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Page 1: SEMESTER 1 HISTORY - kkhsou.in 7 : The Mauryan Empire UNIT 8 : Society, ... Architecture and Sculpture of the Mauryan Empire. The ninth unit entitled, Post-Mauryan Developments in

GHT S1 01 (Block-2)

KRISHNA KANTA HANDIQUI STATE OPEN UNIVERSITYPatgaon, Rani Gate, Guwahati - 781 017

SEMESTER 1

HISTORY

(HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGIN-NING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E)

BLOCK-2

CONTENTS

UNIT 6 : Alexander’s Invasion of India and Its ImpactUNIT 7 : The Mauryan EmpireUNIT 8 : Society, Economy, Religion and Art in the Mauryan

EmpireUNIT 9 : Post Mauryan Developments in IndiaUNIT 10 : The Gupta EmpireREFERENCES : For All Units

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Subject Experts1. Dr. Sunil Pravan Baruah, Rt. Principal, B.Barooah College, Guwahati2. Dr. Gajendra Adhikari, Principal, D.K.Girls’ College, Mirza3. Dr. Maushumi Dutta Pathak, HOD, History, Arya Vidyapeeth College, Guwahati

Course Coordinator : Dr. Priti Salila Rajkhowa,K.K.H.S.O.U

SLM Preparation TeamUnits Contributors

6 Dr. Bishwajyoti Dev Mahanta, Pragjyotish College7& 8 Dr. Navaneeta Phukan, Pandu College

& Mridutpal Goswami, Dudhnoi College9 Dr. Navaneeta Phukan, Pandu College

& Dr. Priti Salila Rajkhowa, KKHSOU11 Dr. Kamal Narayan Patowary, Barama College

Editorial TeamContent (English Version) : Dr. Maushumi Dutta Pathak,HOD, History, Arya Vidyapeeth

College, Guwahati.Language (English Version) : Professor Robin Goswami, Former HOD, English, Cotton

College, Guwahati

Structure, Format & Graphics : Dr. Priti Salila Rajkhowa, KKHSOU.

June 2017 This Self Learning Material (SLM) of the Krishna KantaHandiqui State Open University is

made available under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike4.0 License(international): http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/

Printed and published by Registrar on behalf of the Krishna Kanta Handiqui State Open University

Head Office : Patgaon, Rani Gate, Guwahati-781 017City Office : Housefed Complex, Dispur, Guwahati-781 006; Web: www.kkhsou.in

The University acknowledges with thanks the financial support provided by theDistance Education Bureau, UGC for the preparation of this study material.

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BACHELOR OF ARTS

HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE13TH CENTURY A.D

DETAILED SYLLABUS

BLOCK-2

PAGES

UNIT 6 : Alexander’s Invasion of India and Its Impact 81-92

Alexander, Impact of Alexander’s Invasion- social and political

UNIT 7 : The Mauryan Empire 93-109

The rise of the Maurya, Mauryan Administration, The Kalinga

War, Disintegration of the Mauryan Empire

UNIT 8 : Society, Economy, Religion and Art in the Mauryan Empire 110-121

Society, Economy, Religion, Architecture and Sculpture

UNIT 9 : Post-Mauryan Developments in India 122-140

Rise of New Kingdoms in Northern India-The Sungas,

The Kushana, The Satavahanas, Religion-Mahayana Buddhism

and Schism in Jainism, Cultural Developments- Art, Architecture

and Sculpture

UNIT 10 : The Gupta Empire 141-166

Foundation, expansion, administration and downfall of the

Gupta Empire

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80 HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E

BLOCK INTRODUCTION

This is the Second Block of the first Course in History entitled History of India from Pre-History

till the Beginning of the 13th century C.E under the revised Semester system of the B.A. Programme.

This block consists of five units.

The sixth unit is titled, Alexander’s Invasion of India and Its Impact. This unit discusses the

significance of Alexander’s invasion of India.

The seventh unit entitled, The Mauryan Empire. This unit introduces the rise of Mauryan,

Mauryan Administration, the Kalinga War and disintegration of the Mauryan Empire.

The eighth unit entitled, Society, Economy, Religion and Art in the Mauryan Empire. This unit

discusses the Society, Economy, Religion, Architecture and Sculpture of the Mauryan Empire.

The ninth unit entitled, Post-Mauryan Developments in India. The unit discusses the rise of

new kingdoms in Northern India-the Sungas, the Kushana, the Satavahanas, Religion-Mahayana

Buddhism and Schism in Jainism, Cultural Developments- Art, Architecture and Sculpture in the

Post-Mauryan India.

The tenth unit The Gupta Empire explains the foundation, expansion, administration and

.downfall of the Gupta Empire in detail.

While going through this block, you will notice that some boxes are put in the left hand or right

hand side of the text. These boxes are meant to serve the purpose of in-text glossary for you. Again,

you may find some boxes marked with: "LET US KNOW". These boxes will provide you with some

additional interesting and relevant information. The boxes marked with "ACTIVITY" will help you in

making your learning more active and efficient. And, at the end of each section, you will get "CHECK

YOUR PROGRESS" questions. These have been designed to self-check your progress of study. It

will be better if you solve the problems put in these boxes immediately after you go through the sec-

tions of the units and then match your answer with "ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS"

given at the end of each unit.

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81HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E

Unit 6: ALEXANDER’S INVASION OF INDIA ANDITS IMPACT

UNIT STRUCTURE

6.1 Learning Objectives

6.2 Introduction

6.3 Political condition in North West India

6.3.1 Early Persian Invasions

6.3.2 Results of the Contacts

6.4 Alexander’s Invasion of India

6.5 Effects of Alexander’s Invasion

6.6 Indian Reaction to the Greeks

6.7 Let Us Sum Up

6.8 Further Reading

6.9 Answers to Check Your Progress

6.10 Model Questions

6.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to-

discuss the political condition of north-west India before Alexander’s

invasion,

trace the early Persian Invasions,

assess different aspects of Alexander’s invasion,

analyse the effects of Alexander’s invasion of India and India’s

reaction to it.

6.2 INTRODUCTION

The invasion of India by Alexander, the great king of Macedon in 326

B.C. is an important event of far reaching consequence in the ancient Indian

history. In this unit we are going to discuss in detail the invasion of Alexander

to India and the effects of his invasion in India. As a background to it we will

at first discuss the political condition of North-West India during that period

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when Alexander entered India through the North-West frontier. The Persian

invasions that occurred prior to Alexander’s invasions are also being

discussed along with the impact of the Persian contact on India.

6.3 POLITICAL CONDITION IN NORTH WEST INDIA

In an earlier unit we have discussed the emergence of different

janapadas in North India. They often fought among themselves for political

and economic supremacy. At last, in the Eastern Gangetic Valley the kingdom

of Magadha became most powerful. It occupied many territories and built

an Empire. But in the North-West India there was no political unity. It was

divided into small kingdoms like Kamboja, Gandhara or Madra. They were

fighting very frequently among themselves. The location of these states

was also important. Although they were geographically within the Indian sub-

continent yet they were linked with Central Asia through many passes.

Foreigners could easily enter there by crossing the passes in the Hindukush

Mountains. In this section you will be told about some of such attempts.

6.3.1 Early Persian Invasions

On the 6th century B.C. an Empire was built up in Persia,

the area of present Iran, Iraq, etc. It was called Achaemenid Empire.

By 530 B.C. its Emperor Cyrus crossed the Hindukush Mountains.

He was militarily more powerful than the smaller kingdoms of North-

Western India. He forced the people of Kamboja and Gandhara to

pay tribute to him. After him, another Achaemenid ruler Darius

annexed Punjab and the Western part of the Indus and Sind in North-

West India in 516 B.C. This area became the most fertile part of the

Persian Empire. So, we can say that the North-Western India was

ruled by different kings or Emperors at different times. Sometimes it

was ruled by the local rulers or chiefs and sometimes by the

Persians.

Alexander’s Invasion of India and its ImpactUnit 6

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LET US KNOWGandhara and Hindukush are mentioned as satrapies

or provinces in Achaemenian inscriptions. They were

known for their prosperity.

6.3.2 Results of the Contacts

There were far reaching results of the Persian contact on

North Western India after the early Persian invasions. It was a contact

between two cultures which brought many changes of the North

Western region.

After coming into contact with Persia many towns of North -

West India became cosmopolitan centres. Out of them mention may

be made of Gandhara and Takshashila. Indian and Persian learning

mingled in these centres. This mixing influenced the different aspects

of Indian life. Firstly, Indians struck Persian Sigloi type coins.

Secondly, you perhaps have heard that king Asoka used many rock

inscriptions to propagate Buddhism. He perhaps borrowed the idea

of inscription from Persian king Darius. Thirdly, the script Kharosti,

which was widely used in North-Western India, was derived from

the Persian Aramaic script.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESSQ 1: Choose the correct alternative:

a) Kamboja / Magadha was in the North-

West India.

b) Emperor Cyrus crossed the Kanchenjunga / Hindukush

Mountains.

c) Kharosti / Brahmi script was widely used in North-Western

India.

Q 2: Fill in the blanks:

a) Janapadas emerged in ..................................... India.

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b) Darius was an ....................................... ruler.

c) .............................. struck Persian Sigloi type coins.

Q 3: Write briefly in 50 words about the early Persian invasions.

................................................................................................

................................................................................................

................................................................................................

................................................................................................

................................................................................................

6.4 ALEXANDER’S INVASION OF INDIA

Alexander(III) the greats was the son of Phillip, the ruler of Macedon.

He succeeded his father to the throne of Macedon in 336 B.C. The Greeks

and the Persians had fought for supremacy since the 5th century B.C. The

Persians invaded Greece. This rivalry continued till Alexander’s time.

Alexander defeated the Persian king Darius in 334 B.C. at the Battle of Issus.

Then he conquered Syria easily and occupied the Gaza strip, Egypt, Babylon,

Susa and Persepolis from the Persians one after another. In 327 B.C.

Alexander set out from Bactria to conquer India.

Figure 6.1: Alexander’s Route

Source: The Culture and Civilisation of ancient India in Historical

Outline by D.D. Kosambi

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LET US KNOWThe Persians first invaded Greece in 492 B.C. under

their king Darius. A storm destroyed the Persian fleet

and they returned. In 490 B.C. the Persians invaded

Greece for the second time. They were defeated at the Battle of

Marathon. After the death of Darius, his son Xerxes became the

Persian king. He also invaded Greece in 480 B.C. The Greeks

repeatedly defeated the Persians at the Battle of Salamis. This conflict

with the Persians is known as the Persian War.

You may ask if Alexander was an enemy of Persia then why he

invaded India. In 326 B.C Alexander entered the Indian provinces which had

been under the control of his enemy Darius. He wanted to completely conquer

Persia and the Indian provinces were the Eastern most parts of Persia.

Secondly, Alexander had a special passion for geographical curiosity. Some

Greek scholars believed that the Caspian Sea expanded as far as India.

Some others did not hold the same view. It was known as the ‘problem of

ocean’. Alexander wanted to solve it. Thirdly, he had already heard about the

prosperity and beauty of the Indian provinces. Naturally, he wanted to add

India to his own Empire.

The political condition of North-West India was favourable for

Alexander. By 327 B.C. Alexander had already established himself as the

master of Greece and Persia. In North-West India there was no political

unity. There were many independent kingdoms and republics or oligarchies.

Among the rulers only two were important. One was the ruler of Takshila.

His name was Ambhi. The other was Puru or Porus, the ruler of the territory

between the rivers Jhelum and Chenab. But these two rulers did not join

hands to resist Alexander. Alexander crossed the Khyber Pass and easily

conquered the smaller Indian kingdoms and republics.

