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StateandReligion
inthePerspectiveofMuslimHistory
HassanJafarZaidi
Goddidnotcreatestate.Manevolvedandcreatedstateintheshapesandformssuitedto
himaccordingtogrowthofmeansofproductionandtheleveloforganizationrequiredto
managetherelationshipsofproductionandmaintainequilibriuminaparticularsociety.The
statehas not existed from all eternity. Therehave been societies,whichhavemanaged
withoutit,whichhadnonotionofthestateorstatepower.Atadefinitestageofeconomic
development, which necessarily involved the cleavage of society into classes, the state
became a necessity because of this cleavage. Religions,whether evolved terrestrially, or
descendedheavenly,neverevolvedapoliticalsystemorcreatedastatestructurethough
theyhadcloseculturalassociation,inoneformortheother,withthisinstitutionofkeeping
balanceinthesociety,calledstate.Andthishasbeentrueforallreligionsandforallforms
andshapesofstatesevolvedsofar.
History took a historical turn on 9/11/2001. A discriminatory stigma was associated with
Muslimsintermsoftheirreligionandtheirstates,asiftheyweretheonlycreaturesonthe
faceofthisearththatcombinedtheirfaithwithgovernmentalsystem.Westernpowersand
theirmediaportrayedMuslimsandtheircountriesassourceofterror.Protagonistsofso-
called War on terror created an Islamophobia by making a case against them on the
groundsthat:
Muslimsbelieveinunityofreligion&statei.e.atheocraticstate If Muslimswere given a free hand, they would impose a Taliban like religious
extremiststateauthorityontheentirecivilisedworld
Interestinglyenough,duringthecold-warerathesameprotagonists
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Patronised the ideology of unity of state & religion in Islam as bulwark for thecontainment of anti-God communism: the concept of Islamistan was
propounded by Anglo-American Imperialism that culminated in Baghdad pact
(CENTO)
Patronised monarchs, despots & dictators who used the same ideology toconsolidatetheirrule.
Patronisedwholehostofreligiousextremist/terroristorganisationstopromotethesame ideology and crushed liberal/progressive democratic forces in the name of
IslamicRevivalism
PatronisedIslamicJihad,Pan-Islamism&ModelIslamicStateoftheirbrandAt the same time,many of the innocentMuslims,especially the educated lowermiddle
classesfellpreytotheserevivalistsinbelievingthatMuslimscouldoutgrowtheirproblems
iftheycouldrevivethefollowingasexistedintheirgloriouspast;
IslamicSystemofGovernment IslamicUnityorPan-Islamism IslamicJihad IslamicCharacterofMedievalMuslims
Let us look at the history and see if the image portrayed by theWest or the urge of
revivalismamongstsomesectionsofMuslimsbearhistoricaltestimonyoritisjustafallacy.
BeforetheadventofIslam,thereexistedtwopoliticalordersinthehumansocietiesacross
theentireglobe.
One:thedynasticmonarchyin theareaswhereagrarianrevolutionhadsuccessfullytaken
roots, especially in the rivervalleys,and advancemeansofproduction generated ample
surpluswealththatneededhigherorderoforganizationofstateauthority.
Two:thetribalpoliticalorderinthedeficitareas,barrendesertsorjungleswithbackward
means of production capable of producing just enough to keep themselves and their
community, and did not produce any significant surplus, so there was little room for
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exploitationoraroyalauthorityorastateauthority;sopracticallythereexistednostate
exceptthattheyhadaloosetribalconfederacy.
Onewasadvancedcomparedtothesecondintermsofleveloforganization,civilizationand
wealth. Both the systemswere product of socio-economicevolution ofmankind on this
planet,andwereneverderivedfromanyscriptureoraholybook.
Thesocietieslivingunderthesametypeofsocio-economicorder,yetindifferentpartsof
the world, practiced and believed in different faiths. The god-kings of Nile valley, the
Pharaohs;andthegod-kingsofGangesvalley,theRamahandtheKrishna;thegod-kingsof
Euphrates valley, the Assyria; and the prophet-kings of biblical Palestine; all formed
different sets of beliefs, yet the political order they followed was hereditary dynastic
monarchy.ThecultsworshippedinChina,South-EastAsia,Iran,Assyria,Greece,andRoman
Empireregionsweredifferent,butthepoliticalorderpracticedinthesesocietieswasagain,
a dynastic monarchical order. The conclusion is very simple: the believers in different
religionsandcults, living under similar stage of socio-economic developmentof agrarian
basedeconomyandtrade,hademployedsimilartoolsofgovernancetokeepabalancein
thatsocio-economicorder.Itfurtherleadsustoaveryimportantcorollarythatanypolitical
orderorsystemthatcouldbesuprareligionorcreedorfaith,wouldbetermedassecular
system.Thereforetheprevalentpoliticalorderofancientandmedievalera,thesystemof
dynastic monarchy running the different kingdoms and empires, was a secular system
independentofreligion,creedandfaith.However,theofficeofclergy,againirrespectiveof
religion, was part of the administrative structure with varying degree of power, yet
subservienttothekingoremperor.
