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In 1985, after several years of amateur drum playing, I took my first djembe workshop with Adama Drame. Thisencounter was decisive. I was immediately attracted to the instrument and the music, and have dedicated myself tothem ever since. Given the growing interest in traditional African music, especially percussion, I wanted to make availablea book that both places the instrument in its African context and enables the reader to start to learn to play.

It would be pretentious to try to produce an exhaustive work on so vast a subject. Since traditional music is usuallypassed on orally, the transcription of African rhythmics might be open to criticism and using Western notation to writedown a type of music which is radically different might seem arbitrary.My goal is not to establish absolute or limiting rules, but rather to pass on in written form a synthesis of my personalresearch and experience to others interested in this extraordinary instrument.This book is not just a simple method for learning an instrument. It is for a wider audience: percussionists from all back-grounds, percussion teachers, instrument makers and music lovers will all find it instructive.

The beginning percussionist cannot claim to "play like a pro " after reading this book. Regular practice is neces-

sary, as well as a certain rigor and, above all, supervision by an experienced teacher who will help and guide him or herin this work.

Several trips to West Africa will bring him into direct contact with the djembe's cultural milieu and give him the plea-sure of playing with local musicians. Africa's unique atmosphere is indispensable for learning to play really well. In themeantime, a compact disk has been included to enable the reader to better understand and interpret the written material.

The repertory given here is not simply "African inspired". The rhythms presented are real traditional standard rhythmswhose authenticity and accuracy have been confinned by such eminent musicians as Aboubakar Bamba, Koumgbanan Conde,[.amine Soumah, Mamady Kei"ta, Noumoudy Kei"ta and Souleymane Dembele. I sincerely thank them for their interest.In contributing to the making of this document, they have helped give a new dynamic to percussion and West Africanrhythmics in the world.

I would also like to express my gratitude to Morton Potash, Franr;ois Kokelaere, Jean-Pierre Journet, Julien Andre,Modibo Bah, Ravy Magnifique and Youssouf Tata Cisse for their help and advice.

The reader will find here a pedagogical aid, written with passion and all possible accuracy, allowing him or her to tastethe pleasure of playing this instrument. I hope it will arouse a desire of one day attaining the musical excellence of thegreat masters.

And now the moment has come to turn to the djembe and its music..,

Serge Blanc

-4-

4

~

~ oundjata, a thirteenth-century mythical and legen-.> dary hero, had a great destiny. A great among thegreatest, he is attributed a very important role in tradi-tional Mandingo history. The main events of his life arerecounted in chronicles of the time and in numerous Afri-can history books. His story is told in "Janjon" and"Soundjata Fasa", the Saga of Soundjata, the mostfamous Mandingo epic chant(l).The story goes that Sogolon Kedjougou, one of the wivesof Fara- Koro Makan Kegni, gave birth to a sick boy,who was paralyzed for seventeen years. He was calledSoundjata.Soundjata had a stepmother, Tassouma Berete, who hel-ped her son, Dakaran Touma, Soundjata's half-brother,usurp the throne. Soundjata's astonishing strength andgenerosity had made Tassouma Berete jealous andfearful; she plotted against him. She and her son exi-led Soundjata, the sole heir to the throne, along with hiswhole family. They went to Nema, where his motherdied on the eve of his departure to reconquer his nativecountry. Soundjata prospered on the way back, sealingalliances, sacking and submitting the different peoples,who then became his vassals. At the historic battle ofKirina, Soundjata and his Mandingo allies triumphedover Soumangourou Kante, King of the Susu.Soundjata was proclaimed Mansa, or Emperor, King ofKings. He then laid the foundations of the MandingoEmpire, the Empire of Mali.He developed agriculture, which became the main basisof the economy, and oriented trans-Saharan commercetowards gold trading, ruining the Maninka slave trade,which he later abolished.In the realm of social relations, there was real inno-vation. Caste differentiation became more systematic.Preexisting groups were divided into three impermeablestrata: the horon (important people and nobles), thenyamakala(2) (caste members) and the jon (slaves).Each stratum's role was well defined by rules ofcenturies-old customs. The essential duty of thenobles, placed at the top of the hierarchy, was tooversee the group's safety. Caste members were toentertain and satisfy the material needs of the group.The slaves did the hardest and most unpleasant work.Soundjata also codified the clan system. Trades and pro-fessions became hereditary: from that time on, the sonhad to follow in his father's footsteps. There are several

'versions of Soundjata' s end. Like his life, his death isshrouded in mystery. The most widespread version saysthat he drowned in the Sankarannin river.

The Empire of Mali reached its height during the reignof Kankou Moussa, known as Mansa Moussa 1(1342-1360). The empire stretched from the Atlantic Ocean tothe west of Gao on the Niger River.Kankou Moussa won fame with his celebrated pilgri-mage to Mecca, a pilgrimage that is still legendary.During his journey, he distributed so much gold (12 tons,it is said), that he caused the Cairo precious metals mar-ket to crash, thereby earning an extraordinary reputation.A pious sovereign, he had many mosques built in hiscolonies, contributing to the spread of Mali's renownbeyond the borders of Sudan and attracting many Arabtravellers to his country. The most famous of these wasthe Moroccan Ibn Battuta, who came in 1352. At thattime, Mansa Moussa reigned over a vast and prosperousempire. After his death, internal quarrels weakened thegovernment. Vassals everywhere rose up and threw offthe Malian yoke, among them the Wolof and Sereripeoples. The Mandingo Empire disintegrated.Many kings were born in the historical land of theMandingo empire. They are the heroes and warriorswhom the griots throughout West Africa continue toglorify as if they were still alive.After several years of French colonization under thename of French Sudan, Mali became an independentand sovereign republic on September 22, 1960. DuringModibo Kelta' s presidency, the first republic experien-ced severe economic difficulties, amplified by socialcrisis. Serious conflicts arose within the national direc-tion of the single political party, the USRDA, creatinga political crisis. This led to a military takeover onNovember 19, 1968, under the direction of LieutenantMoussa Traore, who ruled the country single-handedlyfor 23 years. He was overthrown by the tragic events ofMay 26, 1991, enabling the establishment of a multi-party, democratic system.Colonization considerably modified the map of the Man-dingo region and dispersed the Maninka peoples. Theirzone of influence currently includes parts of BurkinaFaso, the Ivory Coast, Gambia, Guinea-Conakry andGuinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Senegal and Sierra Leone.The Maninka belong to a Mandingo family that in-cludes many prestigious ethnic groups, including theBamana, the Kaado, the lula, the Soninke, the Susuand the Syenara.Mandingo music today is conquering the world underthe leadership of star musicians as well-known asthey are talented, such as Ami Kolta, Salif Kelta,Mory Kante...