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Figure 6.2: Alexander

Source: Google Images

You may have heard about Alexander’s meeting with Porus. Before

meeting Porus, Alexander marched towards Takshila. Its ruler Ambhi readily

accepted Alexander’s over lordship. Alexander recruited soldiers at Takshila

and collected tribute from this prosperous kingdom. Next Alexander invaded

the kingdom of Porus. Porus offered a strong resistance to Alexander. But

he was defeated. However, Alexander was very impressed by the bravery

of Porus. He made friendship with Porus in this unknown country. Porus

was restored to his kingdom. Alexander marched through the streams of

the Indus as far as its delta. There he stopped his Indian invasion because

his soldiers refused to go further. Moreover, Alexander perhaps also heard

that in the Ganges Valley there was a strong kingdom of the Nandas.

Whatever might be the cause for the return of Alexander, he divided his

army into two divisions. One returned to Greece through the Persian Gulf

and the other through the land route along the coast. During his return

Alexander defeated many republics on way. The Greeks termed them as

Gana-Sanghas. These were perhaps the tribal republics. On his way

Alexander died in 323 B.C. before reaching his own country. Before leaving

India, Alexander had appointed some governors to rule his Indian territory.

But after his death nobody showed interest in Indian territories to establish

the Greek rule.

Alexander’s Invasion of India and its ImpactUnit 6

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LET US KNOWAlexander is considered one of the greatest generals

of all time. Within a short time he was able to build a

very vast Empire. Moreover, he followed a conciliatory

approach towards those whom he conquered. He established a

cultural bridge between the Greeks and the Asiatic countries. For

the combination of the qualities of a general and a statesman he is

called ‘Alexander the Great’.

6.5 EFFECTS OF ALEXANDER’S INVASION

By now, you have developed a fair understanding about what led

Alexander to invade India. Alexander stayed in India for about two years.

Don’t you want to know whether there was any Greek influence on Indian

polity, society or economy? Was there an Indian influence on the Greeks?

Interestingly, in the contemporary Indian literatures, we do not find any

mention about Alexander’s invasion of the North-West India. It means that

political impact of this Greek invasion was not long lasting. In fact, soon

after his departure, the Maurya rulers of Magadha brought the North-Western

part of India under their control. But, for Alexander, his Indian campaign was

a success. The North-Western provinces were more prosperous and

populous than many provinces in his Empire. In India he conquered a larger

area than the Persians did. If you look back, you will see that the Persian’s

occupations of the North-West India brought Indian culture, closer to the

Central Asiatic culture. But Alexander’s invasion brought ancient India closer

to ancient Greek. It established contacts in many fields between these two

civilizations. Let us now look some of the important effects of Alexander’s

invasion in India.

Intellectual Effects: The Greeks were an adventurous people. They

had a tendency of keeping records about new areas or provinces.

Even before Alexander, some Greek scholars wrote about India based

on traveler’s accounts. So, on many occasions their accounts on India

were not accurate. But Alexander brought with him many Greek

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scholars. They recorded their impressions on India. Two most famous

scholars were Admiral Nearchus and Onesicritus. From their accounts

we can come to know that the culture of the North-West India had

some differences with the culture of the Gangetic Valley. Moreover,

the Greeks were the first to study history in the world. The historians

who accompanied Alexander had left valuable geographical accounts

of the North-West India. They also gave dates to all important events

of Alexander’s campaign. These are definite and helpful for the

reconstruction of Indian history. We also get an insight in to the society

and economy of the North-West India from such accounts.

The Greek accounts of India indirectly helped India in many ways.

The Greeks came to know about India clearly after the invasion. Their

literary persons started writing about India and Indians in their works.

These were performed or studied in many countries, particularly in

Europe. The Europeans became curious to know about India and its

people. In fact, these Greek accounts introduced India and the Indians

to the Western world.

Commercial Effects: Alexander’s invasion opened four different routes

between India and Greece. These were by land as well as by sea. The

Greek merchants and craftsmen used this routes to trade with India.

Alexander’s generals, like Seleukos, after his death, founded some

small kingdoms on the North-West India. These were the centres of

trade between India and Greece.

Greek Settlement: The Persians had established their control over

a part of the North-West India and the South-East Greece almost of

the same time. Ever since then, some Greeks, who became the

subjects of Persia, came to the Persian part of India. They settled

there even before Alexander’s invasion. But after Alexander annexed

these areas to his own Empire there were more Greeks settlements.

The most important of them were in the cities of Alexandria in Kabul,

Sindh and Boukephala on the Jhelum. These areas were later occupied

by the Mauryas. But the Greeks did not completely leave these areas

and continued to reside there.

Alexander’s Invasion of India and its ImpactUnit 6

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Paved the way for Empire building: The Persians and their ruler

Darius were defeated by the Greeks. The Indian states under Persian

rule became independent. So, when Alexander came to India there

were many independent small Indian kingdoms existing in the North-

West frontier of India. Alexander defeated them and brought most of

them under one political control. It indirectly helped the Maurya rulers

to bring these areas under their Empire. Again, in some traditions it

has been mentioned that Chandragupta Maurya, who founded the

Maurya dynasty, acquired some knowledge of military generalship and

organization from Alexander. Later, he used it against the Nandas of

Magadha and was able to establish a new dynasty.

Indian impact on the Greeks: When Alexander left India, he was

accompanied by some Indian scholars. One of them went as far as

Babylon. He held that Greeks were influenced by some Indian

philosophical ideas. Some scholars of agnosticism were perhaps

initiated by the influence of Indian atheist philosophy like that of the

Charvaks. One of such Greek agnostic’s philosophies was Neo-

Platonism. It survived for many centuries in Europe.

6.6 INDIAN REACTION TO THE GREEKS

Different sections of the Indian society had different views on the

Greeks. In some of the Brahmanical texts the Yavanas or Greeks were

severely criticized. The Brahmanas regarded the Indian rulers as Kshatriyas

or rajanyas. They depended on the patronage of these rulers for their social

status. So, when Alexander destroyed the Indian states, the Brahmanas

perhaps felt insecure. Moreover, Alexander was accompanied by some

Greek scholars and had little regard for the brahmanas as intellectuals.

Again, the Brahmanas always insisted on a society based on four divisions

on grade. On the other hand, a Greek society had only two divisions. These

were the slave and the master. However, you have learnt that in the Gana-

Sanghas or Rajyas of India there were also two divisions in the society-the

rulers and the ruled. These were mainly centres of unorthodox thinking like

Buddhism. The Buddhist did not believe in the four divisions of society based

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on caste. They curiously looked at the Greek way of division as an alternative

to the caste system.

ACTIVITY 6.1

Locate the different states annexed by Alexander in a

map.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 4: Whom Alexander defeated at the Battle of

Issus in 334 B.C.?

....................................................................

Q 5: Who was Ambhi?

....................................................................................................

Q 6: Name two Greek scholars who accompanied Alexander.

....................................................................................................

Q 7: Who were the Yavanas?

....................................................................................................

Q 8: Write True / False:

a) The Persians invaded Greece.

b) By 326 B.C. Alexander had already established himself as

the master of Greece and Persia.

c) Alexander’s invasion brought ancient India closer to ancient

Greek.

d) The Buddhist did not believe in the four divisions of society

based on caste.

6.7 LET US SUM UP

After going through this unit you have learnt that-

The North-West India was divided into small kingdoms and had no

political unity. These kingdoms were linked up with Central Asia through

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many passes. As such the kingdoms were vulnerable to attack from

Central Asia. There were invasions from Persia under Emperor Cyrus

and Darius who annexed Indian territory into their kingdom. The Indian

society was influenced in many ways by the Persian settlement.

But the most important invasion was of Alexander, the ruler of Macedon,

who invaded India in 326 B.C. as a part of his campaign against the

ruler of Persia, Darius. Alexander wanted to completely conquer Persia

and the Indian provinces were the eastern most parts of the Persian

Empire.

This invasion of Alexander left long lasting impact on the intellectual

and social life of India.

6.8 FURTHER READING

1) Majumdar, R. C. (edited). (1980). The Age of Imperial Unity (The History

and Culture of the Indian People). Kolkata, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.

2) Majumdar, R.C., Raychaudhuri, H.C., Datta, K. (1986). An Advanced

History of India. New Delhi, Macmillan India Ltd.

3) Sharma, L.P. (1981). Ancient History of India (pre-historic Age to 1200

A.D.). New Delhi, Vikas Publication House Pvt. Ltd.

4) Thapar, Romila. (2002). The Penguin History of Early India from The

Origins to A D 1300. New Delhi, The Penguin Group.

6.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOURPROGRESS

Ans to Q No 1: a) Kamboja, b) Hindukush, c) Kharosti

Ans to Q No 2: a) North, b) Achaemenid, c) Indians

Ans to Q No 3: The Persian Emperor Cyrus attacked India by 530 B.C by

crossing the Hindukush Mountains and forced the people of Kamboja

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and Gandhara to pay tribute to him. After him another Persian or

Achaemenid ruler Darius annexed Punjab and the Western part of the

Indus and Sind in North-West India in 516 B.C.

Ans to Q No 4: Persian king Darius.

Ans to Q No 5: Ruler of Takshila.

Ans to Q No 6: Admiral Nearchus and Onesicritus.

Ans to Q No 7: Yavanas were the Greeks.

Ans to Q No 8: a) True, b) False, c) True, d) True

6.10 MODEL QUESTIONS

A) Very Short Questions (Answer each question in about 50 words)

Q 1: Who was Darius?

Q 2: When did Cyrus cross the Hindukush Mountains?

Q 3: Who regarded the Indian rulers as Kshatriyas or rajanyas?

Q 4: Mention one commercial effect of the Alexander’s invasion of India.

B) Short Questions (Answer each question in about 150 words)

Q 1: Write a short note on Alexander.

Q 2: Analyse the political condition of north India on the eve of Alexander’s

invasion of India.

Q 5: What were the invasions that took place in India through its North-

West frontier? What was the impact of the invasions?

C) Long Questions (Answer each question in about 300-500 words)

Q 1: Write an essay on Alexander’s invasion of India.

Q 2: Discuss the impacts of the Alexander’s invasion of India.

*** ***** ***

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UNIT 7: THE MAURYAN EMPIRE

UNIT STRUCTURE

7.1 Learning Objectives

7.2 Introduction

7.3 The Rise of the Maurya

7.4 Ashoka and his Dhamma

7.5 Mauryan Administration

7.5.1 Central Administration

7.5.2 Provincial Administration

7.5.3 The Army

7.6 Disintegration of the Mauryan Empire

7.7 Let Us Sum Up

7.8 Further Readings

7.9 Answers to Check Your Progress

7.10 Model Questions

7.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

After going through this unit, you will be able to-

trace the foundation of the Mauryan empire,

discuss Ashoka and his Dhamma,

discuss the Mauryan Administrative system,

know about the disintegration of the Maurya Empire.

7.2 INTRODUCTION

In unit 5 we have already discussed the sixteen mahajanapadas. In

the 6th century B.C the entire northern territory was divided into 16

mahajanapadas. Among the sixteen mahajanapadas, there was Magadha,

which became the most powerful mahajanapada between the 6th and the

4th century B.C. The growth of Magadha culminated in the emergence of

the Mauryan Empire. In this unit we will discuss the rise and fall of the

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7.3 RISE OF THE MAURYA

The rise of the Maurya and the foundation of the Mauryan Empire

are considered a landmark event in Indian history. This Empire was founded

by Chandragupta Maurya by defeating the Nandas in 321 B.C. It is said that

he was guided by a Brahmana named Kautilya or Chanakya, who was

traditionally believed to be the Prime Minister of Chandragupta.