Forthesecondtypei.e.thetribalpoliticalorder,wefindthatstatehoodwasnotevolved
yet.TherethetribewasaState,andtribalchiefsandelderswouldruntheiraffairs.Inter-
tribeagreementsordisagreementsandfightswerejustlikewhatwouldtranspirebetween
thestates.Aloosetribalconfederacyprovidedafunctionalarrangementbetweenthetribes
to maintain a balance in that society which was based on deficit or subsistent socio-
economic order. Some of such societies were known to or surrounded by the so-called
civilizedworldandhadsomekindofinteractionwithit.Morecommonlyknownwerethe
Arabs,yetconfinedwithinthepeninsula,NorthAfricanBerbersormoors,MongolsofGobi
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desert,andTartarsandAfghansofcentralAsia.Howevermanyofthemwerestillnotknown
to the civilized world i.e. those in Americas, Australia and Sub-Saharan Africa. But
interestingly the political systemwas run by similar traditions of inter-tribal pacts, tribal
assemblies (namedJirga inAfghans). The tribesmen inAmericasorsub-SaharanKalahari
Desertwouldbelieveindifferentcultsyettheysharedthecommonalityinthemannersof
runningtheirpoliticalaffairs.ThecultsworshippedbyArabs,Mongols,Australians,Tartars
and Afghanswereentirelydifferent and unknown toeachother, but theirpolitical traits
were quite common. We again draw the same conclusion, that the second prevailing
political orderof thatera, the tribal order,was also independentofbeliefs and faiths in
cults,thussecularinnature,androotedinthesocio-economicstageofdevelopment.
Inearly7thcenturyAD,whenProphetMuhammadproclaimedhisprophet-hoodinMakkah,
thepoliticalorderintheArabianPeninsulawaspredominantlyofthesecondtypei.e.the
tribalorderbasedondeficitunderdevelopedeconomywithlittleagricultureduetolackof
waterresourcesandscatteredpopulationinthevastariddesert.Thereexistednostateor
statesexceptsomesmallonesontheperipheryofpeninsulamainlyonitscoastline.The
oldest and thewell knownamongst themwas inYemen,owing tosomeagricultureand
maritimetrade. Some Yemeni tribes, asa result of tradebetween Yemenand Syria, got
settledin theNorthernendofpeninsulaborderingIraq,andestablishedtwoprincipalities
calledHeeraandGhassan. Theseweresortofbuffer states betweenByzantine and Iran.
Anothersmallprincipalitywasrecentlyestablishedby KindatribeontheEasterncoastline.
The rest of the mainland Arabia was without any state authority; the cities ofMakkah,
Madinah (Yathrib) and Taif had nokingsor rulers nor had allegiance toany neighboring
empiretohavetheirgovernorsthere.
Arabpeninsulawasdivided intotworegions, thearidareaofthenorthand
therain-fedareaofthesouth:northwasBedouineandSouth(calledYemen)
was set tled s tate under Jews , Chr i st ians and I ran ians. In the 6th century ,
withtheoutbreakof international warsbetweenByzantineandIranandthe
weakeningof major powers that control led thesouth, the regionbeganto
d is in tegrate and exper ienced a b reakdown o f i ts pol it ical and economic
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structure.At thesamet ime,Makkahemergedasaneweconomicandsocial
f orc e i n Arab ia. Its g eogr aph ical po siti on on th e sp ice route, h alfway
between Yathr ib (Madinah) and Naj ran, the s trongholds o f Judai sm and
Christ ianity, respectively, madeMakkahacaravanstat ionandaholyc ityat
thesamet ime.ThehouseconstructedbyAbrahamandIsmail ,enjoyedgreat
fol lowingandsanctityamongstArabtr ibes. Therel igious l i fewasbasedon
idolatryandpolytheism; theobject of worshipwasa t r io of goddesses, al-
Lat, al- Uzza, and Manat, cons idered to be daughters of A l lah and p laced
aroundthesacredhouseofAllah.
Therewasnostate:Tribalcustomsprevailedwithfollowingfeatures:Jirgasortofa
consultation;inter-tribeagreements; Bayiat(Bayiah)i.e.strikinghandonhandtoconfirm
the commitment either for trade or resolution of political or social issues, it could be
comparedwiththetraditionofmanumissioninEurope,aseculartraditionhavingitsrootsin
theprimitivebody language. Theseprevalent customsandtraditionswere knownasUrf.
Engelsusedatermofgentileconstitutionforsimilarsetoftraditionsthatprevailedbeforetheoriginsofstatehood.