1. This saga comprises several hundred verses that are played, sung, danced and discussed during important ceremonies.

2. The term nyamakala designates groups within different clans composed of the- Jali: griots, - Garanke: cobblers or dyers,- Numu: smiths, specialists in iron and other metals, - Fune: a kind of holy beggar.

- 6 -

FasoJulaLobiMosi

SarnogoSyenaraor Senufo

Bwa or BoboDafinDagari

FulbeGurumanceGurusiBusa

" CoastAboronAniAtiyeBarnanaBawule

KoyagaManinkaSyenaraTuruka

Wob6Yakuba

BeteBirifuBoleDanEbiriye

FulbeGaguGereGuro or KweniJula

'-

TemineTorna or LornaTuculeri

BagaBasariFulani or PeulGereze

JalunkeJulaKisiKoniagi

LandumanManinka or MalinkeNaloSusu or Soso

Tarnasheq or TouaregTuculeriWasulunkeWolof

Bamana or Bambara Kaado or Dogon SarnogoBela Kakolo SomonoBozo Kasonke Songol or SonraYBwa Mamara or Miyanka Soninke, Sarakole or MarakaFulbe or Peul Maninka Suraka or MoorJula Mosi Syenara

and GambiaManinkaSereriSoninkeSuraka

TuculeriWolof

-BasariFulbeJulaLebu

ethnic class groupsFune JaliGaranke Maabo

Numu

- ---c-' used for the names of ethnic groups, instruments and rythms is that of the mandingo alphabet. The"j" is pronounced like the "dy" in "Goodyear". The letter "u" is pronounced like the "00" in "boot". The

, is pronounced like the "a" in "cape". The original spelling, derived from the French, is used for

names.

-7-

, n West Africa, in the great feudal societies like the MaliEmpire, where many, codified castes defined the

social hierarchy, the griots, or bards, became an objectof the highest esteem. As the society's heralds, theywere respected, courted and feared.Within the highly structured and hierarchical Mandingosociety, the griots orjaliw were a caste apart, engagedin oratorical art and music.

kingdom, sire, that nothing is right," replied the griot."The prettiest girl of the Empire lives in the village ofthe neighboring kingdom and you haven't married heryet! How can I sing your praises?"Upon hearing these words, the king prepared his armyand launched a war to abduct the girl, whom he thenmarried. One does not say "no" to a griot. It is a matterof honor.Before the written word was used, the griots taught andexchanged knowledge orally. To learn from the source,the young griots left the family home and went to studywith a great master. They did domestic work for himuntil they earned his trust. When he judged them capableof learning, he began teaching them "buruju"(2) whichenabled them, among other things, to realize that theywere of good stock: there was always a hero among theirancestors who served as a reference point.After their minds had been opened, learning as much asthey could absorb, they left the master and became intheir turn keepers of the "tarik".

Today, living mainly in cities, unable to claim to belongto a particular master due to changes in social and geo-political structures (the royal courts have disappeared),the griots have become independent. True profes-sionals of speech, show and music, they are masters ofceremony for local festivities in their communities. Itis difficult to imagine weddings, baptisms and funeralswithout them; the sowing season is punctuated with theirchants and music. Praising equally nobles and importantpeople, they no longer need to tell the truth; instead, theysay what pleases and prompts generous donations,rewards and gifts.It is therefore unusual today to find young people whoknow the "tarik", now a rarefied lore. They prefer thelure of quick money to volunteer work which no longerattracts anyone. All griots believe that the day they startworking will unquestionably be the beginning of fameand fortune. They readily submit to the power of money.But their function remains important when -mediators, intervening in inter-family problemsdisputes. And it is still the griot who arrangestraditional marriages.In the Mandingo world there are many villagesning centers where young people interested inoral traditions go. The novices learn the art '

According to the renowned specialist Kele MonsonDiabate, their origin goes back to the times of the prophetMohammed. Legend has it that the Prophet gave hisslave Bilali three coffers intended for his three grand-sons who afterward went to Mandan and founded thevillage of Kikoronin. According to oral tradition, theManinka came from Mecca.Griots may be men or women; they are surrounded byan aura of mystery. Called "belen tigui"(l) they are thekeepers of the oral tradition. One is a griot by heredi-tary filiation. It is therefore possible to enjoy this statuswithout practising any of its extremely difficult tasksand activities. Great griots are rare.In Manden, the oldest griots travel very little, remainingattached to tradition and the land where they were born.They are settled there, serving a king or a power on whomthey in turn depend.Lower caste, they are both loved and despised. Theydo no manual labor and do not work the land, but aresupported by the nobles. While still very young, theirchildren learn the art of public speaking and developtheir memory, which becomes their working tool.These genealogists, story-tellers and musicians generallyhave very common names, like Kouyate, Diabate orCissoko. Some of them are also healers, for they areinitiated in the secrets of nature and plants.The griot was therefore the depository of a dynasty'shistory, of a genealogy, the people's living memory,indispensable for perpetuating institutions. His skillwas revealed during large public events glorifying hissuperiors, in the presence of other nobles accompaniedby their own griots who knew the content of what wouldbe said and chanted. He proved his competence by beingclever enough not to cause the nobleman whose praiseshe sung to lower his head in shame.The griot was also bellicose. He was the one who goa-ded the kings to fight to the death in combats that weremotivated by glory, power, acquisition of land and alsoof beautiful women (the kings in general had thirty wives).Some griots started wars, like the one who one dayobstinately refused to sing for King Biton of Segou."What's wrong?" the King finally asked. "It's in your

. - ~ -especially in K6la (Kangaba society), in Kitadofo (a suburb of Kita) and in Krina "cities where the traditions are well kept in Mali; __a.

Hamada or Famada (Kouroussa society) in Guinea.

1. This expression is formed from "belen" , meaning "rod" and "tigui", meaning "master of".

2. "Buruju": the origins of institutions and family genealogies, also called "tarik", from the Arab word for "chronicle".

- 8 -

plack Africa has an infinite number of musical:P instruments. It is difficult to itemize them all,given the size of the regions and the great varietyof populations and ethnic groups, as well as themultiple and variable terminologies.

