THE ARGUMENTATIVE ENVIRONMENT
What Is An Argument?
• Destructive Argument- A person disagrees for the sole purpose to win the argument. The “winner” feels superior. It is not positive and usually does not help matters.
• Constructive Argument- A person truly wants to find a valid solution to the disagreement. The goal is to arrive at a better conclusion.
CLAIMS
• Claims- What the arguer is telling the audience to do or think
• Claims of – Fact - something is, was, or
will be
– Value- something is good or bad
– Policy- something should or should not be done
RESPONSIBILITIES IN AN ARGUMENT
• Burden of Proof - providing "good and sufficient" reasons to accept the claim.
• Burden of Presumption - providing reasons to maintain the status quo, reject the claim.
• Burden of Rebuttal - the obligation of both sides to respond to each other. Remember, silence equal consent, in other words, you agree with the previous argument.
PROOF
• Artistic Proof
– Ethos• An appeal to the authority, integrity, or
honesty of the speaker
– Pathos• an appeal to the audience’s emotions
– Logos• logical appeal or the simulation of it
• Inartistic Proof- Using persuasive strategies such as blackmail, torture, bribery… etc
Stephen Toulmin
• Authored “The Uses of Argument”– Evaluated Arguments and
critiqued modern philosophers
• Created the Toulmin Model– Identifies 6 aspects of
argument that are common
The Toulmin Model• Grounds: what you have observed either
first hand or second hand.
• Warrant: A general rule which links the claim to the grounds.
• Claim: The conclusion of the argument. What the arguer is attempting to convince the audience to do or think.
• Backing: Specific support for the grounds or warrant. Where did it come from.
• Reservation: Reasons why the warrant does not apply. Exceptions to the rule.
• Qualifier: A word or phrase which suggests the degree of validity of the claim.
Grounds
• Another word for data; this is the basis of real persuasion and is the reasoning for the claim.
• Provide reasoning
Warrant
• These link the grounds (data) to the claim. They show that the provided data is relevant to the point the arguer is trying to prove.
Claim
Grounds
Backing
• This is the support for the warrants and provides additional information and proof that answers various questions.
Reservations
• Indicates the strength of the relationship between the grounds and warrant.
• Indicates the relativity of the claim in relation to specificity
• Grounds------>WarrantStrong<--------------------------> Weak
Is it a Universally accepted claim?Who all does it pertain to?Are the grounds truly supportive?
Qualifiers
• Words or phrases that tell the validity of the claim. They enforce the strength of the argument to observers.
Rebuttal
• A chance for the opposing view to give a case and respond to the Claim.
• Rebuttal’s can attack the Ethos, Pathos, or Logos of the Burden of Proof
Examples
Conclusion
• Arguments typically follow a very similar pattern. Without any of the aforementioned parts, ones argument would be inconclusive and not valid. All are crucial to proving a logical and believable point.