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
22.1 Emissions Measuring Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73022.2 Transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74022.3 Sites and Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 760
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 769
Chapter 23: Test Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 771
23.1 Test Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77123.2 Test Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77423.3 Tests above 1 GHz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77623.4 Military Emissions Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77923.5 Measurement Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 781
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791
Chapter 24: Test Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 793
24.1 The Need for a Test Plan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79324.2 Contents of the Test Plan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79624.3 Immunity Performance Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811
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Part VI: Accelerated Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 813
Chapter 25: Accelerated Testing Fundamentals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 815
25.1 Scenario 1. A Key Physical Property Is Wrong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81925.2 Scenario 2. A Primary Failure Mode of a Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82025.3 Scenario 3. The Mean Time to Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820
Chapter 26: HALT and FMVT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 827
26.1 A Typical HALT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82826.2 Hot Temperature Steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83126.3 Cold Temperature Steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83326.4 Ramp Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83426.5 Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83626.6 Combined Run . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83926.7 Business Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83926.8 Failure-Mode Verification Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84126.9 Development FMVT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84326.10 More about Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84726.11 What Can Break the Product? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84726.12 More about Failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85326.13 More about Setup and Execution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85326.14 More on Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85426.15 Comparison FMVT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86026.16 Method 1. Time to First Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86126.17 Method 2. Failure-Mode Progression Comparison. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86126.18 FMVT Life Prediction—Equivalent Wear and Cycle Counting . . . . . . . . 86226.19 FMVT Warranty. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86226.20 More on Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86326.21 Reliability and Design Maturity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86626.22 Business Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 867
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 868
Appendix: Standard Interfaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871
1 IEEE 1451.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8712 4–20-mA Current Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8733 Fieldbus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 873
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 877
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About the Authors
Steven Arms (Online Chapter: Wireless Systems) is a contributor to Sensor Technology
Handbook. Mr. Arms received his Master’s Degree in Mechanical Engineering at the
University of Vermont in 1983. He has been awarded 25 US patents and has over
10 pending. He has contributed to 18 journal publications, as well as 44 abstracts/
presentations, in areas of advanced instrumentation, wireless sensing, and energy
harvesting. Mr. Arms is founder and President of MicroStrain, Inc., a Vermont
manufacturer of micro-displacement sensors, inertial sensing systems, and wireless data
logging nodes for recording and transmitting strain, vibration, temperature, and
orientation data. MicroStrain has been recognized as an innovator in the sensors industry.
As of 2008, the firm has received nine Best of Sensors Expo Gold awards for its new
products. MicroStrain has received funding from the U.S. Navy and the U.S. Army to
develop wireless sensor networks which use strain energy harvesting to eliminate battery
maintenance.
Craig Aszkler (Chapter 5) is a contributor to Sensor Technology Handbook. Craig is a
Vibration Products Division Manager at PCB Piezotronics, Inc.
Stuart Ball, P.E. (Chapter 3 and the Appendix), author of Analog Interfacing to
Embedded Microprocessor Systems, is an electrical engineer with over 20 years of
experience in electronic and embedded systems. He is currently employed with Seagate
Technologies, a manufacturer of computer hard disc drives.
Dr. G.M.S de Silva (Chapters 1 and 8), author of Basic Metrology for ISO9000
Certification, is a Chartered Engineer (C.Eng) and holds degrees in Physics, B.Sc
(Hons), from the University of Ceylon; Instrument Technology, M.Sc, from the
University of Technology, Loughborough; and Electrical Materials, Ph.D, from the
Imperial College of Science, Medicine and Technology, University of London, where
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he was also employed as a researcher in surface roughness metrology. Dr. de Silva
has held senior positions in the fields of metrology, standardization, and quality
management in a number of national and international organizations during the past 35
years. At present, he is the Chief Technical Advisor for a number of United Nations
Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) projects for development of metrology
and standardization of infrastructure in the South Asian and South East Asian region,
(Bangladesh, Nepal, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, and Lao PDR). His past
experiences include Associate Professor and Manager, Measurement Standards
Laboratory, Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals,
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia; Director General of Sri Lanka Standards Institution, the
national standards body of Sri Lanka; UNIDO international metrology consultant to the
African Regional Organization for Standardization (ARSO); and Commonwealth Fund
for Technical Co-operation consultant in metrology to Grenada Bureau of Standards,
Grenada. He is a long standing member of the Institute of Measurement and Control,
United Kingdom, and a member of a number of other technical societies.