Figure 7.1: Kautilya or Chanakya

Source: Google Images

Historians have used a variety of sources to learn about the rise of

Chandragupta Maurya and his Empire. We have different opinions about

the origin of the Mauryas. According to Buddhist traditions, they were a branch

of the Kshatriya Moria class associated with the Sakyas. But according to

the Puranic tradition, Chandragupta Maurya was the son of the last Nanda

king from his Sudra concubine, Mura. The name Maurya is believed to be

derived from his mother’s name Mura.

Chandragupta Maurya took advantage of the growing weakness and

unpopularity of the Nandas in the last days of their rule. Though

Chandragupta’s military strength was inferior to that of the Nandas, his

superior strategy helped him. Once he established his control over the Ganga

plain, he moved to the North-West. He liberated North-Western India from

the Greek General Seleukos Nikatar, the successor of Alexander the Great.

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A treaty was signed in 303 B.C. and some Seleucid territories were ceded

to the Mauryan kingdom. There was also a possible marriage alliance

between the two royal families. Thus, the territorial foundation of the Mauryan

Empire was laid and Chandragupta established his control over the Gangetic

plains and the Indus Valley.

The Mauryan contact with the Greeks was important for territorial

expansion, as well as for the development of friendly relations between the

two. It led to the creation of a new cultural development. Besides, exchange

of envoys between the Mauryan and the Seleucids, there was also the

exchange of envoys with the Greek states of the West. Seleukos sent an

envoy, Megasthenes to the Mauryan court. The latter spent considerable

time at the capital Pataliputra and in his treatise Indika he had left a valuable

account of the city and also of Indian society.

According to Jaina tradition, Chandragupta became an ardent Jaina

towards the end of his life. He made his son Bindusara, the king of Magadha,

become an ascetic. He went to South India and there he ended his life by

regulated slow starvation in the orthodox Jaina manner.

Bindusara ascended the throne in about 297 B.C. According to

Buddhist tradition he was associated with the Ajivika sect. A Tibetan history

of the Buddha suggests that Bindusara campaigned in the Deccan. However

it is not sure whether this land was occupied by Bindusara or his son Asoka.

He too continued to exchange embassies with Greece and showed interest

in Greek philosophy. Bindusara died in 272 B.C. By then a large part of India

had come under Mauryan sovereignty.

LET US KNOWThe account of Megasthenes does not exist in full.

But quotations occur in the works of several

subsequent Greek writers. These fragments have

been collected and published in the form of a book called Indika or

An Account of India.

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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answer the following questions:

Q 1: Who founded the Mauryan Empire?

...............................................................................................

Q 2: Who was Kautilya?

................................................................................................

Q 3: Who was the Greek envoy to the Mauryan court?

................................................................................................

Q 4: When was Mauryan Empire established?

................................................................................................

Q 5: Who ascended the throne after Chandragupta Maurya?

................................................................................................

Q 6: Write a note on the foundation of the Mauryan Empire

(within 60 words).

................................................................................................

................................................................................................

................................................................................................

................................................................................................

................................................................................................

7.4 ASOKA AND HIS DHAMMA

Asoka who ascended the Mauryan throne after his father’s death

was well known for his Dhamma. He was a great ruler. But it was his Dhamma

which made him a popular ruler and which won the hearts of his subjects.

In this section we are going to discuss about the religious policy of Asoka

which centred round the Dhamma. Before going into it we will discuss in

brief the early life of Asoka.

Early Life of Asoka

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Bindusara was succeeded by his son Asoka, who is considered the

greatest of the Mauryan rulers. We can know about Asoka through his edicts

distributed over a large part of India. They give us a detailed account about

his life and various activities. The edicts of the earlier half of Asoka’s reign

were inscribed on rock surfaces and are therefore called the Minor and

Major Rock edicts. In the later part of his reign, his edicts were inscribed on

well polished sandstone monolithic pillars which are called Pillar Edicts.

Figure 7.2: Asoka

Source: Google Images

LET US KNOWIn 1834 James Prinscep deciphered the Brahmi script

in which the edicts of Asoka were inscribed. Though

most of the Asokan edicts were written in Prakrit, some

edicts found in North-West of India were in Aramaic

and Greek languages. Most Prakrit edicts were written in Brahmi

script. However some edicts of North-West were written in Kharosti.

Greek and Aramaic scripts were used for edicts in Afghanistan.

However, for the early life of Asoka we have to depend upon the

Buddhist account. According to Buddhist tradition he was appointed governor

of Taxila and Ujjain during the reign of Bindusara.There is a controversy

regarding his accession to the throne. Whether he ascended the throne

immediately after his father’s death or whether there was a four year

interregnum involving a struggle for the throne with his brothers is not very

clear.

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Figure 7.3: Asoka’s Empire

Source: Google map

The most important event in the early life of Asoka was the famous

campaign in Kalinga in about 260 B.C. It was possible that the main motive

behind this campaign was to obtain resources from Kalinga, to safeguard

the trade routes with the peninsula or to give Kalingans a lesson for

overthrowing Magadhan control. But the large scale deaths in the war moved

the king. After this incident he became attracted to Buddhism. But the

conversion did not take place immediately. It took almost two and a half

years for him to embrace Buddhism.

During Asoka’s reign the Third Buddhist Council met at Pataliputra

in 250 B.C. This council decided to send missionaries to various regions.

Accordingly Asoka sent his people outside India to spread Buddhism.

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Asoka’s Religious Policy

The Kalinga war opened a new chapter in the life of Asoka. He

developed a philosophy based on his interpretation of Dhamma. Dhamma

is the Prakrit form of the Sanskrit word Dharma, which means the universal

law or righteousness. However, Asoka gave it a wider meaning.

The Dhamma which Asoka preached was not simple piety but the

specific code of moral duties laid down for the common people. Asoka wanted

to transform Buddhism into a popular religion. His edicts are, therefore, of

two kinds: (a) The smaller group of edicts was addressed to the Buddhist

Sangha. These edicts describe his adherence to Buddhism and his

relationship with the Buddhist Sangha or community of monks. (b)The larger

group of edicts on the rock surfaces is more important. The Minor Rock

Edicts and Major Rock Edicts and the Pillar Edicts define Asoka’s concept

of Dhamma.

Some historians thought that there was no difference between Asoka’s

Dhamma and Buddhism. But from his edicts it appears that Asoka wanted to

use his Dhamma to reduce social conflict and intolerance. He especially

emphasized tolerance towards all people and towards their beliefs and ideas.

Therefore, the principle of Dhamma was defined in such a way that it should

be acceptable to people belonging to any religious sect. However, his Dhamma

was influenced to a great extent by the teachings of Buddha, especially the

emphasis on non-violence and proper behaviour towards all.

One important principle of Asoka’s Dhamma was harmonious living.

Therefore, he discouraged assemblies and gatherings which created

differences of opinions. Another principle of Dhamma was non-violence. He

discouraged war conquest by violence and prohibited killing of animals on

certain specified occasions. However, Asoka recognized the occasions

where violence was unavoidable.

Asoka opposed the practice of many orthodox ceremonies and

maintained that the practice of morality was more important than the

observance of rituals. Rock Edict XI is concerned with the practice of morality,

such as giving respect to the elders, being charitable towards friends, slaves

and servants, etc.

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Asoka appointed Dhammamahamatras for propagating Dhamma.

The activities of the Dhammamahamatras were not restricted to any

particular community. They were expected to work impartially among all

sects.

Thus, for Asoka Dhamma was a way of life based on harmonious

blending of social ethics, moral virtues and civic responsibility. However, his

policy of Dhamma did not succeed. It may be because he was too much

occupied with his efforts to spread Buddhism and he did succeed in

transforming this local creed in the Gangetic Valley into a world religion.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESSAnswer the following questions:

Q 7: Who succeeded Bindusara?

................................................................................................

Q 8: Where did the Third Buddhist Council meet?

................................................................................................

Q 9: Asoka was appointed as governor of .................................and

................................. during the reign of Bindusara.

Q 10: Into how many types Asoka’s edicts can be divided?

................................................................................................

Q 11: Whom did Asoka appoint for propagating Dhamma?

................................................................................................

7.5 MAURYAN ADMINISTRATION

The Mauryan dynasty organized a very elaborate system of

administration. We can collect information about the Mauryan administration

from the accounts left by Megasthenes, Kautilya’s Arthasastra and the

inscriptions or edicts of Asoka.

7.5.1 Central Administration

The king was the pivot of the administrative structure in the

Mauryan Empire. He had absolute power in the administration.

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However, the king was expected to consult with his ministers, but

the final decision lay with him.

The king was assisted by a Council of Ministers, the Mantri

Parishad. According to Arthasastra, two important officers in the

central administration were Sannidhata (the treasurer) and

Samaharta (the chief collector). The treasurer was the custodian of

the realized revenue. The chief collector supervised the collection

of revenue from the whole kingdom.

Another important officer of the Mauryan administration was

the Adhyakshas or superintendents. We find mention of about 32

superintendents in charge of different departments. They were linked

to local administration and the central government. The different

departments were treasury, mines, metals, mint, salts, gold, trade,

forest produce, weights and measures, tolls, agriculture, infantry,

horses, chariots, elephants, shipping, cattle, gambling, jail, ports,

etc.

One-quarter of the total revenue was reserved for salaries

of the officials and for public works. The salaries of the higher officials

were very high. Public works covered a wide range of activity - building

and maintaining roads; wells and rest houses; planting trees;

irrigation projects; maintaining the army; running the mines; the

grants of the royal family to the religious institutions and individuals

and the maintenance of the royal family.

LET US KNOWSome changes in the Mauryan administration were

brought about by Asoka. Traditional Mauryan concept

of kingship was softened by Asoka’s paternalistic

concept. In a separate Kalinga edict, Asoka declared- ‘All men are

my children’. Asoka appointed a new class of officials known as

Dhammamahamatras to promote the material and spiritual well-being

of the people.

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The administration of the capital Pataliputra was well planned.

It was looked after by a Municipal Commission consisting of thirty

members. The commission was divided into six boards or

committees of five members each. These committees looked after

industrial arts, foreigners, registration of births and deaths, trade

and commerce, manufactured articles and collection of tax and sold

goods.

Espionage was recognized as an official activity in the

Mauryan Empire. A large number of spies were appointed who

transmitted secret and confidential reports to the king. Spies helped

to maintain contact with even the remote parts of the Empire.

7.5.2 Provincial Administration

There were five major political centres in the Mauryan Empire,

as mentioned in the Asokan inscription. We have already discussed

about that the capital Pataliputra had well planned administered. The

other four centres were: Taxila, Ujjain, Tosali and Suvarnagiri. They

were each placed under a governor who usually belonged to the

imperial family. Governors of smaller units were selected from local

people. Senior officers called Pradeshikas visited the provinces every

five years to check the administration. Another group of officers called

Rajukas were appointed both in cities and villages to look after the

judicial matter. Yukta was appointed for recording information coming

from various sources.

According to Arthasastra, provinces were further sub-divided

into Vishayas or districts and district into villages. In each village,

there was an accountant and a tax collector. The gramas or village

headman was responsible to them.

7.5.3 The Army

The Mauryan Empire maintained a huge army. According to

the account of a Roman writer called Pliny, Chandragupta maintained

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600,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry and 9000 elephants. Another source

tells us that Mauryas also had 8000 chariots. Megasthenes mentions

that a committee with six sub-committees was responsible for

coordinating military activity. Of these, one looked after the navy, the

second managed transport and provisions, the third was responsible

for infantry, the fourth for horses, the fifth for chariots and the sixth

for elephants. According to Megasthenes, the soldiers received

regular pay from the state. Kautilya mentions a Navadhyaks or

superintendent of ships. Therefore it is possible that the Mauryans

possessed a navy.

