Colonial Africa
Africa was divided based upon European needs
not considered were ethnic groups, economic structures, historical cooperation or conflict
Somali divided among Italy, Britain and FranceFor larger image click the following link:
http://static.howstuffworks.com/gif/willow/history-of-africa3.gifCompany: 1998-2009, How Stuff Works, Inc.
Somali Independence
1900—began fighting against European domination
1960—independence from Britain North and South United Wanted to reclaim ‘Lost Lands’
Ogaden Province of Ethiopia: home to ethnic Somalis, Ogaden Clan
Northern Frontier Province of Kenya Djibouti “Somalia is the only state in Africa all of whose
members share a history, language, and culture.” (B. H. Selassie, p. 98).
Copyright: NationMaster, 2003-2009.
For large image click the following link: http://images.nationmaster.com/images/motw/africa/somalia_ethnic_2002.jpg
Organization of African Unity, 1964
Meets in Cairo Recognized the colonial inherited
borders Somali objects
Right to self-determination of those Somalis in other countries, particularly Ogaden Province, Ethiopia
Cold War Tensions
United States: Supports Ethiopia Somalia requests arms from US, 1962
Refused Somalia begins receiving Soviet Aid, 1964
Soviets trying to build up their navy Mogadishu’s Army 20,000 strong equipped with
Russian tanks and squadrons of MiG fighters Somalia joins the Arab League
Islam is practiced; however, Somalis are not Arab
General Siad Barre
October 21, 1969 takes over power
1970: Claims Scientific Socialism for Somalia—aligns with the Soviet Union
Unifies the varied clans in pursuit of nationalistic goals For large image click the following link:
http://www.mtholyoke.edu/~hmohamed/somalis.html
Ogaden War, 1976-1979
Proxy Conflict of the Cold War
West Somali Liberation Front training in Ethiopia
Somalia could claim it was supporting the rights of ethnic Somalis in EthiopiaCopyright Unknown. If the reader knows
who holds the copyright, please contact Oscar Chamberlain at the University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire.
Ogaden War (Con’t)
February, 1977 fighting breaks out Somali forces initially successful June, 1977 Ethiopia claims a full scale
Somali invasion September, 1977 Ethiopia severs
diplomatic ties with Somali
End of the Ogaden War
Soviet Union begins leaning towards Ethiopia December 1978 withdraws military advisor from
Somalia and reassigns to Ethiopia Crucial Somali military information regarding troop
capabilities and deployment US and France announce no further arms
shipments to Somalia Ethiopia gains the upper hand Somalia withdraws summer 1979
More subtle strategy for the Lost Territories…had alienated all neighbors
Humanitarian Crisis
Famine 1972-1974 Drought 250,000 seek refuge in camps Resettled in fishing and cultivation schemes in the south
One Million refugees from the Ogaden War Constitution 1979: Somali Democratic Republic
Nearly unlimited power to the president Disparity of economic development favors the South over
the North Clan affiliation all-important
Growing Opposition
General Barre using more repression
Clan based affiliations and alliances offer political and armed resistance to Barre
1989 United States cut off foreign aid completely
MogadishuClick link for larger picture and more information on that day’s actions from BBC News Online. At http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/low/africa/937424.stm
Uprising in the North, spring 1988
Political and economic considerations North produced surplus livestock
Largest share of export earnings Barre Gov’t invested in the south
Somali National Movement Opposition in the North Wanted connections with the populations in
Ethiopia and Djibouti Barre government bombed the north
The Manifesto, May 1990
Calls for: National conference to reconcile various
movements and ethnic groups Blamed the government for atrocities committed
during the clan uprisings Suggested the abolition of repressive laws Multiparty system, constitutional changes Proposed a caretaker government and election
preparations General Barre arrests many of the
signatories; conflicts continue
The Collapse of the Barre Government
December 1990 Egypt and Italy host conference January 5, 1991 US rescues Americans and other
Westerners from Mogadishu United Nations staff evacuated
January 21, 1991 Barre flees Mogadishu Clan leaders begin to form their own governments November 1991-March 1992 fighting in Mogadishu
30,000 dead during the fighting 500,000 without basic services 300,000 dead of hunger and hunger related diseases 500,000 flee to camps in Ethiopia, Kenya and Djibouti
Clan Leadership
Somali National Movement – Abdul Rahman Tur.Somali Salvation Democratic Front – Colonel Tusuf.**United Somali Congress (Aideed faction) General Mohammed Farah Aideed.**United Somali Congress (Ali Mahdi faction) Ali Mahdi Muhammed.Somali National Front – General Mohamed Said Hersi Morgan.Somali Patriotic Movement – Colonel Omar Jess.