Here are the instruments most representative ofMandingo music, ones that have a more or lessdirect relation with the djembe and its music.They are played during initiation ceremonies,games, songs and dances and popular festivities.They are also used by the nationaldance companies.

The Gambian kora, for example, which "speaksMandengo"(l) is not tuned the same way as theMalian kora, which "speaks Mandenka"(2). Like-wise, the Guinea bala does not have the same"scale" as the Burkina Faso bala, and the Maninkaflute resembles the flute from Fouta only in tone,not in language.Modern materials are used more and more andoften produce instruments with a wide rhythmicand melodic range. When played outside theirtraditional framework they enable musicians to

integrate quite naturally into instru-mental groups and modern combosthroughout the world.

The instruments listed here areclassified according to the fourlarge categories of traditional orga-nology established by C. Sachs andE. yon Hornbostel.

I; Membranophones:

As on integral part of African sociallife, evidence of the liveliness oftraditional music, they are played tothis day at each stage of agriculturalwork (tilling, sowing, harvesting),hunting and fishing. They accom- -pany birth, childhood, puberty, fune-rals and inheritances, expressing refinement,solemnity and piety in the rituals. They let'joi~ de vivre" and gaiety burst out and giveexpression to ardor in work.

These are instruments with a membranestretched over a hollow support. The soundis obtained by striking the membrane withthe hands or a stick:There are sacred instruments, whose reso- -

nance chambers and orifices sometimes have a shapethat lend themselves to symbolic or mythologicalinterpretations; and there are popular instruments.The latter, while keeping their fundamental elements,are more or less victims of the general technicalevolution of wood and metals.

djembe, dunun, bara, ntama, siko.

tI Idiophones:

In this category, the sound is produced by the vibrationof the material itself, using no strings or membranes:

Their construction can be very careful, but also slip-shod and even rudimentary. But they all have onething in common: they are never mass-produced.Using all sorts of resonant matter, made essentiallyfrom natural or found materials (wood, bamboo,horns, animal skins, gourds, iron, etc.), their qualityresides above all in the richness of the timbre; theinstrument must be able to produce unusual tones,more or less strange and often complex.

kirin, kele, kesekese, yabara, filendunun,gita, kariyan, wasamba, bala.

Chordophones:

Their sound is made by causing the string or strings,stretched between two fixed points on a support, tovibrate:

bolon, nkoni, kora.

. Aerophones:

This category includes all instruments whose soundis produced by vibrating the air contained in a tube.They are also called air or wind instruments.The human voice must be added to this category.In Africa, it is a very substantial source of music.Hand clapping is the only accompaniment.

There are no real instrument makers, except for thedjembe and certain instruments like the kirin or thenkoni. The musician designs them himself, com-municating to them the language of his ethnic groupand endowing them, using various artifices, with apersonality of their own.Instruments are thus invented that produce nasal,vibrating, strident or soft sounds which repro-duce as closely as possible the sounds and musicof nature.Each drum, then, is unique, with its own beauty,its own assets and flaws. file.

1. A spoken language of Gambia.

2. A spoken language of Mali and Guinea.

- 10-

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HEHrSPHERE DRLJHS

THE BARA

The bara(l) is from the Segou region of Mali. It is used, in the Bamana milieu.

This kettledrum, around 60 cm in diameter,sometimes larger, is made of wood andcovered with a skin, generally calfskin,which is sewn and held in place by asystem of hide strip laces.It either hangs horizontally by a belt fromthe musician's waist or is placed on theground. It is struck with both palms.The bara is used in all popular festive events,especially in the Bondialan region.In the Bamana milieu, the bara is accompanied ,<" by another skin-covered drum, the bongolo. Its

shape and the way it is assembled make this druma close relative of the djembe. However, its resonancechamber is higher and it is played differently: one handstrikes directly while the other hand plays with a stick.

HOURGLASS DRUHS

THE NTAMA

, n Mali, both the Bwa and the Kaado are said tohave invented this instrument.

The ntama is a double-skin drum with variable tensionmade of a hollowed-out hourglass-shaped woodenbarrel.The ends are covered by two goatskins stretched overa stiff circle and tied together by flexible leather laces.With its narrow center placed under his arm-hence

the designation "armpit drum"- the drummervaries the pressure on the lacing, thereby modi-fying the pitch and creating sliding and alteredtones.The skin is struck with a thin curved stick. Forthe ntamani(2), this technique is supplementedby playing with the fingers on the same skin.All social classes are familiar with this age-old

" instrument, used by criers to announce meetingson the public gathering area to hear urgent informa-

tion. The ntama can also beat dance rhythms whenplayed with the djembe.This drum is also called the" talking drum ". Indeed,its sliding tones recall some spoken African languages.

1. Also called CU or KUNANFAN.

2. The NTAMANI is smaller.

- 12-

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RATTLES

THE KESEKESE

O riginating in the Faranah region of Upper Guinea,the kesekese is the favorite instrument of the

Mamara ethnic group in the Sikasso area of Mali.These internal percussion rattles are closed containerscontaining small pebbles or seeds and come in a varietyof shapes.Generally cone-shaped, made of woven plant fibers, theyare always played in pairs, using alternating movements.The player holds one in each hand by a small handle.The kesekese accompany chanting and certain veryrapid dances.They are often accompanied by another instrument, thekoro, a small piece of hollowed wood held in the palmof one hand and struck by a small stick held in the other.

THE Y ABARA

The yabara is from the Guinea forest region inhabitedr by the Kisi, Toma and Gereze ethnic groups. It is an

external percussion rattle made from a whole, jug-shaped gourd, whose stem serves as a handle. Thegourd is emptied and wrapped in a fairly loose string bagstudded with real snake vertebrae, cowries(l) or roundsof wood (and sometimes "gombele" beans).The gourd is held by its "handle" and swung back andforth while the other hand pulls the end of the stringbag downwards. This produces a clear, dry sound. Themusician creates a rhythmic accompaniment for singingand other percussion instruments.In Mali, the yabara used to be played to accompany thebolon during great ritual ceremonies honoring titular geniior the manes, village ancestors. In the Sikasso region, theBamana use the yabara (also called tchitchakara) byitself for their festivities.

1. Cowries are small shells that were used as money throughout the Mandingo world from earliest timesToday they are only used as ornaments and in magic.