LET US KNOWThe Mauryans had chosen their provincial centres

very carefully. Both Taxila and Ujjain were situated on

important long-distance trade routes. Suvarnagiri was

possibly located in one such way that facilitated the collection of

gold from the mines of Karnataka.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESSAnswer the following questions:

Q 12: Who was the head of the administration in

the Mauryan Empire?

................................................................................................

Q 13: Who looked after the collection of revenue in the Mauryan

Empire?

................................................................................................

Q 14: How many political centres were there in the Mauryan Empire?

................................................................................................

Q 15: Who was Samaharta ?

................................................................................................

Q 16: Who was Adhyaksha?

................................................................................................

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Q 17: Who was Pradeshika?

................................................................................................

Q 18: Who was Navadhyak?

................................................................................................

Q 19: Prepare a note on the central administration of the Mauryas?

(Answer in about 60 words)

................................................................................................

................................................................................................

................................................................................................

................................................................................................

................................................................................................

7.8 DECLINE OF THE MAURYAN EMPIRE

Asoka died in about 232 B.C. With his death, the Mauryan Empire

began to disintegrate. The last Mauryan ruler, Brihadratha, was assassinated

by his Brahmana commander Pushyamitra Sunga. Following this

Pushyamitra established the rule of the Sunga dynasty.

Earlier, it was accepted that Asoka’s policy was mainly responsible

for the decline of the Mauryas. It was believed that his inclination towards

Buddhism offended the Brahmanas, who revolted against him. But if we

consider his policy we see that Asoka repeatedly emphasized on showing

respect to Brahmanas and Shramanas.

It is also said that Asoka’s policy of non-violence weakened the

Mauryan army. As a result, the foreign invaders got an opportunity to attack

the Empire. But this cannot be accepted as we have already discussed in

the previous section that though Asoka accepted the policy of non-violence,

yet he mentioned the use of violence where necessary.

Therefore, the causes for the decline of the Mauryas must lie

elsewhere. The pressure on the Mauryan economy can be considered as a

cause for the downfall. The vast expenses of the Empire to maintain an

army, to pay the ministers and to meet the cost of establishing settlements

in newly cleared land could have drained the treasury.

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Although Mauryan economy was based on agriculture, yet it might

be possible that the revenue collected from agriculture was not sufficient to

maintain the whole Empire. Probably the Mauryas did not restructure the

economy sufficiently to provide long-term support to the Empire.

Mauryan administration was also in a way responsible for the decline

of the Empire. In the Mauryan Empire the Emperor was the central figure

around whom the administration revolved. When a ruler changed, the new

ruler was required to possess the capability to attract the loyalty of the people

by being an efficient administrator. But the successor of Asoka lacked this

essential quality.

In the Mauryan administration the process of recruitment was

arbitrary. Local governors had the power to change their officers. So many

a time they chose a person of their choice ignoring the capability.

Another problem was the absence of representative institutions in

the Empire. For a vast Empire like that of the Mauryas, representative

institutions were required to stabilize public opinion.

It is very essential for the survival of the state to get loyalty of the

people. But in the Mauryan system, loyalty was directed to the social order.

Because of the interdependence of caste and politics, gradually caste was

given higher status than politics. According to Arthasastra, a state should

have seven limbs - the king, the territory, the administration, the treasury,

the capital, coercive powers, and allies. Gradually, Brahmanical text

emphasized on two factors for the existence of a state- one was Danda

and the other was Varnasramadharma. Gradually the varna-ashrama-

dharma became more important than the state.

The successors of Asoka could not maintain the mighty fabric of the

Empire. Immediately after his death, one of his sons Jalauka set up an

independent principality in Kashmir. Another prince, Virasena made himself

independent in Gandhara. Vidarbha or Berar also separated from the

Mauryan Empire. The Greek evidence further confirms the loss of the

Northern provinces to the Bactrian Greeks.

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LET US KNOWKautilya occupies a unique place in the history of India.

He aroused a national spirit among the Indians to throw

out the Greeks from the soil of India. For this purpose

he advised Chandragupta to unite the warring tribes and republics.

As the Chief Advisor and Prime Minister of Chandragupta Maurya,

he rendered a valuable service in running the state. He wrote

Arthasastra, a book on the art of government and state craft. He

described in detail the various duties of the ruler, the role of the king’s

advisors, welfare duties of the government, spy system and

administration of justice. It also contains rules to regulate different

social relations.

ACTIVITY 7.2 Make a list of the successors of Asoka.

........................................................................................................

7.9 LET US SUM UP

After going through this unit, you have learnt that,

Chandragupta Maurya had established the first Indian Empire with the

help of his Prime Minister Kautilya or Chanakya. After establishing

himself in the Gangetic plains, he moved towards North-West India

and liberated that part from the Greek General Seleucus Nikatar. By a

treaty in 303 B.C. Chandragupta secured some Seleucid territories.

He established political as well as cultural contact with the Greeks.

His son Bindusara succeeded him in 297 B.C, who too exchanged

embassies with the Greeks. He ruled till 272 B.C. and brought a large

part of India under Mauryan sovereignty.

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• Asoka, the son of Bindusara ascended the Mauryan throne after his

father’s death. He was the greatest of the all Mauryan rulers. The

Kalinga campaign greatly changed his life and he became a Buddhist.

He initiated a unique religious policy termed as Dhamma. Through his

Dhamma, Asoka tried to reduce social conflict and intolerance. Though

his Dhamma was not successful, but he successfully spread

Buddhism and made it a world religion.

• The Mauryans had a centralized administration where king the was all

powerful. The king was assisted by a Council of Ministers or Mantri

Parishad. Every department had a superintendent to look after it. The

provinces were placed under governors and senior officials called

Pradeshikas visited the provinces every five years to check the

administration. The Mauryans had a huge army with a committee

having sub-committees under it to coordinate military activity.

• With the death of Asoka, there started the decline of the Mauryan

Empire. His sons established themselves independently. The Mauryan

economy was weak and could not hold the pressure of the Empire for

long. The Mauryan administration centered round the Emperor and

the successors of Asoka were weak and inefficient. They failed to

attract the loyalty of the people which affected the Mauryan

administration. The recruitment policy of the Mauryans was too arbitrary.

There was also no representative institution in the Mauryan Empire.

All these collectively led to the downfall of the Mauryan Empire. The

Sunga dynasty succeeded the Mauryan dynasty.

7.10 FURTHER READING

1) Majumdar, R.C., Raychaudhuri, H.C., Datta, K. (1986). An Advanced

History of India. New Delhi, Macmillan India Ltd.

2) Sharma, L.P. (1981). Ancient History of India (pre-historic Age to 1200

A.D.). New Delhi, Vikas Publication House Pvt. Ltd.

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3) Thapar, Romila. (2002). The Penguin History of Early India from The

Origins to A D 1300. New Delhi, The Penguin Group.

4) Tripathi, Ramashankar. (1999). History of Ancient India. Delhi, Motilal

Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.

7.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOURPROGRESS

Ans to Q No 1: Chandragupta Maurya

Ans to Q No 2: Prime Minister of Chandragupta Maurya

Ans to Q No 3: Megasthenes

Ans to Q No 4: 321 B.C.

Ans to Q No 5: Bindusara

Ans to Q No 6: Chandragupta Maurya by overthrowing the Nandas in 321

B.C. founded the Mauryan Empire. He was guided in his efforts by

Chanakya who was traditionally believed as his Prime Minister. After

establishing his control over the Gangetic Plain, he liberated North-

Western India from the Greek General Seleukos Nikatar and secured

some Seleucid territories by a treaty in 303 B.C.

Ans to Q No 7: Asoka

Ans to Q No 8: Pataliputra

Ans to Q No 9: Taxila, Ujjain

Ans to Q No 10: Two

Ans to Q No 11: Dhammamahamatras

Ans to Q No 12: The King

Ans to Q No 13: Samaharta

Ans to Q No 14: Five

Ans to Q No 15: Chief Collector

Ans to Q No 16: Superintendent

Ans to Q No 17: Senior Officer

Ans to Q No 18: Superintendent of Ships

Ans to Q No 19: The central administration of the Mauryas centred round

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the king who enjoyed absolute power in the administration. He was

assisted by a Council of Ministers or Mantri Parishad. There were

also superintendents in charge of different departments which were

linked up to both the local administration and central government. The

king had a good espionage system.

7.12 MODEL QUESTIONS

A) Very Short Questions (Answer each question in about 50 words)

Q 1: When did Bindusara ascend the throne?

Q 2: Asoka was well known for his…………………. (Fill up the blank)

Q 3: What was the function of a Yukta?

Q 4: Who authored Arthasastra?

B) Short Questions (Answer each question in about 150 words)

Q 1: Narrate the contact of the Mauryans with the Greeks. What was the

impact of the Indo-Greek contact?

Q 2: Write a note on the early life of Asoka?

Q 3: How did Kalinga campaign influence the life of Asoka?

Q 4: How does Arthasastra help us to know about the Mauryas?

C) Long Questions (Answer each question in about 300-500 words)

Q 1: Discuss the foundation of the Mauryan Empire.

Q 2: How did Asoka promote Buddhism? Discuss his concept of Dhamma.

Q 3: Describe the administrative system of the Mauryan Empire.

Q.4: Assess the causes behind the downfall of the Mauryan Empire.

*** ***** ***

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UNIT 8: SOCIETY, ECONOMY, RELEGION ANDART IN THE MAURYAN EMPIRE

UNIT STRUCTURE

8.1 Learning Objectives

8.2 Introduction

8.3 Society and Economy in the Mauryan Empire

8.3.1 Mauryan Society

8.3.2 Mauryan Economy

8.4 Religion and Culture

8.4.1 Religious Condition in the Mauryan Empire

8.4.2 Culture in the Mauryan Empire

8.5 Let Us Sum Up

8.6 Further Reading

8.7 Answers to Check Your Progress

8.8 Model Questions

8.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

After going through this unit, you will be able to-

discuss the social and economic life in the Mauryan Empire,

analyse the religious condition in the Mauryan Empire,

trace the cultural development in the Mauryan Empire.

8.2 INTRODUCTION

In the previous unit we have already discussed the rise and fall of

the Mauryan Empire with particular emphasis on King Asoka, the greatest

Mauryan king. You have learnt about the political condition of India and the

related developments that led to the foundation of the great Mauryan Empire.

In this unit we will deal with the socio-economic and cultural and religious

aspects of the empire that enable you to learn about the most significant

role played by the great Mauryan Kings like Chandragupta and Asoka in the

ancient history of India. The following sections will provide comprehensive

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understanding of the Indian society in ancient times in its different

dimensions.

8.3 SOCIETY AND ECONOMY IN THE MAURYANEMPIRE

In this section we are going to deal with the society and economy of

the Mauryan period. Without discussing the social and economic condition

of India during the Mauryan period, our study about the Mauryan Empire will

not be a complete one.

8.3.1 Mauryan Society

In the Mauryan period, the social organisation based on

Varna and Ashrama which had begun in the Vedic age, reached a

definite stage. In this period the Brahmanas regained their lost position

in the society. Megasthenes divides the Mauryan society into seven

divisions - philosophers, farmers, herdsman, artisans, soldiers,

magistrate and councillors. They have been interpreted as castes

because no one was allowed to marry outside his own division or

change his profession. Let us discuss them in detail-

The philosophers consisted of Brahmanas and Shramanas.

The Shramanas included ascetics, monks and the followers of

various sects. The philosophers did not pay tax. The farmers included

the land owners, the Shudra cultivators and the labourers working

on the land. The herdsmen were probably the pastoralists who

comprised a significant section in the Mauryan population. The status

of the artisans depended on his particular craft. For instance, metal

workers were given a higher status than the weavers and potters.