Army Times, December 14, 1992
UNOSOM I
United Nations Security Council Resolution 751(1992)
January, 1992 Complete arms embargo called by the UN
February, 1992 Cease-fire agreed to by Somali Clans
March, 1992 Establishment of UNOSOM Monitor the cease-fire Assist with humanitarian relief 50 military observers, 500 member infantry unit Immediate assistance to 1.5 million people, and help for
an additional 3.5 million people
UNOSOM
Close protection party, Somalia 1993-4 (UNOSOM)
http://www.militaryphotos.net/forums/showthread.php?t=74401&page=2
UNOSOM Compound, Mogadishu
Problems for UNOSOM I
Continued fighting between Aideed and Mahdi
Humanitarian aid and medical supplies looted
Pakistani troops could not respond; general UN rules of engagement
UNOSOM could not carry out its mandate Famine in the interior continued Somali land in the north declares its
independence
Creation of UNITAF
United Nations Security Council Resolution 794(1992) Member states to use all possible means Establish secure environment for humanitarian relief
President George H. W. Bush Humanitarian tragedy continuing Operation Restore Hope: December 4, 1992 American troops land: December 9, 1992 Bush has lost the ’92 election to Bill Clinton
Goals of United Task Force: Multinational coalition of military units Command and control--American Traditional military organization
UNITAF
Secretary General Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Egypt
Assisted General Barre’s regime
Aideed distrustful of Boutros-Ghali; Mahdi supported Boutros-Ghali
Announces UN force of 3,000 Was only to be 500 Security situation in
Mogadishu deteriorates Armed groups of Somalis
begin to harass the relief efforts
Boutros Boutros-GhaliPhoto: United Nations Website
UNITAF
“The United Sates has undertaken to take the lead in creating the secure environment which is an inescapable condition for the United Nations to provide humanitarian relief and promote national reconciliation and economic reconstruction, objectives which have from the outset been included in the various Security Council resolutions on Somalia.” -UN Secretary General Boutros-Ghali to President Bush December 8, 1992
UNITAF
Approximately 28,000 US soldiers and 17,000 soldiers from 20 other countries
Securing: Air and seaports Food distribution points Open and free passage
of relief supplies Convoys for relief
organizations
A US soldier serving with the Unified Task Force (UNITAF) in Jilib, Somalia - April 1993UN 159831 M. Grant
Close protection party, Somalia 1993-4 (UNOSOM)
UNITAF Transition
March, 1993 President Clinton wants to transition back to UN control
UN wants more security first UNOSOM II
Should have enforcement powers Establish secure environment in Somalia Rebuild economic, political and social life
through national reconciliation
United StatesRangers and Delta Force
Separate military agenda from UNITAF UNITAF was humanitarian military relief Rangers and Delta Force were political
Looking to weaken or topple the Aideed organization Engaged in raids leading to the capture
of Aideed’s men Utilized helicopters and quick assaults
Somalia, 1993
American soldiers and journalists walked openly and casually down the streets of
Mogadishu
Lt. Col. Johnson of the 22rd ARW Public Affairs Office interacts with Somali
children
http://www.flickr.com/photos/virtualsugar/1502670392/in/set-72157594529957406/
October 3, 1993 1
Mission to capture two of Aideed’s lieutenants Informant identified location of meeting across from the
Olympic Hotel near the Bakara Market; heart of Aideed’s territory
Men and Machines 4 AH-6 Little Bird helicopters initial sweep and rear security 4 MH-6 Little Bird helicopters carrying Delta Force 8 Black Hawk Helicopters carrying Delta Force, Rangers, CSAR
(Combat Search and Rescue Team), and mission commanders 9 Humvees and three 5-ton trucks carrying Delta Operators,
Rangers, SEAL (Sea, Air, Land) Team Six 3 surveillance birds and 1 spy plane 160 men total
http://www.empereur.com/nations/somalia/rangerlocation.gif
Bloodiest battle in any UN peacekeeping operation:
*18 American soldiers dead, 78 wounded
*An American and a Nigerian Captured
*Approximately 500 Somalis killed, 1000+ wounded
-Bowden, 1999
October 3, 1993 2
Chalk 4 roped in one block north of drop point
Private First Class Blackburn fell 70 feet to the road Needed to be evacuated
Initial success of mission Delta found targets in building
October 3, 1993 3
All chalks begin taking fire Humvee convey evacuating Blackburn hit,
suffer one casualty, but make it out Road blocks begin to be erected by Somalis Chief Warrant Officer Cliff Wolcott’s Black
Hawk Super Six One is hit Delta has detainees and is re-loaded on
Humvees
October 3, 1993 4
Rescue attempt begins Heavy fire, poor communications
“Lost Convoy” Ground forces become pinned down
http://www.specialoperations.com/Operations/Restore_Hope/mog.jpg
October 3, 1993 5
Chief Warrant Officer Mike Durant’s BlackHawk Super 64 Responsible for Chalk
1 deployment Providing support Took over Wolcott’s
route when he went down
Hit by RPG, goes down
From: Bowden, M. Black Hawk Down.