SomeinstancesofthekindofpoliticalconstitutionthatexistedinandaroundMakkahcan
be traced from the sources of early Muslim historians like Ibn-i-Hisham who based his
source mainly on Ibn-i-Ishaq. Regarding theear ly inhabi tan ts of Makkah we find
that in onepart l ived BaniJurham the descendants of Prophet Ismai l (Bani
Ismail) and in the other l ived Bani Qatoora. The Jurham wou ld col lec t
the10th par t (Ushar) f rom those who would enter f rom the i r s ide and the
Qatoora the same f romthe ir s ide . Once f ight broke out between the two
tr ibes and Bani Qatoora were defeated, yet a ll branches of the two t ribes
heldanassembly(Jirga) andthesupremacyof BaniJurham wasrecognized.
Themanagement of af fa irs of houseof God ( Kaaba) was accededto them.
ThetraditionorUrfoftribalassembly(Jirga)settledthis issue.
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After sometimes , in -house f ighting got rampant between Bani Jurham on
tr ibutescol lectedfor Kaaba; another t r ibe BaniKhoza a tookadvantageof
the s ituat ion , a ttacked on Bani Jurham, defea ted and ous ted them f rom
Makkah.Themanagementof Kaaba wentunderKhoza a. Thedecis ion inthis
casecamebyfighting.
Somet imepast andQussiyBinKulaabofQuraish, son-in-lawofBaniKhoza a
claimedinheritanceafterthedeathofhisfather-in-law;thedisputeresulted
i n f ight between Qurai sh and Khozaa; then a moderator (Hakam) was
appoint ed ; t he dec is ion was t aken i n f avor o f Qus si ye , t he f ounder o f
Quraish supremacy on the management of Kaabah (Tawwalliyat) , including
the services of water and food for pilgrims (S iqayyah and R if adah ),
organizingconsultat ion(Nadawah ) andthe f lag ( Liwa) bearing.Qussiybui lt
aroomnearKaaba calledNadwahforconsultations.
During6thcenturyAD,HashimandUmayyiah,bothdescendantsofQussiye,stooduphead-
onagainsteachother;thedecisionthroughmoderator(Hakam)resolvedtheissueinfavor
ofHashim.Sometimeslater,conflictirruptedagainbetweenAbdulMuttalib-bin-Hashimand
Harab-bin-Umayyiah; decision again by a moderator (Hakam) was in favor of Abdul
Muttalib.
Until early 7th century AD same tribal traditions held sway. State could not be evolved
because means of production did not develop much; Abbas Bin Abdul Muttalib was
Muttawalli (custodian) of Kaaba at the time of prophets declaration of prophet-hood.
TherewasnorulerofMakkahorMadinahorthatofTaiforArabianPeninsula.
Thesystemofinter-tribepactsoragreementswasinplace.Someinstancesofsuchpacts
enteredbetweenthetribesofMakkahattheadventof7thcenturywere:pactofMuteebiyn
between thebranchesofBaniAbd-i-Munaf againstBaniAbd Aldar; and a similar treaty
betweenBani Abd Aldar againstBani Abd Munaf; another famous treaty called Half-al-
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Fazooltohelpanyoppressedagainsttheoppressorandredressthegrievances.Atthetime
ofreconstructionofKaaba,thedisputeastowhowouldfixthesacredblackstone HajarAl
AswadwasresolvedbyconsultationbetweentribaleldersofQuraishandthedecisionwas
madebytheProphetMuhammed.
Duringhisownlifetime, theProphetfollowedtheexistentnormsUrfoftribalorderinhis
day-to-daypolitics.DuringhisearlierperiodinMakkah,hemadesecretpacts BayiatAqaba
1stand2ndwith tribal eldersofMadinahwhowere invitinghimtomigratetoMadinah.
Thenaftermigration(Hijra) toMadinah,when Islamwasgoing tograspstrong roots,he
madeapactMithaq-i-MadinahwiththeJews&thetribes,irrespectiveofMuslimsandnon-
Muslims, living aroundMadinahwhich, in fact,was aunited frontofmostof the forcesconcentratedinandaroundMadinah,against QuraishofMakkahItwassecularinessence
whereinMuslims, Jews and othernon-Muslims had a political binding only; no religious
binding.HeconductedBayiat-i-Ridhwan,anoathofallegiance,beforethepeaceagreement
ofHudaibiya.AfterthevictoryofMakkahandTaif,mostofHijazrespondedtohiscallfor
Islam,yettheProphetdidnotestablishanystateorstateinstitutions,neitherinMadinah,
norinHijaz.OnlyakindofcentralauthorityemergedinthepersonofProphetwhichwasa
sortoftransitionfromprimitivetribalordertosortofchiefdom.Sometimestherewasan
advisorycouncilaswell,buttherewasnobureaucracyofprofessionaladministrators.The
governmentwasessentiallyjustthepersonofProphetwithhisteamofcounselorsi.e.the
companions(Sahabas).