The soldiers were the largest class in the society. Besides

Kshatriyas, lower castes were also appointed as infantry men,

charioteers and attendants. Magistrates and councillors were an

important part of the administrative system and were appointed

either from the Brahmanas or the Kshatriyas. However, the social

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compositions as suggested by Megasthenes might not be as simple

because if we consider Brahmanical texts and Buddhist texts, we

find different views regarding the caste division.

In the Mauryan Empire, women were employed in various

activities. They were appointed as king’s body guards, spies and

performers. Poor and widowed upper caste women, deserted wives

and ageing prostitutes were provided with some work. We also have

instances of a few female ascetics. Kautilya insisted that tax should

be collected from the prostitutes, it suggests that they were large in

number in the Empire. From the textual sources it can be assumed

that the majority of women had to follow the wishes of the men in

their family in a patriarchal society.

8.3.2 Mauryan Economy

The Mauryan economy was mainly dependant on agriculture.

A large part of the government income came from land revenue.

Therefore, importance was given on efficient collection of revenue.

The farmers or landowners had to pay a variety of taxes to the state.

Gradually, private ownership of land was allowed. A vast area of

wasteland and crown lands was cultivated under the supervision of

the state. From the account of Megasthenes we come to know that

it was the responsibility of the state to clear new areas or deserted

land and to settle the shudra cultivators. These cultivators were

initially exempted from paying tax, but once they started working on

the land, a tax was imposed.

There were two types of land revenue. The first one was

rent for the use of land and the second was based on the

assessment of the produce. The assessment varied according to

local condition or the productivity of the soil. The sources mention a

range from one sixth to a quarter of the produce of the land. We find

mention about different types of taxes. One such was Pindakara

which was collected jointly from a village. Pastoralists also had to

pay tax on the number of animals and also on their produce. One

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unique kind of tax was Visthi which was paid in the form of free

labour to the state. Taxes were also levied for providing irrigation.

Besides agriculture, craft and trade were also two important

economic activities of the Mauryan Empire. Some artisans were

employed by the state and they were exempted from tax. Armourers

and shipbuilders came under this category. Others, who worked in

state workshop, had to pay taxes. The rest of the artisans worked

either individually or as part of a guild called Shreni or Puga. These

associations helped the state in tax collection.

The state controlled trade and industry. The working of mines

and forests, the construction and security of trade-routes and the

establishment of market towns were all under the state. It also

supervised the sale of goods and the superintendent of commerce

fixed the prices of the goods. Merchants had to pay a toll tax which

was one-fifth of the value of the goods. In addition, there was a

trade tax of one-fifth of the toll. Merchants were forbidden to make

excessive profits. The collection of revenue from commercial

sources was varied according to Mauryan control over an area or a

route.

We also find the mention of organized money lending. Money

could be given as loan from the treasury on interest of 15 percent

per annum. However, in less secure transactions like long sea

voyages the interest rate could be higher.

The remains of the urban centres which belonged to the

Mauryan period suggest that the standard of living was high. Brick,

stone and wooden buildings were found during excavation. The

discovery of a large number of iron goods suggests extensive use

of iron in this period. The distribution of Northern Black Polished

Ware as far as South India is an indication of the expansion of trade.

It was possible that the punch-marked silver coins were the

imperial currency of the Mauryas. Most of the punch-marked coins

discovered have the symbols like crescent-on-arches or hills, the

tree-in-railing, the sun symbol and the circle with six arrows like

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extension. These coins were used for collection of taxes and

payment of officers.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q.1: Name the seven divisions of the Mauryan

society.

...............................................................................................................................

Q. 2: Who were Shramanas?

...............................................................................................................................

Q.3: Who formed the largest class in the Mauryan society?

...............................................................................................................................

Q.4: Name the two types of land revenue.

...............................................................................................................................

Q.5: Who controlled trade and industry?

...............................................................................................................................

Q.6: What was the standard of living in the Mauryan period?

...............................................................................................................................

Q.7: Choose the correct answer:

a) Magistrate and councillors were appointed from

i) Brahmanas or Kshatriyas ii) Kshatriyas or Vaishyas,

iii) Vaishyas or Brahmanas iv) Vaishyas or Shudras.

b) The currency of the Mauryan period was

i) Copper coins ii) Punch marked silver coin

iii) Round shape gold coins iv) none of the above

8.4 RELIGION AND CULTURE

Religion and culture constituted an important part of the life of the

people in the Mauryan period. We are now going to study in this section the

religious condition and cultural development of India in the Mauryan period.

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8.4.1 Religious Condition of the Mauryan Empire

Several religious sects existed in the Mauryan period.

Brahmanism was an important religion during the Mauryan period.

Along with this, Buddhism and Jainism began to play an important

part in the religious life of the people. Some distinct religious sects

namely, Ajivika, Shramanas, and Nirgrantha were also followed

among some communities. The Ajivikas were the ardent followers

of Mahavira Swami. They lived like the naked saints. The Shramanas

were also the followers of Mahavira Swami. They were content to

live on fruits picked up when they dropped on the ground. The

Nirgrantha were those who had broken the worldly ties.

Among these religions, Buddhism became a predominant

religion under the patronage of Asoka. Still Brahmanism continued

to prevail in the society. The Vedas did not completely lose its hold

on the people. Kautilya praised the Vedic way of life. In the

Arthasastra, we find reference to the worship of several deities. The

worship of the deities consisted of prostration before the idol and

offering gifts in the form of flowers and incense.

Several changes were brought about in Brahmanism in the

Mauryan period. Krishna, Varuna, Indra, Agni and rivers like the

Ganga and Yamuna were worshipped. Many of the devotees

abandoned their homes for a life of an ascetic. A new class of

religious philosophers called the Lokayatas emerged. They were

opposed to the priestly class. They maintained that there existed

neither paradise, nor the ultimate liberation.

It appears that diverse religious ideas and practices existed

in the vast Empire of the Mauryas. While Buddhism flourished

remarkably. Brahmanism had retained its position. But Jainism failed

to make much progress. Most importantly, religious toleration

prevailed in the Mauryan period inspite of there being different

religious sects.

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8.4.2 Cultural Development of the Mauryan Empire

Under the Mauryas, great progress was made in the field of

art and architecture. There were palaces, stupas, pillars, etc during

the Mauryan rule. The Mauryan art and architecture mainly developed

under Asoka and he is credited for being the patron of the cultural

development that took place in the Mauryan period.

The palaces made during the time of Asoka were mainly

made of stone. They speak of the highly developed art and

architecture. Excavations at Pataliputra have discovered the ruins

of these buildings. The most wonderful of these is the hundred-

pillard hall. The buildings, palaces and the monuments of the time

of Chandragupta Maurya were mainly made of wood and had mostly

perished away.

Stupas are another great form of Mauryan art. It has beautiful

gateways decorated with rich sculpture. They enshrined the relics

of Buddha. It is said that Asoka built 84,000 stupas in India and

Afghanistan. The stupa at Sanchi is believed to be most prominent

among the stupas. Hiuen-Tsang, the Chinese pilgrim, said that Asoka

built stupas at many places like Taxila, Kapilavastu, Prayaga,

Srinagar, etc.

Figure 8.1: Sanchi Stupa

Source: Google Images

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Beautiful pillars were also constructed in the Mauryan

period during the time of Asoka. The number of Asokan pillars is not

definitely known. The pillars were free standing columns and were

not used as support to any structure. The pillars were very

magnificently polished. The four lions sitting back to back at Sanchi

and Sarnath pillars show the high skill of craftsmanship that prevailed

in the Mauryan age.

Figure 8.2: Sarnath Pillar

Source: Google Images

Rock cut caves were also found of the Mauryan period.

The caves were built by cutting the rocks and their walls were

polished nicely. The rock cut caves of Asoka and of his grandson

Dasaratha constructed for the residence of monks are wonderful

specimens of art. The Barabar hill caves, the Nagarjuni hill caves,

the Sudama caves, the Karna Chauper cave, etc are the remains

of the cave architecture of the Mauryan period.

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Figure 8.3: A Rock Cut Cave

Source: Google Images

The Mauryan pottery consisted of many types of wares.

The black polished type found in North India is one of the most

beautiful specimens of the Mauryan pottery. It has a burnished and

glazed surface.

Jewellery making was also known in the Mauryan period. During

the excavation at Taxila, some ornaments of the Asokan period were

found. Those ornaments show the artistic skill of the goldsmiths of

the Mauryan period.

ACTIVITY - 8.1Make a list of the stupas and pillars constructed during

the Mauryan period.

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q.8: Fill in the blanks:

a) The Ajivikas were the ardent followers of

................... Swami.

b) ................................. were the religious philosophers.

c) Stupas are great form of ............................... art.

d) Asoka built 84,000 stupas in .....................and ..............................

Q.9: Write a note within 50 words on the cultural development of

the Mauryan Empire.

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

8.5 LET US SUM UP

After going through this unit you have learnt that-

• In the Mauryan period, the social organisation was based on Varna

and Ashrama. In this period the Brahmanas regained their lost

position in the society.

• The philosophers consisted of Brahmanas and Shramanas. The

philosophers did not pay tax.

• The farmers included the land owners, the Shudra cultivators and

the labourers working on the land.

• In the Mauryan society, women were employed in various activities.

They were appointed as king’s body guards, spies and performers.

• The Mauryan economy was mainly dependant on agriculture.

• Besides agriculture, craft and trade were also two important

economic activities of the Mauryan Empire.

• The state controlled trade and industry.

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• In the religious field, Brahminism, Buddhism and Jainism were the

main religious sects practiced by the people.

• Tremendous progress was made in the field of art and architecture

in the Mauryan period. There were palaces, stupas, pillars, etc. The

Mauryan art and architecture mainly developed under Asoka and he

is credited of being the patron of the cultural development that took

place in the Mauryan period.

8.6 FURTHER READING

1. Majumdar, R.C., Raychaudhuri, H.C., Datta, K. (1986). An Advanced

History of India. New Delhi, Macmillan India Ltd.

2. Thapar, Romila. (2002). The Penguin History of Early India from The

Origins to A D 1300. New Delhi, The Penguin Group.

3. Tripathi, Ramashankar. (1999). History of Ancient India. Delhi, Motilal

Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.

8.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOURPROGRESS

Answer to the Question no.1: Philosophers, Farmers, Herdsman, Artisans,

Soldiers, Magistrate and Councillors.

Answer to the Question no.2: Shramanas were ascetics, monks and

followers of various sects.

Answer to the Question no.3: Soldiers were the largest class in the

Mauryan society.

Answer to the Question no.4: Rent for the use of land and assessment

of the produce.

Answer to the Question no.5: The state controlled trade and industry.

Answer to the Question no.6: The standard of living in the Mauryan period

was high.

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Answer to the Question no.7: a) Brahmanas or Kshatriyas, b) Punch

Marked Silver Coin

Answer to the Question no.8: a) Mahavira, b) Lokayatas, c) Mauryan, d)

India, and Afghanistan

Answer to the Question no.9: Tremendous progress was made in the

field of art and architecture during the Mauryan period. Asoka was the

main patron of this cultural development. Many beautiful palaces,

stupas, pillars, etc were made in the Mauryan period. Sanchi stupa,

Sarnath and Sanchi pillar, Nagarjuni hill caves, etc are some fine

specimen of Mauryan art.

8.8 MODEL QUESTIONS

A) VERY SHORT QUESTIONS (Answer each question in about 50 words)

Q.1: What do you know about Pindakara?

Q.2: Who were Ajivikas?

Q.3: What was Visthi?

Q.4: Into how many divisions did Megasthenes divide the Mauryan society?