- 14-

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SCRAPED rNSTRlJHENTS

THE KARIY AN

The kariyan is a hollow iron tube open along its entirer length. About 4 cm in diameter, and 20 to 30 cm long,

it is held in the palm of the hand, a finger slippedthrough a ring attached to the tube.Grooves on each side of a lengthwise slit canalare scraped with a small metal rod. A rockingwrist movement marks the rhythm.

This instrument is played primarily by initiationsociety musicians and minstrels affiliated with

hunting brotherhoods.It is also played by women griots during and aftersinging, and accompanies the rhythms set by the handclapping of groups of other women.

S rSTR LlHS

THEWASAMBA

W asamba<l), used in initiation rites, are made with angledsticks, each segment being 20 to 30 cm long (hence the

name "arching sistrums"), on which several disks of dimini-shing diameter, cut out of gourd and pierced in the middle, arethreaded. The number of discs, between 15 and 20,corresponds to the age of each initiate.The playing technique varies according to the

instrument's ethnic origin.When they are played in pairs, they

, are shaken up and down andrubbed against each other.

The sliding disks hit oneanother and make acrisp, clacking sound.

Wasamba are used mainlyduring circumcision ceremonies, to ward

.. '-" off evil spirits and accompany singingduring the retreat period following the ope-

ration. Newly circumcised boys are not to beapproached by just anyone; the wasamba announcetheir presence to passers-by and strangers.This instrument is said to date from the Middle Ages.

. Also called WASAKUMBA (Susu ethnic group) and LALA (Fulbe ethnic group) (photo on the right).

16-

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CURVED HARPS

THE BOLON ~

~

~

The bolon is a curved harp comprised of a larger calabash, a curved wooden pole and three strings.

At the end of the pole is a resonator(l).The musician most often plays seated, with the instru-ment placed facing him between his legs. He holds it bythe pole, his wrists resting on the calabash, and pinchesthe strings with his thumbs.The bolon is the double bass in Mandingo music. It ismainly played for hunting ceremonies.Originally called soron, this instrument was man-sizedand was played standing. It exalted courage, exhortingwarriors to endurance and valor. When a city was taken,the soron player always preceded the military leader ~the conquered village.The Bamana have another curved harp with two :..- ..three strings, called dozonkoni(2).The dozonkoni is mainly found in Mali's WasoulouBelidougou regions, where young people play ievening gatherings.

LUTES

THE NKONI

The nkoni is a Sahelian lute found among the Fulbe,, Soninke and Moors, a sort of small guitar with a boat-

shaped box and three strings. It is also now found amongthe Bamana, who have added a fourth string.A sheepskin is stretched and nailed over a woodenresonance chamber.Once made of horsehair, the strings are now nylon. Theyare stretched on the round wooden, notched neck andheld by sliding leather rings (like on the kora).The nkoni is above all the griot's instrument, a perfectsupport for the kora.The Mandingo Empire's history can be discoveredthrough the nkoni' s music. It accompanies the historianor the chronicler and is used to illustrate narratives ofbrave deeds.It is also found in traditional Maninka orchestras.

1. A thin metal sheet, decorated with rings, acts as a resonator.

2. Dozo = hunter; nkoni = string instrument.

- 18-

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lenke, dog ora, gueni and calcedrat are the woods mostfrequently used.The drumhead of the djembe is made from goatskin.The tension system is of braided nylon cords. The skinis held with three metal hoops (cf: Assembling a djembe).Originally, the djembe skin was sewn and assembledwith thin strips of braided leather or cow gut. If the ten-sion slackened during playing, the musician restretchedthe skin by heating it over a small wood or cardboardfire (this technique is still used by some drummersin Africa).

The djembe belongs to the membranophone family.r Its goblet shape resembles the mortar used for

pounding millet. Made of a single hollowed out andsculpted piece of tree trunk, it comprises a flattenedcone "foot" whose cavity opens into a larger resonancechamber or "body". The connecting part in the middleof the djembe is the "collar".The size generally varies from 55 to 60 cm high and 30to 38 cm in diameter (some djembe from the Ivory Coastand Burkina Faso are wider). The woods used are cho-sen for their density, tone and toughness. The worojiri(l),

1. Jiri = tree; woro = kolo. The edible kolo nut is red or white in color. Traditionolly, it alsoplays an important role on certain occasions, and is given as a sign of agreement, respector to obtain the cromise of a betrothal.

-22-

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5NI~I~O 511

FUNCTION

composed by superimposing different intertwiningrhythmic units. The interweaving produces a rich andvaried polyrhythm. In the Maninka tradition, songsintroduce the drum music. The songs vary accordingto the ethnic group and the event. They can be dividedinto three categories:

, n West Africa, instrumental music is generally thedomain of men, vocal music that of women. The

djembe is therefore essentially played by men. With itsbright rhythms, it is above all the instrument of dance.Traditional dances handed down from generation togeneration make up the greatest part of each ethnicgroup's surviving artistic and cultural heritage. Thedances reflect aspects of a past epoch and life, as wellas mores and activities. The dances can be classified inthree very distinct categories:

- songs of praise, with instrumental accompaniment(strings or percussion);

- dancing songs, with drums setting the rhythm;- narrative or epic songs, accompanied above all

by strings.Ritual dancesThe main characteristic of these dances is their religiousor magic element. They determine the synthesis of know-ledge to be assimilated by those seeking to be initiated,thereby acquiring the highest social and spiritual values.The also include mask and puppet dances. These dancesare reserved for the initiated.

Caste dancesDuring popular festivities, these dances help identifythe dancer's caste: ie, griots,. smiths or cobblers.

Family members are responsible for the organisation ofcelebrations and women gnots are generally in chargeof the festivities. They lead the different songs, whosewords relate directly to the event: ie, honoring thegrooms, their families, or the parents of a child beingbaptized. The other women participate either by forminga synchronized dance circle, or by clapping their hands,creating a rhythmic link between the singing and theinstruments.When the singing starts the djembefola soloist gives hisgroup of accompanists the rhythmic support and thespeed for the intoned chant (the same rhythm can befound in different chants). The soloist beats the variousrhythmic formulas corresponding to the dancers' diffe-rent movements. His coherent, coded instructionsenable them to express themselves, to move withthe group and the assembly, they produce a perfectsimultaneity between the music and the dance. Thisgenerally concludes with a fast finale. The drummersfollow the dance, not vice versa.The soloist can give starting signals to change thedancers' steps, and stopping signals to end or tempo-rarily stop the dance. This technique was elaborated bydance company drummers, and is also used for teachingin dance classes.