TherealrevolutionthatProphetbroughtin,wasunificationoftheArabtribesaroundhim
despitegreatdiversitybetweenthem,andhecouldachieveitbyhisgreatqualityofliberal,
pragmatic andmagnanimousattitude,having nonarrowprejudices, reflected in thepact
with non-Muslims in Madinah (Mithaq Madinah); pact for peace at Hudaibia; general
amnesty to all his adversaries at the time of the conquest of Makkah and later-on, his
magnanimousdistributionofbootytothefamilyofAbuSufiyanafterthevictoryofbattleof
Hunain.
Deathof Prophet raised the issueof succession; according tobroader belief he did not
appointhissuccessorandleftthemattertoprevailingUrfi.e.theprevailingtraditionorconstitutionofgentile,whereasonesectioni.e.theShiitesbelievethathenominatedAlias
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his successor, which again was a tribal norm. However his close companion Abu Baker
succeededhimthroughconsultationoftribaleldersand BayiatinSaqifahwasconducted
undertheprevailingtraditionandcustoms(Urf).SuccessionofAbuBakerbyOmarthrough
nominationwasalsoanotherprevailingtradition.SuccessionofOmarbyOthmanthrougha
committee(Shura)ofsixseniorchiefswasalsooneoftheprevailingtribaltraditions.Finally
thesuccessionofOthmanbyAliwastheresultofanarmedrebellion,atribaltraditionof
settlingmattersbyforceandsiege.
The conflict between Ali andMuawiya led to bloody battles ofJamal and Siffin, which
ultimatelyculminatedintoappointingmoderators(Hakam):Musa-AshariandAmr-binAas
onbehalfofeachrespectively.Resolvingmattersthroughmoderators(Hakam)wasalsoa
tribaltraditionthatwasinpracticeamongstArabtribessincecenturies.Theinitialperiodof
PuritanSuccessors(Khilafat-e-Rashida),consideredastherolemodelbyMuslims,didnot
defineanewanddefinitepoliticalsystemthatpresumablycouldbeunderstoodasderived
from Islamic scriptures, rather the system of tribal constitution Urf that prevailed for
centuriesamongstArabswasfollowed.Thistribalpoliticalconstitutionwassecularinnature
in the sense that it had common traits with those tribal societies, which were passing
throughthesimilarstageofsocio-economicdevelopmentinotherpartsoftheworld.The
ProphetofIslamandhisimmediatesuccessorsdidnotintroduceareligiousortheocratic
stateauthority.
During the era of immediate successors, one decisive factor that laid down the basis of
qualitativechange was the conquestof vast areas spread over thousands ofmiles from
North Africa to Central Asia, comprising of very rich and fertile river valleys having
accumulatedthesurpluswealthofmanycenturies,insomecasesthousandsofyears;where
thepeoplehadlivedunderdynasticmonarchiesforseveralcenturiese.g.Egypt,Byzantine
andIran.Theoccupationoftheseareasandtheinductionofsurpluswealthcollectedfrom
there upset the socio-economic balance of tribal society which led to political disorder.
Strugglebetweenthetwolineserupted;oneinfavorofprevalenttribalorderofequality
and simplicity: the other to adopt monarchy of Byzantine & Iran. This contradiction
crystallizedduringOthmanerathatledtoarmedrebellionandmartyrdomofOthman,who
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failed to resolve this contradictioneitherway. The rebels pursued the first line: that of
retainingtheprevalenttribalorderofequalityandsimplicity.
ThesuccessionofAliunderpressureofrebelsprecipitatedthecrisisthatcausedgreatdivide
resultingintothebloodybattlesofJamalandSiffinbetweenAliandMuawiya:theformer
wassupportedbytherebelswhereasthelaterpursuedthesecondlineofgoinginforthe
monarchical order. When Ali entered into political dialogue with Muawiya, through
moderators,theextremistelementoftheupholdersoffirst-line,hithertogatheredaround
Ali,alsoturnedagainsthim;theyweregiventhename Khawariji.e.therebels.Alihadto
fightagainsttheminthebattleof Nehrawananddefeatedthem,butlateron,theyplotted
against him and assassinated him.After that,AmirMuawiya consolidatedmonarchyand
nominated his son Yezidashis crownprince. The tragedyofKerbala, themartyrdomof
Hussain,sonofAli,atthehandsofarmiesofYezidledtothefinalswayofmonarchicalorder
intheMuslimsociety.ThefoundationsofUmmaiyaddynasty,thefirstofitskindinMuslims
werelaiddown.ThecenterofpowershiftedfromMadinah,thecenterofthefirstlineof
politicalorder,toDamascus,thewintercapitalofByzantineEmpireandthentoBaghdad,
theareasthatremainedundermonarchiesforthelastmanycenturies.