Tony Fischer-Cripps (Chapters 4, 9, 11, and 13) is the author of Newnes Interfacing
Companion. Tony is a Project Leader in the Division of Telecommunications and
Industrial Physics of the Commonwealth Scientific & Industrial Research Organization
(CSIRO), Australia. He was previously lecturer, University of Technology, Sydney,
Australia, and has also worked for the National Institute of Standards and Technology,
USA.
Timothy Geiger (Chapter 5) is a contributor to Sensor Technology Handbook. Timothy
graduated with a BBA from the University of Notre Dame in 1987 and a MBA from the
University of Chicago in 1992. He originally worked in various accounting and
financial positions prior to joining PCB Piezotronics, Inc. Currently, Tim holds the role
of Division Manager for the Industrial Sensors Division.
Dr. Prof. Dogan Ibrahim (Chapter 7) is the author of Microcontroller-Based
Temperature Monitoring Control. He is currently the Head of the Computer
Engineering Department at the Near East University in Cyprus. He is the author of over
50 technical books and 200 technical articles. Prof. Ibrahim’s interests are in the field of
microprocessor and microcontroller based automatic control, digital signal processing,
and distant engineering education.
Kevin James (Chapters 14 and 15 and Online Chapter: Sampling), author of PC
Interfacing and Data Acquisition, has a background in Astrophysics and Applied
Nuclear Science. As a research physicist he designed numeric models for applications
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xiv About the Authors
as diverse as radiometric thermometry and high-energy neutron dosimetry. He also
spent much of his time developing computer-based laboratory instrumentation for use in
geological and archaeological research. Since 1988, Dr. James has specialized in
producing data-acquisition software for a broad range of manufacturing and quality
control applications. He has designed test and measurement systems for the aircraft,
automobile, rail, process-engineering, and civil-engineering sectors and has developed
interfacing software for the PC as well as real-time firmware for a variety of embedded
systems. He has also designed and coded a number of Internet-based applications.
Dr. James is a Fellow of the Institution of Analysts and Programmers and has been a
freelance consultant since 1991. He has published numerous academic papers and
written extensively on the subjects of data acquisition, control, and interfacing. He is
currently engaged in database design.
Thomas Kenny (Chapter 2) is a contributor to Sensor Technology Handbook. Thomas
has always been interested in the properties of small structures. His Ph.D research was
carried out in the Physics Department at UC Berkeley where he focused on a
measurement of the heat capacity of a monolayer of helium atoms. After graduating, his
research at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory focused on the development of a series of
microsensors that use tunneling displacement transducers to measure small signals.
Currently, at Stanford University, research in Tom’s group covers many areas including
MEMS devices to detect small forces, studies of gecko adhesion, micromechanical
resonators, and heat transfer in microchannels. Tom teaches several courses at Stanford,
including Introduction to Sensors. Tom’s hobbies include Ultimate Frisbee, hiking,
skiing, and an occasional friendly game of poker.
Walt Kester (Chapters 12 and 17) is a corporate staff applications engineer at Analog
Devices. In his more than 35 years at Analog Devices, he has designed, developed, and
given applications support for high-speed ADCs, DACs, SHAs, op amps, and analog
multiplexers. Besides writing many papers and articles, he prepared and edited eleven
major applications books which form the basis for the Analog Devices world-wide
technical seminar series including the topics of op amps, data conversion, power
management, sensor signal conditioning, and mixed-signal and practical analog design
techniques. He is also the editor of The Data Conversion Handbook, a 900þ page
comprehensive book on data conversion, published in 2005 by Elsevier. Walt has a
BSEE from NC State University and a MSEE from Duke University.