Secular dancesThese dances illustrate all the events of community life.They can be performed by all members of the society,each sex having its own dance steps. They convey dif-ferent moods, like joy and sadness, and express popularcommunal delight and the ardor of group work.The djembe is used at the various social events thatmake up traditional festivities: baptisms, circumci-sions, betrothals, weddings and some funerals, as wellas ceremonies such as assemblies and mask festivals.It is also used by all West African dance companies andnational troupes.The djembe is played in a group of several percussio-nists comprised of a soloist, djembe accompanimentplayers and dunun players. The rhythm is generally

CONSTRUCTION

The djembe is not mass produced. Each djembe isr handmade and therefore unique. The craftsman is

frequently a sculptor, specializing in woodwork(l) andin fabricating everyday objects such as mortars, chairsetc. Very occasionally, the musician is also the sculp-tor. His assorted tools, including gouges, crowbars,machetes and adzes, allow him to achieve a construction

and finish that are of major importance in making a goodinstrument.The djembe's pitch (cf: Assembling a djembe -The skin)depends on the balance and harmony of its forms. Thenature and thickness of the wood determine its weight.Certain proportions, which the craftsman knows, mustbe respected between the "body" and the "foot".

1. Called "smiths".

- 24 -

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PLAYING POSITIONS

Usually the djembe is played standing.

This position, more suitable when playing for dancers, gives greater freedom of movement and allows one to move

about while playing.It also amplifies the volume of the djembe and facilitates better collaboration and a more harmonious dynamic

between the drummers and dancers.

When moving around, it is better to shift the djembe's foot to the side of your leg.

The djembe may be carried in two different ways:

The most common method is using a long shoulder strap (4 meters longmaximum). To prevent the drum from sliding, the strap is crossed in back.The djembe rests between the drummer's legs.

It is important to choose a sturdy strap wide enough not to dig into theshoulders. A judo belt works well.

For a good position, the strap should be precisely adjusted. If it istoo short, the djembe will be too high. If it is too long, you willstoop. The djembe's collar should be mid-thigh level.

The second method, most currently used in Mali, is strapping the djembe around the waist. This provides greater ease of movement in the upper body but can cause lower back problems: beating the

has direct repercussions on the spine.

-26-

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sauo}

spunos

ORAL SOURCES

in rhythm and simplifies the task of "keeping thetune in one's head".For this reason, each sound corresponds to a syllable.It is advisable to keep this in mind as a complementto Western notation when singing all of the partsplayed.It is also very important to develop your ear

- by listening to recordings (cf: Selected Re-

cordings).- by listening to yourself and the musicians you play

with, in order to respect what happens in a group, ie,the harmony.The ear, hands, feet, the voice - the whole body iscalled upon and stimulated by this comprehensiveinstrument.

W estern musicians have inherited a long writtenmusical tradition, an important memory aid. It

enables them to separate the music from its context.In Africa the reverse is true: oral tradition remains themost important and most frequently used source.African drummers traditionally use the "drumminglanguage", a literal translation of the spoken language.The drum's music is therefore always based onspoken phrases, on meaningful series of words.The drummer plays them, varies and ornamentsthem, or combines them as he chooses and accordingto precise dance phrases.Songs in onomatopoetic form are reworked on thedrum. Precise ways of beating the drum are used,corresponding to distinct sounds.The phonetic method undeniably facilitates singing

,}J

PUL~~J'ON

better cohesion among the players.A metronome or a drum machine (less:might be helpful to ensure evenness in the 1..- ,

exercises that follow.Tempo has a major role in djembe music. Once

exercises are mastered and assimilated, it ~ be possible to play them at different tempos.

Do not try to accelerate too quickly at first, aswill lose precision and maybe the soundgether. Going beyond a certain speedadditional difficulties, such as: keepingrhythm while striking with precision, ..

fatigue, bad posture, or lack of stamina,and energy.

.I'"'J ontrary to Western musicians, the traditional'-.; African musician feels no need for an externalizedtemporal guide.The beat designates evenly spaced referencepoints in time. Learning or "having" the beatis indispensable for learning and mastering thefollowing exercises and rhythms, in which severalinstruments play.Marking time with the foot requires the upperand lower limbs to be independent of each other.This is difficult to master at first, but it is indis-

pensable.This action allows you to keep a steady rhythm. Themusician relies on it during a piece and it creates

-32-

THE DJEMBE'S DIFFERENT SOUNDS

pefore you start to learn the rhythms, here arel> some simple exercises to loosen up the hands andpractice the different strikes described above.To really feel the length of the notes and the diffe-rent sounds produced on the drum, begin by practisingslowly with the voice. Use the onomatopoeiae givenor make up your own.Holding both hands in the correct position helps youfind the skin's optimal tones with flexibility andease. Be careful to balance the two hands per-fectly (neither should strike harder than the other).Next try playing the exercises, first with the righthand, then with the left.

A good percussionist is not content to play thesame rhythmic formulas repeatedly but knowshow to vary them. He also tries to get the richest andmost varied sounds from his instrument. By playingwith the different pitches, you can also give therhythm a melody.After you have executed and assimilated thefollowing exercises perfectly, invent your own.Change the sound, use muffled and "touched"strikes...And discover the pleasure of sharing with othermusicians clear, airy playing and rhythms composedof distinct and precise notes.

1

'~-r ri'--i'--:.j I I I .

r rl~l~ ..

2

3

- 34-

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djembe accompaniment. Repeat, alternatingthese accompaniments several times, in 8-measurecycles, for example, adding signal to stop.

The Dunun

The following rhythms haver been chosen from among

those most frequently used. Theversions presented are neither

rigid nor immutable. They areinterpreted differently according

to the country or region of origin, thesoloist and the event: wedding feast, recording,dance performance, dance class, etc.In Guinea, the kesereni and sangba can be sup-plemented with the dununba, and in Mali therecan be a second dunun. It is not necessary to limitthe djembe accompaniments to two per rhythm.The ones below are the most representative, themost common.A soloist with Ii particular way of playing mightprefer a single accompaniment, or he might addthree or four instruments.A soloist will have as many different accompa-niments as there are accompanists.To interpret and understand the repertory well, itis indispensable to master each of the rhythmsand all of the djembe and different dunun motifsalone, before playing with a group.

The Diembe

- Keeping a steady tempo, repeat the startingsignal slowly several times.

- Do the same thing for the first djembeaccompaniment.