The transition from tribal political order, having no state structure, to the prevalent
monarchicalstatesystem,bothsecularinnature,hasbeendescribedlucidlybyamedieval
Muslim sociologist, thinker and historian, Abdul Rehman Ibn-e-Khaldoon, coming from
Tunisia in 15th century AD. In his renowned Epilogue to History, he writes about the
caliphateofPuritans(Rashidah);Itsfunctionwasjusttobindthepeopletoabidebythe
Shariyah(religiouslaws)andtheycouldneverimagineaboutthekindofgovernmentthat
existedinthecountriesofinfidelsatthattimeThoseseniorCaliphshadnothingtodowith
the kind of that royal typeofgovernment.One reasonwas theirpietyand religion; and
secondly theirArabic Bedouinismkept themaway from the luxury because the Arabsof
thosetimeswerefarawayfromluxuryandworldlypleasures.Hefurthersays,Afterthem,
fromMuawiyaonwords,thechauvinism(Asabiyah)oftheArabsreacheditsfinalgoal,royal
authority.Therestraining influenceofreligionhadweakened.Therestraininginfluenceof
governmentandgroupwasneeded.(ThePrologue)
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Ibn-e-Khaldoon at another place in the same Prologue elaborates on this issue further:
DuringthereignofCaliphOmer,AmirMuawiyawasgovernorofSyriaandhelivedinthe
palace of emperor of Byzantine in Damascus; their winter capital. Also he would wear
preciousroyalrobesanddineinthegoldencrockery.ItwasbroughttothenoticeofCaliph
OmerwhocensuredMuawiyaonhislifestyle.ButMuawiyadefendedonthegroundsthat
theprovincehehasbeengiventogovernhadremainedunderroyalruleforcenturiesand
couldonlybecontrolledifhewouldlivelikeRomans.Healsoneededtoshowhisgrandeur
to the neighbouring Byzantine Empire to overawe them and subjugate them. Omer
acceptedtheargument.(ThePrologue)
On adopting hereditary monarchy by Umayyad, Ibn-e-Khaldoon says, They cannot be
blamed because they gave preference to their own sons and brothers, in that respect
departingfromtheSunnah(tradition)ofthefirstfourcaliphs.Theirsituationwasdifferent
fromthatofthe(four)caliphs,wholivedinatimewhenroyalauthorityassuchdidnotyet
exist,andthe(sole)restraininginfluencewasreligion.Thus,everybodyhadhisrestraining
influenceinhimself.(ThePrologue)
OnthetransitionofArabsintoroyalorder,heelucidates,TheArabs,then,enslavedthe
people of the former dynasties and employed them in their occupations and their
householdneeds.Fromamongthem,theyselectedskilledmastersofthevariouscraftsand
were in turn taught by them to handle, master and develop them for themselves. In
addition,thecircumstancesoftheArabs'lifewidenedandbecamemorediversified.Thus,
theyreachedthelimitinthisrespect.Theyenteredthestageofurbancultureofluxuryand
refinementinfood,drink,clothing,building,weapons,bedding(carpets),householdgoods,
music,andallothercommoditiesandfurnishings.Thesame(perfectiontheyshowed)on
theirgaladays,banquets, andweddingnights. In this respect,they surpassed the limit.
(ThePrologue)
OnceArabsadoptedthesystemnewtothem,theytransformedtheircustomsaccordingly.
Ibn-e-Khaldoonsays,TheoathofallegiancethatiscommonatpresentistheroyalPersian
customofgreetingkingsbykissingtheearth(infrontofthem),ortheirhand,theirfoot,or
thelowerhemoftheirgarment.ithasbecomesogeneralthatithasbecomecustomary
and has replaced the handshake whichwas originally used, because shaking handswith
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everybodymeantthattherulerloweredhimselfandmadehimselfcheap,thingsthatare
detrimentaltoleadershipandthedignityoftheroyalposition.(ThePrologue)
ThustheMuslimsadaptedtothecontemporarystatestructureavailableatthatjunctureof
humanhistory,thatwaspracticedallovertheworldbyfollowersofdifferentreligionsand
creeds.Muslimdynastiesprevailedforabout1300yearsoveranareaspreadfromSpainto
Bengalirrespectiveofsectariancleavageof Sunni,Shia,Wahabi,Ashaari,Motazzilaite etc.,
the well known amongst them are: the Ummayyiads, the Abbasids, the Ummayyiads in
Spain, the Fatamids, the Mamaleek of Egypt, the Ottoman Turks, the Safawids and the
QacharsofIran,theSultansandtheMughalofIndia.