B) SHORT QUESTIONS (Answer each question in about 150 words)

Q.1: What was the condition of society in the Mauryan period?

Q 2: Write a note on the religious development in the Mauryan period?

Q.3: Write a short note on the Mauryan Pillars.

C) LONG QUESTIONS (Answer each question in about 300-500 words)

Q.1: Describe the socio-economic condition of the Mauryan period.

Q 2: Describe the economic measures undertaken by the Mauryan rulers.

Was their economic policy successful?

Q 3: ‘The Mauryan age had a glorious cultural development’. Discuss

*** ***** ***

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UNIT 9: POST-MAURYAN DEVELOPMENT ININDIA

UNIT STRUCTURE

9.1 Learning Objectives

9.2 Introduction

9.3 Rise of New Kingdoms

9 .3.1 Sungas

9.3.2 Kushanas

9.3.3 Satavahanas

9.4 Post Mauryan Cultural Development

9.4.1 Development in Language and Literature and Religion

9.4.2 Development in Art, Architecture and Sculpture

9.4.3 Gandhara and Mathura Art

9.5 Sangam Literature, Society and Culture

9.5.1 Sangam Literature – it’s Development

9.5.2 Social Condition and Cultural Life

9.6 Let Us Sum Up

9.7 Further Readings

9.8 Answers to Check Your Progress

9.9 Model Questions

9.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

After going through this unit, you will be able to-

analyse the rise of new kingdoms in the post-Mauryan period.

discuss the cultural development that took place after the Mauryans

list various features of Gandhara art

describe the importance of Mathura art

define various aspects of Sangam literature

draw a picture of society and culture of southern India during the

Sangam age.

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9.2 INTRODUCTION

We have already discussed how the Mauryan empire came to an

end. After the Mauryas a large number of big and small kingdoms emerged.

The Sunga dynasty succeeded the Mauryas at Magadha. The Satavahanas

emerged as a great power in the Deccan. The Indo-Greeks, the Sakas, the

Parthians and the Kushanas also ruled over several territories in India. The

intermingling of various races, Indian as well as foreign, had far reaching

consequences on the social and cultural life of India. In this unit we are

going to discuss the rise of new powers in the Indian history and their impact.

9.3 RISE OF NEW KINGDOMS

9.3.1 Sungas

According to the contemporary sources, Pushyamitra Sunga

was the founder of the Sunga dynasty. He was the commander-in-

chief of the last Mauryan emperor Brihadratha. He killed his master

in a ‘coup de etat’ and assumed the royal power. Pushyamitra was

a Brahmin. He undertook the performance of the ‘asvamedha’

sacrifice. According to the traditional accounts, his rule extended

over the cities of Pataliputra, Ayodhya and Vidisha and perhaps over

Jalandhar and Shakala as well. The Maurya system of administering

the provinces through royal blood continued and royal power tended

to decentralise in the form of establishment of nuclear kingdoms

within the empire. Pushyamitra conducted several campaigns

against the Yavanas, or the Indo-Greeks, who were trying in this

period to expand from Bactria into North western India.

Sunga history after Pushyamitra, who ruled for roughly 36

years, is largely uncertain. Nothing substantial is known about his

successor, Agnimitra, the hero of Kalidas’s play ‘Malavikagnimitram’.

According to the Puranas, Agnimitra’s successors, in genealogical

order, were- Sujyastha(or Vasujyestha), Vasumitra, Andhraka(or

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Bhadraka), Pulindaka,Ghosha, Vajramitra, Bhagavata and

Devabhumi(Devabhuti). The period witnessed the revival of

Brahmanism and the growing importance of the Bhagavatreligion.

The great grammarian Patanjali was a contemporary of

Pushyamitra.

The suzerainty of Magadha was lost by later Sunga rulers

mainly because of their moral depravity. Though the Sunga lost

Magadha, they did not altogether disappear from the stage of Indian

history. They continued to rule Vidisha until the region passed into

the hands of the Andhras.

LET US KNOW

Chronology of the Sungas :

Pushyamitra Sunga (185 B.C.-148 B.C)

Agnimitra (148 B.C.-141 B.C.)

Sujyestha (141 B.C.-133 B.C.)

Vasumitra (133B.C.-123 B.C.)

Vajramitra (123BC-114 B.C)

Bhagavata (114 B.C.-82 B.C)

Devabhuti (82 B.C.-72 B.C.)

The Brahmonical religion had a great ascendency in the

Sunga period. Pushyamitra patronized the Brahmins in his Court

and his example was well fallowed by his successors. The horse

sacrifice performed by Pushyamitra marked the early development

in the Brahmonical reaction, which was fully developed five centuries

later during the time of the Guptas. With the revival of Brahmanisim,

Brahmonical literature flourished in the time of the Sungas. Sanskrit

became the literary vehicle of the period. ‘Mahabhashya’, a

commentary of Panini’s grammar was composed by Patanjali during

that period. Most probably ‘Manusmriti’ was also compiled in the

Sunga period. The period witnessed a great development in art.

The construction of the famous Bharhut railings has made the name

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of Sungas immortal. Vidisa became the centre of an important

school of art.

9.3.2 Kushanas

The Kushana Period is one of the most important periods in

the history of Indian culture. According to Chinese historians, the

Kushanas were a section of the Yuch-chi race. They established

their rule in the North-west part of India after destroying the Saka

empire. They also made a significant contribution to the art and

religion of the Country.

The first powerful ruler of the Kushana dynasty was

Khadphasis I. He established an empire which extended between

the rivers of Oxus and Sindh. His empire comprised Bactria,

Afghanistan, East Iran and the North Western part of India. It is

evident from his coins that he defeated the last Yavana ruler and

extended the Kushana empire up to Taxila. His period of rule was

full of struggles and wars.

Khadphasis II was the son and successor of Khadphasis I.

He was a brave and courageous ruler. He extended his empire from

Taxila to many parts of Northern India. He followed the imperialistic

policies of his father. His empire touched the boundaries of Roman

empire in the West, China in the North and the Satavahana kingdom

was situated in the South-East. He issued a large number of coins

which tell about the power and religion of Khadphasis II. He adopted

the tittles of ‘Maheshvara’, ‘Sarva-Lokeshwra’, ‘Maharaja’ etc.

Khadphasis II was succeeded by Kanishka,who was

undoubtedly the greatest king of all the Kushana rulers in India. The

most reliable year of the accession of Kanishka was 78 A.D.

According to the historians, Kanishka started a new era in this year.

He incorporated Rajasthan, Punjab, Malwa, Saurashtra and Uttar

Pradesh into his ancestral kingdom.The most significant event of

the Kanishka’s reign was the war with China and conquest of three

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Chinese Provinces namely Khotan, Kashgar and Yarkand. Kanishka

was influenced by the natural beauty of Kashmir. He conquered

Kashmir and annexed it to his empire. He also laid the foundation of

a town Kanishkapur in the memory of his conquest. He believed in

the divine right of Kingship. He ruled in an autocratic manner. But he

had to share power in practice with his provincial satraps. The

provincial satraps probably enjoyed good deal of local autonomy. It

was a common practice of the Kushana emperors to appoint the

crown prince as co-ruler.

According to noted historian N.N. Ghose, “Kanishka was a

foreigner by birth, but an Indian by choice and a devout Buddhist of

Mahayana school by faith.” The coins of Kanishka point to the gradual

transformation of his religious belief towards Buddhism. According

to the legend, Kanishka came in contact with Asvaghosha and was

very much impressed by his teachings. During his reign, the famous

Fourth Buddhist Council was convened in Kashmir and the

convocation was presided by Vasumitra. The purpose of the Council

was to codify and collect different views on Buddha’s teachings

and to write commentaries on them in the light of new developments.

The rulers of Kushana dynasty were great patrons of art.

Kanishka’s reign is a landmark in the realm of art and architecture.

Four eminent schools of sculpture developed from four centres.

They were– Sarnath, Mathura, Amravati and Gandhara. Each school

of sculpture had a separate style of its own. The Gandhara school

had a significant progress in Kanishka’s reign. In art, the reign of

Kanishka is marked by the growth of two distinct styles, one Indian

and the other exotic. The Indian style is represented by the headless

statue of Kanishka at Mathura and the image of Buddha found at

Sarnath. The exotic school known as Gandhara art was the Greeco-

Roman art applied to Buddhist subjects found in Gandhara region.

The Gandhara art flourished on Buddhist theme.

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Although the Kushanas were foreigners, yet they made

Sanskrit as their state language and thus created a congenial

atmosphere of royal patronage for the production of Sanskrit

literature. Their inscriptions were also written in Sanskrit language.

Kanishkas’ patronage to learning is noteworthy. A galaxy of great

scholars such as Asvaghosha-the Buddhist writer, Nagarjuna- the

philosopher, Mathara- the politician, Vasumitra- the Buddhist scholar,

Charaka-the physician adorned the Court of Kanishka. The

Kushanas broke the isolated character of Indian politics and

established close political and commercial relationship with China,

Central Asia and the Roman empire in the Western Asia.

9.3.3 Satavahanas

In the Deccan, the Satavahanas appeared as one of the heirs

to the Mauryan empire and ruled for a continuous 460 years. They

were also known as Andhras. The founder of the dynasty was

Simuka. There is considerable uncertainty about Simuka’s

antecedents, but his descendants assumed Brahmanical status.

Simuka is believed to have destroyed the Shunga power. The

Satavahanas gained eminence under Satakarani-I, son of Simuka.

He conquered Western Malwa, Anupa(Narmada Valley) and

Vidharbha. He assumed the title of ‘Dakshinapathapati’.

Gautamiputra Satakarani was the greatest king of the

dynasty, under whom the Satavahanas made a sharp and total

recovery. His achievements are recorded in the Nasik Inscription by

his mother Gautami Balasri. He assumed the title of ‘Rajaraja’ and

‘Maharaja’. He was the lord of a far-flung empire.His direct

government was established in the region extending from the Krishna

to Kathiwar and from Berar to Konkan. But beyond this region his

suzeraine authority was established over a vast area. It is not merely

as a conqueror that Gautamiputra made his mark on the history. If

he was great in war, he was also great in peace. He bore a resolute

sense of public duty. His administration was based on the twin

foundation of Sastric laws and humanism

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The official records of the Satavahana kings and the Buddhist

texts throw some light on the Satavahana government. The

Satavahana administration was based on the simple laws of the

Dharma Sastras. The Satavahana king did not claim any divine right.

He was content with the modest titles of Rajan or Raja-Raja.

Theoretically, the king enjoyed absolute power, but in practice he

was checked by customs,conventions and the laws of the Sastras.

The provincial function of the king was to defend the country from

the foreign invaders. The Princes were called Kumaras. They

generally served as trusted viceroys in various provinces.

Both Brahmanism and Buddhism prospered under the

tolerant rule of the Satavahanas. The kings were Brahmanas and

were followers of Vedic Hinduism.Satakarani I performed two horse

sacrifices and numerous other sacrifices according to the Vedic

rites. Gifts were made to the Brahmanas. Craft-guilds or Srenis

were normal features of the Age. The Srenis or the craft-guilds also

acted as banks where money could be deposited on interest. In the

Satavahana period, the economy of Deccan was greatly prosperous

due to the twin combination of agriculture and trade. Farming of

land by iron plough spread to Deccan in the Maurya period. Hence,

Deccan in the Satavahana Age inherited the legacy of improved

farming of the Mauryan period.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q.1. Answer the following questions:

a) Who was the founder of the Sunga dynasty?

.....................................................................................

b) Name the hero of the drama ‘Malavikagnimitram’?

.....................................................................................

c) In which year did Kanishka start a new era?

.....................................................................................

d) Name the Chinese provinces conquered by Kanishka?