- Then play the second djembe accompaniment.- After the starting signal, go back to the first

accompaniment, then do a stopping signal.- Repeat this with the second accompaniment.- After the starting signal, play the first

djembe accompaniment, then, without stoppingor repeating the starting signal, play the second

- Work gradually in the same way as for thedjembe, but this time one instrument plays after theother, starting with the first dunun, then the secondalone, then with the bell, and finally the dununbaalone and then with its bell.To start each combination correctly, sing thedjembe starting signal.Only when these stages are accomplished andwhen each percussionist is perfectly at ease withall of the rhythmic formulas can the group workstart. Each motif may appear easy to drum by itself,but combining the different rhythms is difficult,because of the interweaving.

- At first, begin with one other musician andpractice the two djembe accompaniments. Thetwo can switch parts during playing, workingtogether without a starting or stopping signal.

- Next you can practice the different dunun ac-companiments with one or two other musicians,one after the other, being careful to respectthe cycle: 8-measures, for example. ~

Once these different stages are accomplished, thegroup can play the whole rhythm together.In order to keep perfect stability and :.harmony, it is essential to use the differentas reference points: they are the "heart of ..rhythm".The starting signal sets the tempo and rhythm ,--follow. It is given by the first djembe player.To stop the rhythm, the same signal is .into a "signal to stop". To do this, one extra beatadded, which can be played as a slap and

For "Jansa", for example:

~

Starting Signal Signal to stop

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13EJ=:

In some cases - "Dununba", for example - the stop signal is different from the start signal:

Starting Signal Signal to stop

42-

JANSA .

winter and good harvests. It starts slowly, pickingup speed when a talented dancer goes into themiddle of the circle. Great dancers sometimesmanipulate a rifle or pestle while dancing.The following version is the most popular in thecities.

F rom the Kasonke ethnic group, originating inthe Kayes and Kita region of Mali.

The jansa is undoubtedly the most popular enter-tainment dance in Khasso. It takes place in theevening or at night, in the public square. It is for allpeople and all occasions: the full moon, the end of

CD Track 16

Startingsignal and

2nd

djembe

1 st dunun

2nd dunun

KL/RL/Ef

F rom the Jula ethnic group, originating in Ivory Coast and Burkina Faso(Bobo Dioulasso).

This rhythm is played during festivities towards the end of Ramadan, the27th night.It is the last big fling for the young girls who will be married thefollowing year.

CD Track 17

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D(DAD(

F ro~ the Bamana ethnic group, originating in the Bougouni circle, of Mali's SikassoregIon.

The didadi is organized during the end-of-the-year holidays or to celebrate the arrival of animportant person. It is an easy rhythm to dance to, and everyone can interpret it as they like.In the Sikasso region, the dunun called didadidunun is the instrument played for the didadi.The hand plays the drum on the skin opposite the one hit by the wooden drumstick,complementing the stick's playing.

CD Track 24

.HAND

.HAND

KASA

Co rom the Maninka ethnic group, originating in the Kouroussa region of Upper Guinea.r The kasa is played at all events linked to the harvest. This rhythm is played to encouragefarmers during sowing and harvesting. There are several kasa. Konkoba, soro and dub onare other rhythms played along with the kasa.

CD Track 25

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sabar dancing. The best known are the "air condi-tioner", consisting of unveiling the pentelu(l) to themusicians and the audience, and the "fan", wherehip rolls provoke a circular movement of the buttocks.This rhythm is very popular in Senegal and in the restof West Africa, where several variations have beentransposed for the djembe.

- " F rom the Wolof ethnic group, inthe Dakar region of Senegal.

In this country, the most common instrument isthe sabar, a skin drum played with one hand and a thinwooden stick. It is set on the ground or strapped tothe side of the body. The rhythm and dance steps werenamed for this drum. There are several styles of

CD Track 28

50C;OLON

F rom the Bozo ethnic group, in the Mopti region of Mali.Traditionally, this rhythm is played with three bongolo and a bara. It celebrates at the end of the fishing season. Currently, the sogolon is played with the djembe i~ the"

Bamako district, during popular celebrations and festivities.

CD Track 29

1. Pente/u are underskirts worn only by married women. They are of different colors and can be embroidered with provocative phrases.

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exist in this region. Two small drums are added to thesides of the soloist's djembe. The whole is called athree-headed drum. Another drummer keeps up anaccompaniment on a small djembe.The kuku has been modified and adapted with dununand djembe solos for the National Ballet Company.

F rom the Koniagi ethnic group of, the Beyla and Kerouane regions

in the Guinea forest area.This rhythm is played for the end of the harvestfestivities and during celebration festivities.It is played only on the djembe, as the dunun does not

CD Track 32

5ANJA

instruments accompany the sanja, played tomen and women griots. On these occasions,griots sing each other's praises and executevery graceful dance with circular movements,arms spread out. Today, some associationszing "Ambianci Foli"(3) ask the djembefolathe sanja. He can only do so incircumstances. This rhythm isIn Guinea, it is called lamban.

F rom the Maninka ethnic group, inthe Kayes region of Mali.

This piece traditionally opened the ceremonies forthe death of a king or a very important man.Recounting the Mandingo epic, this predominantlyvocal rhythm was interwoven with "Fasa"(l).Traditionally, the real sanja is not played on thedjembe, which is not a griot instrument like thebala, the ntama and the jalidunun(2). Only these

CD Track 33

1. Songs of praise.2. Griot dunun.3. Neighborhoodfestivities.4. Dance of thegriots.

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I<AWA

F rom th,e Maninka ethnic group, originating. in the Far~nah region o.f Upper Gu~n.ea.Kawa IS above aillhe rhythm of the medecme man. It IS played durIng CIrCUmCISIon

periods to contain evil spirits and protect the young initiates from them.For this rhythm, the djembe is accompanied by the bala, the ntama and the file.

CD Track 36

HENJANf

F rom the Maninka ethnic group, played throughout theManinka country.

This rhythm is mainly played by young pubescent girls to celebrategood harvests.In Guinea, this rhythm is also called denadon.