No Faqih (interpreter of religious code), Muhaddis (interpreter of traditions), Mufassir
(interpreterofTheQuran)oranyreligiousscholar,intheheydays,everdeclaredmonarchy
asun-Islamic;theyaccepteditastheprevailingsystemofgovernance,recitedtherulers
nameintheholysermon(Khutba),whowouldsucceedbyforceorbywill.Untilthefallof
Ottoman Empire (Khilafat-i-Osmania), the monarchies prevailed and still exist to-date in
someMuslimstates.
Inthepyramidofauthority,thereligiousscholarshadnocontrolorauthorityuponthekings
oremperors.ThereligiousscholarswereappointedatlowerladderofbureaucracyasJudge
(QadhiorMufti)andTeacher(Mudarris)to teachthesonsofroyalfamilyornobility.The
kingorroyalfamilywasnotanswerabletoQadhiforanykillingsorwrongdoingshewould
commitduringpowerstruggleorforconsolidationofpower.Qadhiwouldrecitethename
inthesermons(Khutba)ofwhosoeverwouldgetsuccessincapturingthepoweratthetime
ofpowerstruggle,withoutconsideringthecharacteroftherulerwhetherhewasIslamicor
practicingallreligiousritesornot.
Themysticsaintskeptthemselvesawayfromtheroyalcourts;theyhadmassbaseandthe
doorsoftheirmonasteries(khanqah)werealwaysopentoeverybodywithoutconsidering
his/herreligion,cast,colourorcreed.
Tworeligiouscurrentsprevailedamongstthereligiousleaders(1)TariqatorTariqah(mystic
way)ofSoofisaints,(2)Shariah(religiouslaw)ofMullahs.
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ThemainstreamMuslimswerefollowersofsaintsratherthanMullahs.Sincetherulerwas
Muslim,theMuslimswereprivilegedoverthenon-Muslims;yetmostofthesuccessfuland
stablerulerswerethosewhogavesharetonon-Muslimsinpower.AkberthegreatMughal
emperorofIndiaandmanymorelikehimcanbecountedinthatgenre.Mullahswouldplay
instrumental rolesometimesonbehalf ofone factionorthe otherin the powerstruggle
whenthenon-MuslimsorMuslimsofoppositesectsweregivenshareinthepower.Sheikh
AhmedSirhindistooduponbehalfofSunniTurks(Tooranis)againstAkberwhoemployed
IranianShiitesandlocalHindusinhisadministration.
TheseparationofstateandreligionintwocompartmentsisreflectedbymedievalMuslim
historianstoo,whoneverlookedat theirhistoryas IslamicHistory.To themitwasthe
historyofkingsand emperors likeany otherkingoremperor.Theyneverascribeany of
their compilation to the synonym of Islamic History or History of Islam? Allama
MohammadBin Jareer Al-Tabri, a greatnameamongthe historiansofearly periods and
knownasImam-ulMowarikheen,namedhisvoluminouscompilationasTarikh-ul-Ummam-
wal-Mulookmeaningthehistoryofthenationsandthekings.Thoughhecoveredabout
threehundredyearsofthehistoryofonlytheMuslimsyethedidnotnameitasIslamic
History, giventhe fact thathewas also the interpreter(Mufassir)of TheQuranandhe
compiled his interpretation (Tafsir) as a separate book. The name he attributed to his
historybookindicatesthat,tohismind,theMuslimswerenotonenationbutcomprisedof
anumberofnationsbearingtheiridentitybasedontheirtribe,raceorregion;similarlythe
Muslimkingsandemperorswerejusttherulers(Mulooks)identicaltotheotherrulersof
theworldbelongingtodifferentreligions.