October 3, 1993 6
Durant went down south of the fighting BlackHawk Landed upright Air rescue already in at the first crash site No ground reinforcements could get to Durant Sergeant First Class Randy Shughart and Master
Sergeant Gary Gordon Delta snipers On BlackHawk Super Six Two circling Durant’s site Rope in to provide support to the crash site
October 3, 1993 7
Durant and Co-pilot Ray Frank regain consciousness Durant: broken leg and crushed vertebrae Frank: crushed vertebrae
Shughart and Gordon get Durant, Frank and Staff Sergeant Bill Cleveland and Sergeant Tommie Field out of the BlackHawk
Somalis closing in on the position Only additional support coming from the air No ground support Site is quickly over-run All are killed except for Durant who is captured
October 3, 1993 8
Rescue: 10th Mountain Companies, UN’s Pakistani and Malaysian forces Initial confusion over responsibilities US controlled the mission, but UN forces were
unpredictable Many US soldiers had to run out of the fight
Return to the Pakistani base of operations Receive medical treatment
Mike Durant
Winn Mahuron, Tommie Field, Bill Cleveland, Ray Frank and Mike Durant
Mike Durant giving thumbs up to photographers.
For more information about Mike Durant and to view larger images of the above pictures, click the following link and go to Media: http://www.mikedurant.com/
Mike Durant
Initial capture Mo’alim Jousuf Dahir, Aideed faction Striped of his clothing, kicked, hit, rifle butt to the face, blind-folded
Taken by rebels Driven around Held for initial hours as a hostage, not prisoner of war Takes ricochet bullet to the shoulder
Asked to make videotape, responds “No” Durant: “No, I’m not a Ranger.” Interviewer: “You kill people innocent.” Durant: “Innocent people being killed is not good.” Given basic medical treatment
Aideed pays ransom Abdullahi Hassan “Firimbi” Propaganda minister for Aideed Durant is moved
Mike Durant
Decent treatment Aideed wanted to trade with the US
Received visitors after five days International Red Cross Reporters from The Guardian and Liberation “Too many innocent people are getting killed.
People are angry because they see civilians getting killed. I don’t think anyone who doesn’t live here can understand what is going wrong here. Americans mean well. We did try to help. Things have gone wrong.” –Michael Durant
Release
US would not negotiate with Aideed Either release or a
rescue effort would begin
Aideed believed the release would show
the goodwill of his faction
Turned over to Red Cross officials Brought to airport and
transported to Germany
'http://img336.imageshack.us/my.php?image=mikedurant9rx.jpg'><img src='http://img336.imageshack.us/img336/3494/mikedurant9rx.th.jpg' border='0'/></a>
United States Political Realities
US distracted by other events Clinton new to office European ‘issues’
Humanitarian mission Famine and drought
Clinton announces troop withdrawal by March, 1994 US mission scrapped
United Nations Response
Aideed called for a cease-fire November 1993 UN Resolution
Suspension called for the arrest of Aideed Mimicked US policy Somali reconciliation: Military troops were
removed Somalis would need to provide security to aid
workers on their own UNOSOM runs until March, 1995
Since March, 1994
Aideed dies Somalia is a Collapsed State Lawlessness
Street crime Kidnapping
Armed Conflict Clan fighting continues
Lack of a Central Government Many powerful warlords prefer the current system Somalis fear a strong-armed government Private business owners profit from the chaos
Somalia Today
“The bottom line is that, unless the United States works aggressively with Somali, regional actors and the international community to create stability in Somali, that country will remain what it has been since the early 1990s, a haven for terrorists and warlords and a source of instability in a critical region.” --Senator Russ Feingold, Committee of Foreign Relations, 2008