CD Track 37

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UPPER GUINEA (continued)

FARANAHSIGUIRI

DenadonJa

JagbeFankaniKosoKomaKondelamban

Kala

Kankamba

Kawa

KonjanKonkobaSacSokoSoliToro

MamayaMenjaniSoboninkuSofaSoliSoliwuleWe'ima

MIDDLE GUINEAGUINEA FOREST REGION

LABENZEREKORE

Fulani RhythmsKuku

5 headed drums

LOWER GUINEA

CONAKRY, KINDIA, BaKE

In this region, we find mostly Susu rhythms such as:

Kakilembe YencadiSorsone GuinefareTiriba ManeYole Sintie

MakuruYokui

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drums. To interpret it well, it is necessary to work onthe group's orchestration and homogeneity.Memory also is important, as are the song andthe different sounds.

- The first drummer plays the first starting signalmeasure, and the troupe immediately joins in.- The djembe group plays the first staff; the dunungroup plays the second staff.

U ere is one of many "drum signals"~ - n composed by the "Ballets Koteba

de Cote-d'Ivoire"(l), a company createdand directed by Souleymane Koly. Many greatdrummers, including Fofana Georges Kemoko,Mamady "Kargus" Kelta and Mamady "N'Toman"Kelta, have belonged to the troupe.This starting signal is presented mainly because itis played in unison by a troupe of djembe and dunun

CD Track 402

Djembe

Dunun

1. This version is by Fofana Georges Kemoko and Mamady "N'Toman" Ke"ita

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, n Africa, it is customary for a percussionist tochange the skin of his drum himself, just as a

guitarist changes the strings of his or her guitar. Theoperation is in fact long and difficult.The procedure advised here, which I learnedthrough repeated experience, will facilitate yourwork, and you will learn other little tricks as you goalong. It will take three or four tries to get a good

result. You don't get a good sound the first time youplay your drum. Likewise, the first djembe youredo won't be your best.Get help the first time from someone who already hassome experience to avoid getting discouraged. Thetask will seem easier.And it is so satisfying to play an instrumentassembled with your own hands!

The instrument

the djembe. To do this use a wood rasp; then sandit down to get a perfect finish. It is important toeliminate all irregularities on the perimeter:they can cause cuts in the skin when you shaveit. Also, a rounded edge will hurt your hands less.To protect, preserve and nourish the wood, greasethe entire drum inside and out with shea butter (orlinseed oil, which is easier to find.)

O nce the skin is off, verify that there are nocracks in the wood. If there are, round them down

completely, and fill them in using a dense mixtureof wood glue and fine sawdust (more efficient thanready made wood putty.) Check that the wood isnot pock-marked with little holes. If you see a finewooddust in the drum, an anti-termite treatment isimperative. If necessary, even out the upper edge of

The djembe has three iron hoops (generallyr made of cement rods), 6 or 8 mm in diameter

(depending on the djembe's diameter). They arewrapped around the drum barrel and then soldered.Two are tension hoops, a larger and a smaller one.It is on these two tension hoops that the knots are tiedto hold the lacing which tightens the skin.The third hoop is the support hoop. It goes insidethe skin, which will be pulled up over it duringthe assembly. This support hoop is the largest of thethree, being slightly larger than the tension hoopwhich it supports.The two larger hoops are placed on the upperperimeter of the drum body.The small hoop goes on the collar.

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1/ To take off the old skin, undo the lacing. Start withthe horizontal lacing and then undo the verticallacing. If the skin does not come free easily, tap theupper hoops with a hammer. To remove the innerhoop, you can let the skin soak in water for anhour. This avoids tearing. It will then be possible touse the skin to make a dunun.

2/ Determine the best placement for the upperhoops (neither djembe nor hoops are perfectlyround!). Mark the drum body with the felt-tip pen atthe place where the hoops are soldered so that youcan find this placement easily once the skin is in place.

3/ Tie an identical number of "lark's head knots" (asshown below) on the two tension hoops. Space theknots evenly, about two fingers apart on the largerhoop (closer together on the smaller hoop.) Forexample, a hoop 35 cm in diameter should haveno more than 30 knots.

./

~ l

Finish this step by tying a square knot to join the endsof the cord (on each of the two tension hoops).

- 68-

-69-

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III. ASSEMBLY-_&&&r.r.r.r.r."""~&&

9/ Prepare the 16 meter long vertical tension cord by burning its ends sothey won't unravel.Begin lacing by locating the middle of the cord, thereby ensuring that it willhave the same length at both ends. Lace to either side by weaving the endsof the cord around each of the knots successively.

Be careful not to miss any knots or you will have to start over!

101 Once you have laced and knotted all around the djembe, grasp the endsof the skin. Holding the lower part of the instrument with your feet, pull theskin upward strongly to stretch it.This part is essential. It keeps the skin from being too low on the drum bodywhen you finish assembling and tautens the skin.

11/ Now check one last time that the skin has no holes in it. Look throughit towards a bright light from the foot side. If you see a flaw, you may beable to shift the skin, placing the flaw on the edge. Otherwise, you will needto use another skin.

IV. TENSION

12/ Remove the three meters of string used to hold the hoops in place(cf.8).

13/ Do a preliminary tightening of the cord. Place it correctly on the knots,bringing the skin down 1 cm all around the djembe. At the same time, besure that the two hoops stay parallel to each other. Eliminate any wrinklesthat might form in the skin between the two top hoops. Pull gradually,without forcing at first, or the skin will drop too quickly and too low onone side.

14/ Once the cord's slack has been taken up, attach the two ends with aknot as shown below.

~-70-

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VI. DRYING AND FINISHING

19/ Lay the djembe on its side to keep the wood from splitting during drying. Let the skin dry for at least three daysin the sun or in a dry, well-aired place.

201 Verify that the skin is perfectly dry. To get rid of any slack in the vertical tension cord caused by drying, pullit firmly one last time and redo the overhand loop.

21/ Now do the crosswise weaving which does the final stretching. Pulling this cord is very hard on the hands (andalso on the back), so wrap it around a thick wooden stick which gives you leverage to make the pulling easier.It is often necessary to weave two turns to get the most out of the skin. Shown below are a few ways of weavingwhich produce various tensions and designs.

1 2

3 4

- 72-

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- A dunun can be assembled with metal hoops, like the djembe, but it can also be sewn. The djembewas originally made this waJ] as well. The reader can practice either the hoop or cord method on

either instrument. The second method, trickier and less common, is more traditional.

In the sewing method described below, the metal hoops are replaced with nylon cord. The skins are attached to thecord by means of nylon thread rather than by knots. Then more cord weaves the skins to each other.

You can employ two used djembe skins to make a dunun. This saves money and also makes sewing easier, as theskins are already shaven and therefore thinner.