Another great name, Al-Baladhari, who compiled all the expansions and conquests of
Muslims on the vast lands from Spain toSindhduring early threecenturies, entitledhis
compilationasFutuh-ul-Buldanwhichmeansconquestsofthelands;hedidnotchoose
to put it as Futuh-ul-Islam i.e. the conquests of Islam. Mullah Mohammad Umar Al-
Waqidi,averyprominentnameamongtherenownedearlyMuslimhistorians,labeledallhis
compilations after the namesof the landsconquered or the persoanalities; someof the
namesareFutuhat-ul-Iraq,Futuhat-ul-ShaamandKitab-ul-Maghazi-Al-Nabbawiyyah
etc.HissecretaryMohammadIbnSaadcompiledallhisworksunderthetitleofTabaqat-al-
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KabeerorTabaqat-al-KubrawhichearnedthefamelateronasTabaqaatIbnSaad.In
Arabic,Tabaqaatmeans classificationsor categories;as IbnSaadportrayedthehistorical
figuresunderdifferentcategoriesorclasses,hencethename.Anothergreathistorian,Al-
Masoodi, titled his famous compilation of history as Murooj-ul-Zahab-wal-Muaadin-ul-
Jawahir-fi-Tarikhmeaningthemeadowsofgold,andminesofgemsinthehistory:whata
secularbeautifulname.AnotherfamoushistorianIbnAthircompiledhismultivolumeworks
on history of Muslims under a very simple name Al-Kamil-fi-Tarikh,that means the
completehistory.AbdulRehmanIbnKhaldoon,agreathistorianandfirstknownsociologist
oftheworld,notonlycompiledthehistorybutalsoformulatedthephilosophyofhistoryin
hisfamousprologue(Muqaddimah)ofhiscompilation,entitledhisworksasKitab-ul-Iber-
wa-Diwan-ul-Mubtada-wal-Khabar-fi-Ayyam-il-Arab-wal-Ajam-wal-Berber which can be
translated as the book of narration and compilation of subjects and predicates of the
periodsofArabs,Ajems(non-Arabs)andBerbers(northAfricans):moredowntoearthto
describethetribal,racial,andregionalnatureofthehistoryofMuslims.Anotherprominent
nameisthatofAbulFidaIbnKathir,famousnotonlyforhisworkonhistorybutalsoforhis
interpretation (Tafsir) of The Quran; he named his book on history as Al-Bidayya-wal-
Nihayyathatisthebeginningandtheend:asimplesecularname.Jalal-ud-DinAl-Siyuti
labeled his works as Tarikh-ul-Khulafaa, meaning the history of Caliphs, yet did not
qualifythemascaliphsofIslam.
A famous historiographer of North Africa and Spain, Alllama Al-Maqqari, entitled his
compilationas Nafha-ul-Teeb that is the breeze of fragrance: yet a beautiful secular
name.AnotherrichsourceofhistoryisAhmadAli-Al-KhatibsTarikh-i-Baghdadi.e.the
historyofBaghdad.Similarlyahugesourceofinformationisprovidedinthemultivolume
worksofIbnAsaakerwhonamedhiscompilationasTarikhal-KabirorTarikhDamishqal-
KabirmeaningalargehistoryofDamascus.AnotherinterestingnamecomesfromIbn-i-
Miskweh,whotitledhisfamoussourceonhistoryasTajaareebul-Ummemmeaningthe
experiencesofnations,whichspeaksofitselfhowsecularhisapproachwastowardsthe
history.Ibn-i-Khalikaan,anauthenticandveryrichsourceonhistoryingeneralandliterary
history in particular, termed his compilation as Wifiyat-ul-Aaiyyaan which means
obituariesoftherenowned.Thenomenclatureofthesetitlesisaverystrongindicativeof
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thefactthat,intheirgloriousmedievalperiod,religionandstateneveroverlapped.Infact
religionwasaprivateaffair;andstateormonarchywasasecularinstitution.
There is lot ofconfusion and intellectual chaoscreatedby theWesternmedia regarding
IslamicJihad.AllMuslimconquestsoftheareasunderthesocalledinfidelswereledbythe
political heads of states or emerging states and those expeditionswere similar to such
conquestsasofanystrongerrulersoradventurersinvadingneighboringweakerstates.It
was never just the religion that acted as the driving force for these invasions. Ibn-e-
Khaldoon formulates that there had been the three motivating forces behind these
invasions: religion, booty and tribal chauvinism. The expeditions in the name ofJihad
organizedandledbystraygroupslikeAl-QaedahwasneverafeatureofmedievalMuslim
history.The conceptofHolyWar against infidelsor suchMuslims dubbed as infidelson
sectariangroundslaunchedbyasectionorfactionofMuslimsrecruitedfromalloverthe
world, never existed during so-called gloriousMuslim history except for two instances;
KhawarijandQaramtah.
TheKhawarijclaimedKhurooj-Fi-Sabeel-Allah(rebellioninthenameofAllah)astheircreed
and considered all of their opponents as infidels and believed that their murder was
legitimate;theyhadnostate;theyfailedandgraduallybecomeextinctbythe9thcentury
AD,butafterinflictinglotofdamagestoMuslimsatlarge.TheQaramtahhadsimilartraitsas of Khawarij; they emerged by the beginning of 10
th century AD and succeeded in
establishing temporary governments inBahrain,Yemen,Multan and Sind; they alsomet
ultimate failure having done lots of damages to Muslims and were extinct by the 13th
century AD. Both Khawarij and Qaramtah were never approved by the mainstream
Muslims.