Professor Michael Laughton (Chapters 6 and 10) BASc, (Toronto), Ph.D (London),
DSc.Eng (London), FR.Eng, FIEE, C.Eng, is the editor of Electrical Engineer’s
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xvAbout the Authors
Reference Book, 16th Edition. He is Emeritus Professor of Electrical Engineering and
former Dean of Engineering of the University of London and Pro-Principal of Queen
Mary and Westfield College. He is currently the UK representative on the Energy
Committee of the European National Academies of Engineering and a member of the
energy and environment policy advisory groups of the Royal Academy of Engineering,
the Royal Society, the Institution of Electrical Engineers, and the Power Industry
Division Board of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers. He has acted as Specialist
Adviser to UK Parliamentary Committees in both upper and lower Houses on
alternative and renewable energy technologies and on energy efficiency. He was
awarded The Institution of Electrical Engineers Achievement Medal in 2002 for
sustained contributions to electrical power engineering.
Chris Nadovich (Chapter 16) is the author of Synthetic Instrumentation. Chris is a
working engineer with over 20 years of experience in the design and development of
advanced instrumentation for RF and microwave test. He owns a private consulting
company, Julia Thomas Associates that is involved in many electronic automated test-
related design and development efforts at the forefront of the Synthetic Instrumentation
revolution. In addition to his hardware engineering work, Nadovich is an accomplished
software engineer. He owns and manages an Internet provider company, JTAN.COM.
Nadovich received BSEE and MEEE degrees from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in
1981. While working in industry as an engineer, he was also a competitive bicycle
racer. In 1994, Nadovich united his skills as an engineer with his love for bicycle racing
when he designed the 250 meter velodrome used for the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta. He
currently resides in Sellersville, PA along with his wife, Joanne, and their two children.
E.A. Parr (Chapters 6 and 10) M.Sc, C.Eng, MIEE, MInstMC CoSteel Sheerness, is a
contributor to Electrical Engineer’s Reference Book, 16th Edition.
Alex Porter (Chapters 25 and 26) is the author of Accelerated Testing and Validation.
Alex is the Engineering Development Manager for Entela, Inc. and has been with the
company since 1992. Since 1996, he has been developing accelerated testing methods
for mechanical components and systems. Alex has three patents related to accelerated
testing equipment and has published over thirty articles, technical papers, and
presentations on accelerated testing. Alex is chairing an SAE committee that is writing
an Accelerated Testing Supply Chain Implementation Guide. His work in the past has
included implementation of FEA in a laboratory setting and development of a thermal
management system for an advanced data acquisition package developed by NASA’s
Drydon Flight Research facility. Alex is a member of SAE and IEEE. He holds a B.S. in
www.newnespress.com
xvi About the Authors
Aircraft Engineering and an M.S. in Mechanical Engineering, both from Western
Michigan University.
Edward Ramsden, BSEE, (Online Chapter: Hall-Effect Sensors) is the author of
Hall-Effect Sensors. Ed has worked with Hall-effect sensors since 1988. His experiences
in this area include designing sensor integrated circuits and assembly-level products
as well as developing novel magnetic processing techniques. He has authored or
co-authored more than 30 technical papers and articles and holds ten U.S. patents in
the areas of electronics and sensor technology.