I. PREPARATION

Materials

- a 30 or 56 litre oil barrel- two goatskins- solvent, rags- two sheets of sand paper- 1/2 litre of oil paint- 20 meters of nylon cord, 4 mm in diameter- 4 meters nylon thread, 3 mm in diameter, for sewing- 3 meters of string

Tools

- a pair of metal shears or a jigsaw- a long, sturdy needle for leather- a large pair of scissors- two rectangular, double-edged razor blades- a screwdriver- a hammer- a lighter- pliers and leather stitching palm- a flat paintbrush

25/ Drill a hole in the top and bottom of the barrel. Then, using the jigsaw or the pliers, cut out the two ends. Besure not to use a barrel that has held toxic or inflammable products.

Using the hammer, flatten the cut edge against the inside. Carefully remove any metal shavings.

With abundant amounts of solvent, wash the inside to eliminate any grease. Sand the outside, removing old paintor advertising. Make it look like new with two coats of oil paint, decorating it as you like.

-74-

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32/ Sew the next stitch at a distance of three fmgers fromthe first. (Use your hand as a measure to make the spa-cing even). What's difficult is to keep the skin from slip-ping off the barrel before having sewn all the way around.When you have finished, tighten the thread and tie asquare knot with the 10 cm part you left at the fIrst stitch.

33/ When the first skin has been fitted, turn the barrelover, setting the skin on the ground. This skin can alsobe pulled off gently, and then repositioned after thesecond skin is sewn.

34/ Fit the other skin on the other end, following thesame procedure. Be sure to make the same number ofstitches on both skins.

!Y.:.J::A£!Jig

351 When the second skin is sewn, place the barrel onits side. To hold the two skins in place and prepare forthe cord lacing, cross the 3 meters of string tightlybetween the two skins (cf. 8).

36/ Weave the 15 meter vertical tension cord betweenthe two skins by passing back and forth under each ofthe stitches from one skin to the other (cf. 9).

V. TENSION

37/ Pull the skins gently, eliminating the cord'sslack. This will move them down to about 2 cmbelow the edge.Pull them evenly, turning the drum two or threetimes to get the desired result.

38/ When you have finished tightening the cord,attach the two ends with an overhand loop. Thetension is much looser than for the djembe.

VI. FINISHING

39/ Turn up the ends of the skin and cut the excesswith the scissors (cf. 16).

401 Shave the skins if necessary (cf. 17).

41/ Finish the edges of the skins by foldingupward, using the first method (cf. 18).

42/ The drying and finishing are the same as fordjembe (cf. 19 & 20).

43/ Weave the horizontal tension cord (cf. 21).

- 76-

Here is a list of West Africa's major musicians. Some are listed with their nicknames.They are eminent musicians, whose work truly embodies traditional Mandingo percussion.

Aboubakar "Abou Batteur" Ke"ita GuineanFormer soloist,"Grands Ballets d' Afrique Noire de Paris"; lives

in France.

Adama Drame BurkinabiLives in Ivory Coast, founded the "Ensemble Instrumental Foliba"

in 1990.

Alhusseini "Solo" Cherid GuineanLead soloist of 'Wassa"; lives in Guinea.

Amara Kante MalianFormer 1 8t soloist, "Sabougniouman" Troupe of Bamako, foun-

ded in 1972; lives in Mali.

Arafan Toure GuineanFormer lead drummer, "Ensemble National des Ballets Africains

de Guinee"; lives in Holland.

"Ex Ensemble National des Percussions de Guinee"

ADAMADRAMEKoumgbanan Conde Guinean

Former lead drummer, "Ballet National Djoliba de Guinee",sangba specialist; lives in Guinea.Noumoudy Ke"ita Guinean

Former lead drummer, "Ensemble National des Ballets Africainsde Guinee"; deceased.

1 8t soloists:

Aboubakar "Fatou Abou" Camara GuineanFormer 1 st soloist, "Ballet National Djoliba de Guinee"; lives in

Guinea.Lamine "Lopez" Soumah Guinean

Former soloist, "Ensemble National des Ballets Africains deGuinee"; lives in Guinea.Lance".. Kante Guinean

Dunun specialist; lives in Guinea.

pd soloists:

GuineanGuinean

Aly "Kanya" SyllaMamadou "Mohamed" Camara

Also 1st soloist of "Wassa"; lives in Guinea.

Fadouba Oulare GuineanFormer 1 st lead drummer, "Ensemble National des Ballets

Africains de Guinee", founded in 1958; lives in Guinea.Famoudou Konate Guinean

Former lead drummer, "Ensemble National des Ballets Africainsde Guinee"; lives in Guinea, where he founded his own group in1988.Fode "Fade Marseille" Youla Guinean

Former soloist, "Grands Ballets d' Afrique Noire de Paris", livesin Guinea. FAMOUDOU KONATE

-78-

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SELECTED RECORD(NQS

This selection of Mandingo music is not exhaustive.The recordings listed here are among the most representative.

Adama Drame (LP) Philips 6586042(LP) Auvidis 4510(CD) Playa Sounds 65122(CD) Playa Sounds 65085(LP) Auvidis 4519(CD) Auvidis 6126(CD) Playa Sounds 65177

Rythms of the MandingTambour djembeFolibaPercussions mandinguesDjeliGreat Masters of Percussions30 ans de Djembe

Africa Soli Sali (CD) Sango Music 007(Netherlands)

Bamba Dembele et Ie groupe DjolibaPercussions

Vol 1Vol2

(K7) Syliphone 8350(K7) Syliphone 8351

:::isse Sima Farev (LP) Nubia SA 300021

Famoudou Konate Rythmen der Malinke Guinea (CD) Museum collection 18Staatliche Museen. PreubischeKulturbesitz.Stauffenbergstrabe 411000 Berlin 30 (Germany)

Fode Youla Percussions Music from AfricaKaloumBasikoloNe NeYancadi

(LP) SAJ 19(LP) SAJ 26(LP) SAJ 48(LP) SAJ 50(LP) SAJ 54Free MusicBehaimstrasse 41000 Berlin (Germany)

Kassoum Diarra Kassama percussions (CD) Playa Sounds 65170

. Ladji Camara Africa, New-York (LP) Lyrichord LLST 7345

Vol1Silo

(CD) Buda Records 82513(CD) Buda Records 92579

Les Ballets Africainsde la Republique de Guinee

Louis Cesar Ewande Cano (CD) Bleu Citron OMD 545

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