IbnKhaldoonsformulationaboutthosewholaunchedmovementsinthenameofreligion
tocapturepowerduringmedievalerawas:Theyarementallyderangedpeoplecannotget
powerbyordinarymeans.Sotheytryitthroughreligionandcannotassessthedamageand
lossoflivestheyultimatelyfaceintheend.(ThePrologue)
IntheentiremedievalMuslimhistory,therecouldbeonlytwooccasions,whensomekind
ofso-calledJihadmighthavebeenjustified.First;whenhordesofCrusadersfromEurope
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launchedinvasionsonPalestine,SyriaandEgypt,thatlastedforabouttwohundredyears
i.e.12thand13
th centuryAD. Yetwefindthat though,totheCrusaders itwasa religious
HolyWar, but to theMuslims it wasa simplewar, and they defended against it like an
ordinary invasion by outsiders. The war could be qualified as Jihad only if the Caliph
declareditasJihadandissuedageneraldecree(Fatwa)totheMuslimstoparticipateinit.
The Abbasid Caliph sitting in Baghdad, the backyard of battle fields of Crusades, never
issued a call forJihad totheMuslimworldtostandupagainst the Crusades.Heneither
himself participated nor sent any armies to take part in the defence or liberation of
Jerusalem.EventheMuslimhistorians,whorecordedthechroniclesofCrusadeslateron,
neverdescribedthemasJihad.Threegreathistorians,Ibn-e-Khaldoon,Ibn-i-AthirandAbul-
Fida-Ibn-i-Kathir,intheirchroniclesusethetermHaroob-Ul-Afrangmeaningaswarswith
Europeans.ThedefendingMuslimrulersofEgypt,SyriaandPalestine,initiallyFatamids,
then Zangis and Ayubids and finallyMamaleek, fought against Crusaders as an ordinary
defensivewaragainstinvaders,andnotasJihad.
ThesecondeventwasthethrustofTartarhordesunderGengizKhanonCentralAsiainthe
13thcenturyAD.TheroleofCaliphinBaghdadwaspartisan;he,insteadofissuingcallfor
Jihad, actually invited Gengiz Khan to invade upon Muhammad Khawarizm Shah the
emperorofthebiggestCentralAsianMuslimstateofthattime.Noneoftherulersofother
MuslimstatessidedwithKhawarizmShah,andnocallforJihadagainstTartarswasissued
fromanyquarter.Sectarianconflictwasrampantineverycityunderinvasion.NoMuslim
SultanincludingAltatmashofDelhiorNasiruddinQibachaofMultan,supportedJalal-ud-Din
KhawarizmShahagainstthearmiesofGengiz. MostoftheMuslimstatesofCentralAsia
andMiddleEastandallmajorcitiesincludingBaghdadweredecimatedbyTartars.
Therevivalistmovements in19thand20
th centuryresultedin reactionto theoccupation,
and direct or indirect control of vast lands of Muslim populations by the Western
colonialists.Duringcoldwar era, thesameWestern imperialistsexploited these revivalist
movements and patronized themtoencircleCommunism; and afterits fall in1991,they
abandoned them and started to use them as a bogey of danger to West andWestern
civilization,topushforwardtheiragendaofoccupationofMiddleEastandCentralAsia;the
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areasthatarerichinenergyresourcesandenjoystrategicpositionstoestablishhegemony
ontheworldatlarge.
Fromthisanalysis,wecandrawthefollowingconclusions:
State, political system and system of government is a product of socio-economicevolutionofmankindandhasneverbeenbasedonreligion
Muslims: so long as they remained in Arabian peninsula followed prevailing tribalnormssofarasstateandpoliticswasconcerned.Thesetribalnormswerenotpeculiar
toArabs;theseexistedwhereverintheworldtherewereandstillaretribalsocieties
andbackwardmeansofproduction.
InreligiousdomainanewdynamicreligionemergedthatunitedalltheArabpagansundertheconceptofoneGodanditexpandedveryfastinvastareasoftheworldof
medievaltimes.
WhenMuslimsconqueredthoseareaswhereempiresexistedforthelasttwotothreethousandyears,theyadoptedthesamesystemofstatethatexistedthereandthen
remainedinthatsystemevenaftertheBourgeoisIndustrialRevolution
Muslim rulers andmasses did not do anything different than what the rulers andmassesoffollowersofotherreligionsdidintheirhistory.
As their history goes, theMuslims have been adoptive to the changing realities allalongtheirhistoryandtheywouldliketogowiththecurrentsystemsofstatesand
governanceandhavenoreligiousinhibitionintheirway
Muslimsalwayshadasofterfaceintheirpracticeofreligion;itwashardenedbyworldimperialistsbypatronizingextremistelementsduringcoldwarperiod.
World imperialismkeptmost of theMuslim lands under their colonialregimes,andhavedevelopedsuchanimperialistorderthatMuslimmassesmightbepreventedto
adoptmoderndemocraticstates.
World imperialistsarepatronizing alldictatorsand reactionary forces tohinder theroadofdemocracyforMuslims.
(TheauthordeliveredhislectureonthesamesubjectinConwayHall,LondononJanuary7,2007)