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.....................................................................................

e) Who was the president of the Fourth Buddhist Council?

.....................................................................................

f) Who was Nagarjuna?

.....................................................................................

g) Who was the founder of the Satavahana dynasty?

.....................................................................................

h) Who assumed the title of ‘Dakshinapathapati’?

.....................................................................................

9.4 POST MAURYAN CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT

9.4.1 Development in Language, Literature and Religion

Language and literature: In the post- Mauryan period literary

activities were developed to a great extent. Sanskrit literature

developed in this period. Some of the works of the Dharmashastras

were also composed in this period. The Manusmriti or the Manava

Dharmashastra was composed in about the 1st century B.C.

A remarkable contribution of this period was in the field of

Sanskrit grammar. Patanjali, the great grammarian, wrote his

Mahabhasya in the 2nd century B.C. It is a commentary on Panini’s

Asthadhyayi. The Ramayana and Mahabharata probably assumed

its final form during this period.

Ashvaghosha was one of the famous literary figures of the

period. He was a playwright, a poet and a great Buddhist philosopher.

He wrote Saundarananda, Buddhacharita, Vajrasuchi and a number

of other works. Another accomplished playwright of that period was

Bhasha. His Sapnavasavadattam was one of the famous Sanskrit

plays of the period. The Buddhist philosopher Nagarjuna also wrote

in Sanskrit. He was the author of the Madhayamikasutras.

Prakrit language also developed under the patronage of the

Satavahana rulers. Satavahana inscriptions were composed in

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Prakrit language. Satavahana king Hala was a great poet who wrote

Gathasaptashati while Gunadhya wrote the Kathasarita Sagara.

Religion: In this period many new developments took place

in the field of religion. Buddhism became the religion of the rich and

the powerful. As a result, the Buddhist monasteries were well

endowed. These monasteries, which were built up in remote areas

were sufficiently aided so that the monks lived a comfortable life.

Thus, the Sangha was moving away from the common people and

lost its original ethical value.

Some new elements also developed in Buddhism. Idols of

Buddha were built for worship. The concept of Bodhisattva also

developed. The notion of transferring merit started too. According to

this, the merit could be transferred from one person to another by a

pious act in the name of the person to whom this transfer was made.

Donations and the giving of gifts were linked to acquiring merit. The

Sangha now became dependent on the donation of the followers.

As communication improved, it led to the increase in pilgrimages.

New places for pilgrimage developed. The 4th Buddhist Council, was

held in Kashmir in the early 2nd century under the patronage of the

Kushana king Kanishka. The Hinayana followed the older order and

philosophy of Buddhism. The Mahayana had incorporated the new

ideas mentioned above (image worship, concept of Boddhisattva,

etc.). The development of the Mahayana philosophy is ascribed to

Nagarjuna.

Jainism also flourished in this period. It also enjoyed

patronage of kings and wealthy people. This religion was also split

into the Digambara and the Svetambara. The former was orthodox

while the latter was more liberal. Groups of Jaina monks began to

settle in different parts of the country. Shravana Belgola in modern

Karnataka became the biggest centre of Jainism.

Though the followers of Vedic Brahmanism were fewer in

number, yet they were very influential. They got the patronage of the

ruling families like the Sungas and Satavahanas. Vedic sacrifices

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played an important role in the coronation of kings. Some of the

Vedic Gods had passed into oblivion, some lost their pre-eminence

and others were emerging as new Gods. At this time Vedic

Brahmanism became differentiated from the newly evolving sects

such as the Bhagavata and Shaiva. It was called Pauranic Hinduism

and it started to develop towards the later part of the period.

The Vaishnava and Shaiva sects did not develop as a

separate religion. Instead, they developed as various cults, beliefs

and rituals. A new form of worship evolved where personal

relationship between God and the devotee was given importance.

The idea of Trinity of God developed in this period with

Brahma as the creator, Vishnu as the preserver and Shiva as the

god who destroys the universe. Of these three gods, the cult of

Vishnu and Shiva became more popular. Vishnu was believed to

have been manifested in numerous incarnations. The Epics were

given the status of sacred texts. They were revised and new portions

were added. The famous addition was that of Bhagavadgita or Divine

song to the Mahabharata.

In the first century A.D., Christianity was introduced in India

by the traders from the West. The coming of Christianity is

associated with the legend of St. Thomas, who came twice on a

mission to India. However, the first coming of Christianity to India is

more likely to be linked to the establishment of the Syrian Christian

Church.

9.3.2 Development of Art, Architecture and Sculpture

Excavation of many cities revealed great architectural

development in this period. Religion played an important role in art

and architecture. In India, in the early period, art was the handmaid

of religion. Buddhist religious architecture consisted of Vihara or

monasteries, Stupas and Chaitya halls. Some of this structure was

free standing and some cut into rock at hillsides. Sanchi, Amaravati,

Bharhut and Sarnath stupas are the best examples of the Buddhist

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art and architecture. Huge caves were dug into hillsides, following

the plan of a monastery or of a Chaitya.

Buddhist narrative art developed in this period. The life of

Buddha and the Jataka stories are depicted in the sculptures. In the

early century A.D. many artistic activities took place at Amaravati,

Ghantashala and Nagarjunakonda. Beside Buddhism, other religious

sects also had contributed in this field. The Ekamukhalingam, the

lingam having anthropomorphic elements, emerged at this time.

Two notable forms of art were developed at Mathura and Gandhara

during this period.

During this period, sculpture emerged as an adjunct of

architecture. On the gateways, railings and entrances of architectural

designs we can see some free standing sculptures. Though earlier

sculptures were not much familiar with the use of stone, yet by the

early Christian era the sculptors of the Deccan show a mastery

over stone. Besides stone, ivory was also started to be used in

sculptures.

LET US KNOW

It is said that history of Indian art practically started

with the Mauryan age. The Mauryan art may be divided

into court art and popular art. The first included pillar

art and cave art.The pillars were well polished. The columns of

Ashokan pillars were also monolithic, decorated with sculptured

animal figures of remarkable excellence. Sarnath column has

the most magnificent and it has been adopted as the emblem of

the modern Indian Republic.

9.4.3 Gandhara and Mathura Art

In the post-Mauryan period, trade relations between India

and Greece, Rome and Iran took a new turn. Along with the exchange

of merchandise, cultural interaction was also witnessed. The most

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direct and visible interaction was seen in the field of art. One great

example of this was the Gandhara art that emerged in Afghanistan

and North-West India.

Gandhara art evolved as a mixture of styles. It was a

combination of the Graeco-Roman style and Hellenistic and Indian

models. The emergence of Gandhara art coincided with the

introduction of multiple celestial beings and heavens in Buddhist

tradition and it was depicted through sculpture and painting. As

diverse influences affected Gandhara art, so it was possible that

this form of art was sub-divided according to its diversity. The

Gandhara art depicted especially the themes of Buddhism. However,

other deities and themes were not ignored. The mother of Buddha

resembled an Athenian matron. Portraits of Buddha was given an

Apollo like face. Greek Gods were depicted paying obeisance to the

Buddha.

Stucco was a popular medium in Gandhara art. At Hadda

and later at Bamiyan in Afghanistan, monasteries were decorated

with stucco images of the Buddha and of Bodhisattvas. The

magnificent stucco art at Hadda was a creation of local artists. The

large statues of Buddha at Bamiyan were one of the finest examples

of the Gandhara art. Unfortunately they were destroyed during the

Taliban regime.

The Mathura school of art flourished during the Kushana

period. Like Gandhara art here also the main theme was derived

from Buddhism. It was also a centre for images of Buddha. The

Mathuran sculptures incorporated many Hellenistic elements for

representing deities. For instance, the general idealistic realism and

key design elements such as the curly hair and folded garments

were adopted.

Besides the statues of Buddha, the statues of the Kushana

kings were also made. The headless statue of Kanishka is a unique

piece of Mathura art, which is kept in the Mathura museum. The

representation of female figures attained greater freedom and

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Hellenistic: Pertaining to orconnected with the Greekhistory, language and cultureof the 4th -1st centuries B.C

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movement in this form of art. Mathura also produced many fine

specimens of sculpture. It include images of Brahmanical, Jain and

Buddhist deities and the life size sculptures of Yakshas, Yakshinis

and portrait sculptures of the kings.

ACTIVITY - 9.1

Give four important religious developments that took

place in the post-Mauryan period.

....................................................................................................

....................................................................................................

....................................................................................................

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q.2. Answer the following:

a) Who was Asvaghosha?

.....................................................................................

b) In the ‘Trinity of God’ who was considered as the creator?

.....................................................................................

c) What was stucco?

.....................................................................................

Q.3. Fill in the blanks :

a) __________ followed the older order of Buddhism.

b) Besides stone __________ was also started to use in

sculpture in the Post-Mauryan period.

c) The Gandhara art depicted especially the __________.

9.5 SANGAM LITERATURE SOCIETY AND CULTURE

Towards the end of the first millennium B.C. South India moved

from pre-history into history and literary records reflecting the contemporary

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events are available. Ashoka, in his inscriptions, refers to the people of

South India as the Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas and Satiyaputras and

Kerelaputras. The first three clans acquired the status of kingdoms in a

later period. To get information about that period we have the Sangam

literature which developed in this period.

9.5.1 Sangam Literature and its Development

Tamil is the oldest among the spoken literary languages of

South India. The earliest known phase of this literature is associated

with the Sangam. Sangam is the Tamil form of the Sanskrit word –

Sangha, which means a group of persons or associations. The

Sangam was a college or an assembly of Tamil poets held probably

under royal patronage. We do not know the exact number of

Sangams or the period for which they were held. It is stated in a

Tamil commentary of the middle of the 8th century A.D. that three

Sangams lasted for 9,990 years. According to tradition, the first

Sangam founded by Sage Agastya was held at Thenmadurai (South

Madurai) and 4449 poets attended it. The second Sangam was held

at Kabadapuram and attended by 3700 poets. The third Sangam

was held at Madurai and had 444 poets. However, the number might

be an exaggeration. It was possible that each Sangam consisted of

a number of distinguished poets and scholars.

The age of the Sangam is the age of the Sangam literature.

Of the whole corpus of literature, Ettogai Collection is considered to

be the earliest one belonging to 3rd century B.C. to 3rd century A.D.

A good deal of literature was compiled later on.

The Sangam literature is roughly divided into narrative and

didactic texts. The narrative texts are called Melanakku, comprising

eighteen major works. The didactic works are called Kilkanakku

with eighteen minor works. The narrative Sangam texts glorify heroes

and provide details of the life of the people during the period. They

also tell us about polity and administration of the period. The didactic

prose provides a code of conduct for the king and his court and also

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for various social groups and occupations. Tirukkural or Kural, of

Tiruvalluvar is the best among the minor didactic poems.

Silappadikaram and Manimekalai are the two Tamil Epics which

were composed around the 6th century A.D. Both the epics throw

valuable light on the economic and social life of the Tamil people

upto about the 6th century A.D.

9.5.2 Social Condition and Cultural Life

Sangam texts suggest several stages of social evoluation

in the Sangam age. Early Tamil people were primarily pastoral. In

various sites of Southern India hoes and sickles have been found

during excavations. But no traces of ploughshares are seen. Besides,

the tools which were meant mainly for war and hunting like

arrowheads, long swords and lances, spikes and spearheads, etc.

were also found. This gives support to the Sangam text which

speaks about perpetual war and cattle raids. The text suggests that

war booty was an important source of livelihood. It is possible that

the earliest phase of social evaluation reflected in the Sangam works

relates to early megalithic stage.

Till the 2nd century B.C. peninsular India was inhabited by

megalith people. They were called megalith because they had burials

encircled by big pieces of stone.