Steve Scheiber (Chapters 18, 19, and 20), author of Building a Successful Board-Test
Strategy and Principal of ConsuLogic Consulting Services, has spent more than 30
years exploring electronics manufacturing and test issues at all levels. A noted author
and lecturer, Steve has served as Contributing Technical Editor and Senior Technical
Editor for Test & Measurement World, for more than 25 years, and as Editor of Test &
Measurement Europe. His textbook, Building a Successful Board-Test Strategy,
published by Butterworth-Heinemann, is now in its second edition. Steve wrote
companion books, published by Quale Press, including A Six-Step Economic-Justification
Process for Tester Selection, Economically Justifying Functional Test, and Building
an Intelligent Manufacturing Line (all of which are available directly from
ConsuLogic). He has also written hundreds of technical articles for a variety of trade
publications. Steve’s areas of expertise include manufacturing and test strategy
development, test and general-purpose software, economics, and test-program
management. Steve has spent much time in the past 15 years teaching seminars on
economics and cost-justification of capital expenditures to engineers and managers. His
other seminar and technical-article subjects have included automatic-program
generation, concurrent engineering, design-for-testability, simulation, device and board
verification, inspection, environmental stress screening, and VXI. Steve holds
Bachelor’s and Master-of-Engineering degrees from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.
Chris Townsend (Online Chapter: Wireless Systems) is a contributor to Sensor
Technology Handbook. He is Vice President of Engineering for MicroStrain, Inc., a
manufacturer of precision sensors and wireless sensing instrumentation. Chris’s current
main focus is on research and development of a new class of ultra low power wireless
sensors for industry. Chris has been involved in the design of a number of products,
including the world’s smallest LVDT, inertial orientation sensors, and wireless sensors.
He holds over 25 patents in the area of advanced sensing. Chris has a degree in
Electrical Engineering from the University of Vermont.
www.newnespress.com
xviiAbout the Authors
Douglas Warne (Chapters 6 and 10) is the editor of Electrical Engineers Reference
book, 16th Edition. Warne graduated from Imperial College London in 1967 with a
1st-class honors degree in electrical engineering. During 1963–1968 he had a student
apprenticeship with AEI Heavy Plant Division, Rugby. He is currently self-employed,
and has taken on such projects as Coordinated LINK PEDDS program for DTI and the
electrical engineering, electrical machines and drives, and ERCOS programs for
EPSRC. Warne initiated and managed the NETCORDE university-industry network for
identifying and launching new R&D projects. He also acted as coordinator for the
industry-academic funded ESR Network, held the part-time position of Research
Contract Coordinator for the High Voltage and Energy Systems group at University of
Cardiff, and monitored several projects funded through the DTI Technology Program.
Tim Williams (Chapters 21, 22, 23, and 24) is the author of The Circuit Designer’s
Companion, 2nd Edition. He works at Elmac Services which provides consultancy and
training on all aspects of EMC, including design, testing, and the application of
standards to companies manufacturing electronic products and concerned about the
implications of the EMC Directive. Tim Williams gained a B.Sc in Electronic
Engineering from Southampton University in 1976. He has worked in electronic
product design in various industry sectors including process instrumentation and audio
visual control. He was design group leader at Rosemount Ltd. before leaving in 1990 to
start Elmac Services. He is also the author of EMC for Product Designers (now in its
fourth edition, Elsevier 2006), and has presented numerous conference papers and
seminars. He is also author of EMC for Systems & Installations with Keith Armstrong.
He is an EMC technical assessor for UKAS and SWEDAC.
Jon Wilson, (Chapters 2, 5, 12, and Online Chapter: Wireless Systems) is editor of
Sensor Technology Handbook; Test Engineer, Chrysler Corporation; Test Engineer, ITT
Cannon Electric Co.; Environmental Lab Manager, Motorola Semiconductor Products;
Applications Engineering Manager and Marketing Manager, Endevco Corporation;
Principal Consultant, Jon S. Wilson Consulting, LLC; Fellow Member, Institute of
Environmental Sciences and Technology; Sr. Member, ISA; and Sr. Member, SAE.
He has authored several text books and short course handbooks on testing and
instrumentation and many magazine articles and technical papers. He is a regular
presenter of measurement and testing short courses for Endevco, Technology Training,
Inc., the International Telemetry Conference, and commercial and government
organizations.
www.newnespress.com
xviii About the Authors