By the 3rd century B.C., the megalithic people had moved to

the fertile river basins and began to practice paddy cultivation. The

influence of material culture of the North and the impact of traders,

conquerors and religious missionaries became evident when the

megalithic people founded numerous villages and towns.

The head of the households enjoyed special importance.

But a higher status was given to the chiefs called Velir. These chiefs

might have been associated with the megalithic burials. However,

the highest status was given to the powerful chiefdoms of the Ventor.

In this period the poet or bard was held in high esteem. They

were rewarded with wealth for their creations. Gift giving was taken

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for granted in such societies and the economy was tied into kinship.

Lesser kinsmen provided for the chiefs who carried out raids. The

use of non-kin labour was a later development. The Sangam poems

refer to various occupations, but not directly to the social ordering

of varna.

The warrior class occupied a prominent place in the society.

Civil military offices were held by Vellala or rich peasants. They held

the bulk of the land. The status of the labourers who cultivated land

was a little better than that of the slaves. The condition of the artisans

was not different from that of the agricultural labour. A sharp social

inequality divided the people in the Sangam age. The rich lived in

houses of brick and mortar and the poor in mud structure. Polygamy

was practiced, though on a limited scale. Marriages among near

relatives were allowed. Dancing girls and prostitutes lived in towns.

Women could receive higher education. The Sangam literature

includes poems by women also.

A mixture of diverse practices and beliefs were followed by

the people. The Vedic religion of sacrifices was followed by the kings.

Shiva, Krishna, Balaram and Subramaniya have been mentioned in

the poems. The chief local God worshipped by the people of the

hilly region was Murugan, who came to be called Subramaniya in

early medieval times. There are a few references of Buddhism and

Jainism in early Sangam literature. The existence of Jainism is

proved by the presence of Shravaka, by the followers of Jainism

and of Jaina monasteries in Madurai.

The Megalithic culture is mostly known for its burials. These

burials are termed as megaliths. They are marked by an abundance

of iron tools and black and red pottery. They have a surprising

uniformity all over the peninsula. Potteries of different shapes can

be seen. Of the iron implements, the main types are axes with

crossed straps, sickles, tripods, tridents, spearheads, swords, lamp

hangers, arrowheads and lamps. Occasionally, gold ornaments and

objects of copper or stone are also found. The Southern kingdoms

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contributed much to art, architecture, painting and sculptures.

Beautiful temples, caves and viharas were built in this period.

This period witnessed the growth of Tamil literature. About

Sangam literature we have discussed already. Besides Sangam

texts, we have a text called Tolkkapiyam. It deals with grammar and

poetics.

LET US KNOW

The earliest references about the people and

kingdoms of South India are preserved in three forms:

Ashokas inscriptions, Sangam literature and

Megesthanes’ accounts. The Rock Edict II and XIII of Ashoka

mention the Southern kingdoms of Chola, Pandya, Satyaputra,

Keralaputra and Tambapanni. Megasthenes also mentions these

states.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q.4. Fill in the blanks :

a) Higher status was given to the chiefs called _________.

b) The __________ occupied a prominent place in Sangam

society.

c) The __________ religion of sacrifices was followed by

the king.

Q.5. State True or False :

a) The Sangam text suggest that war booty was an

important source of livelihood.

b) In Sangama period poets were given great respect.

c) Women were not given opportunity for higher education

in Sangama age.

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9.6 LET US SUM UP

After going through this unit we have learnt about–

the rise of new kingdoms during the post-Mauryan period and that

the Post-Mauryan period witnessed all round development in the

cultural field.

you have also learnt that the Gandhara art is a unique combination

of Indian and Greek art.

the contribution of Mathura art to Indian culture is far reaching. This

unit will also help you to get a fair idea about the Sangam literature

which plays a pivotal role in illustrating the social and cultural history

of peninsular India.

Sangam society and culture were totally different from the Northern

Indian society and culture of the contemporary period.

9.7 FURTHER READING

1. Majumdar, R.C., Raychaudhuri, H.C., Datta, K. (1986). An Advanced

History of India. New Delhi, Macmillan India Ltd.

2. Thapar, Romila. (2002). The Penguin History of Early India from The

Origins to A D 1300. New Delhi, The Penguin Group.

3. Tripathi, Ramashankar. (1999). History of Ancient India. Delhi, Motilal

Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.

9.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Ans. to Q.No. 1 : a) Pushyamitra, b) Agnimitra, c) 78 A.D., d) Khotan,

Kashgar, Yarkand, e) Vasumitra, f) He was a great

philosopher, who adroned the Court of Kanishka,

g) Simuka, h) Satakarani-I

Ans. to Q.No. 2 : a) Famous literary figure of Post-Mauryan period,

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b) Brahma, c) Popular medium in Gandhara art

Ans. to Q.No. 3 : a) The Hinayana, b) ivory, c) themes of Buddhism

Ans. to Q.No. 4 : a) Velir, b) Warrior class, c) Vedic

Ans. to Q.No. 5 : a) True, b) True, c) False

9.9 MODEL QUESTIONS

A) Very Short Questions (Answer each question in about 50 words)

Q.1. Who was the author of ‘Madhayamikastras’?

Q.2. Who was Hala?

Q.3. What was the main purpose of the Fourth Buddhist Council?

Q.4. Who founded the first Sangam?

Q.5. What was the main occupation of the early Tamil people?

Q.6. What is ‘Velir’?

B) Short Questions (Answer each question in about 150 words)

Q.1. What was the condition of women in the society during the Sangam

age?

Q.2. What is ‘Chaitya’

Q.3. Distinguish between the ‘Digambara’ and ‘Svetambara’ sect of the

Jainism.

Q.4. Briefly discuss the Kushana administration?

Q.5. Write Short notes:

i) Language and literature of the Post-Mauryan Period

ii) Gandhara and Mathura art

iii) Social and Cultural life of Sangam age.

C) Long Questions (Answer each question within 300-500 Words)

Q.1. Write about the rise of new kingdoms in the Post-Mauryan Period.

Q.2. Write about the development in the field of art, architecture and

sculpture in the Post-Mauryan period.

Q.3. Discuss the religious belief of the people in the Post-Mauryan period.

Q.4. Describe the development of Sangam literature.

*** ***** ***

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141HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E

UNIT 10: GUPTA EMPIRE

UNIT STRUCTURE

10.1 Learning Objectives

10.2 Introduction

10.3 Emergence of the Guptas

10.4 Extension of the Gupta Empire

10.4.1 Samudragupta’s Policy of Expansion

10.4.2 Chandragupta II’s Policy of Expansion

10.5 Consolidation of the Gupta Empire

10.6 Polity and Administration

10.6.1 Administrative Divisions

10.6.2 Judicial Administration

10.6.3 Revenue Administration

10.7 Downfall of the Guptas

10.8 Let Us Sum Up

10.9 Further Reading

10.10 Answers to Check Your Progress

10.11 Model Questions

10.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through the unit, you will be able to:

discuss the emergence of the Guptas in ancient India

explain the extension and consolidation of the Gupta Empire

describe the polity and administration of the Guptas

analyse the causes for the downfall of the Guptas.

10.2 INTRODUCTION

India had witnessed a number of Empire building efforts throughout

the ancient period of its history. We have already discussed one such

successful effort at the initiative of the Mauryas. Even after the fall of the

Mauryas this imperial ambition continued for centuries when different royal

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dynasties like Sunga, Kushana, Satavahana, etc tried to emulate the

Mauryas, in building an empire but nothing special happened on the lines of

an Empire, until the appearance of the Guptas in Indian politics during the

4th century A.D. However, some scholars like Romila Thapar refused to

recognize the initiatives of the Guptas as being the perfect realization of the

concept of an Empire, primarily because of its decentralized form of

administration. Whatever might be the fact, the Gupta period (starting from

4th century A.D. to of 6th century A.D.) is an important phase in Indian history

with manifestation of excellence and glory in every walk of life. The Gupta

period epitomised the enduring achievements of ancient Indian Civilization.

In this unit we will now discuss the Gupta Empire in detail. The

emergence of the Guptas, the territorial expansion and consolidation by the

Gupta rulers, the Gupta system of administration, and the factors that brought

about the downfall of the Gupta dynasty will be the major part of discussion

in this unit.

10.3 EMERGENCE OF THE GUPTAS

The origin of the Guptas, like most of the ruling dynasties of ancient

India, is somewhat obscure in nature. Different theories have been put

forward by historians from time to time about the origin of Gupta dynasty.

Some historian believed that they were the rulers of a small principality in

Magadha, while others held that their original homeland was the Western

Gangetic plain. On the other hand, depending on their name, some historians

tried to identify them as belonging to the Vaishya community, but some

others tried to accord them with the status of a Brahmana.

Now regarding the question of their actual emergence, the Gupta

records mentioned the name of the first three rulers of the family as Maharaja

Srigupta, his son Maharaja Ghatotkachagupta and the latter’s son

Maharajadhiraja Chandragupta I . Depending on different records the majority

of historians now confirm that during the 4th century A.D. there was a general

tradition among the sub-ordinate chiefs to be normally styled as Maharaja,

while the independent kings liked to call themselves Maharajadhiraja. As to

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the line of that description- the first two rulers of the Gupta dynasty appeared

to be the feudatory chief, but it is difficult to know the name of their suzerain.

Fig. 10.1: Gupta Empire

Source: Google Image

LET US KNOWI-tsing, a Chinese traveler, who visited India in the

7th century A.D. made some comments about the first

Gupta ruler Srigupta, (275-300 A.D.) which was supposed to be a

authentic one. According to him Srigupta’s kingdom comprised of a

portion of North Bengal and Bihar. Srigupta became a Buddhist and

said to have constructed a temple for the Chinese pilgrims near

Mrigashikhavana. The Vakataka records refer to Srigupta as the

adiraja or the first ruler of the Gupta line. Srigupta was succeeded

by Ghatotkachagupta.

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Chandragupta I, the third ruler of the Gupta line succeeded

Ghatotkacha and brought the house successfully under the full light of history

by removing the veil of obscurity. It was he who determined the tract of an

imperial identity for the Guptas in future. Chandragupta I married into the

Lichchavi family, once an old established Gana-Sangha of North Bihar, now

associated with the kingdom of Nepal. This Lichchavi-Gupta matrimonial

alliance had a special significance for the emergence of Gupta power in

future. Eminent historian Romila Thapar has put forwarded the view that

perhaps the Guptas had no royal origin, and under such circumstances,

the marriage alliance with an old prestigious family, had normally set a stamp

of acceptability. On the other hand V.A Smith expressed the view that the

Lichchavi Princess Kumaradevi brought to her husband as her dowry

valuable influence which in due course of time offered him a paramount

position in Magadha and in the neighbouring countries. In other words, it

can be said that the marriage alliance of Chandragupta I was important less

from the social point of view but more from political point of view.

After stabilizing his position in Indian politics, Chandragupta I

successfully extended his rule over the main heartland of Gangetic plain

which had included some of the important territories like Magadha, Saketa,

Prayaga. This inclusion sufficiently proved his independent status to adopt

the title like Maharajadhiraja or king of kings. Based upon the campaigns of

Chandragupta I some historians consider his kingdom as consisting of whole

of Bihar, a portion of Bengal except the part of Samatata or Eastern Bengal,

Eastern U.P. i.e. a territory extending upto Benaras. However, there are lot

of confusions over the question of the extension of his Empire. The

establishment of the Gupta era from the date of his accession i.e. in and

about 319-320 A.D. has further highlighted the political importance of the

reigning period of Chandragupta I, thus the first three rulers of the Gupta line

had successfully established themselves as emerging power of Indian

politics.

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ACTIVITY 10.1Prepare a list of the rulers of the Gupta dynasty.

..................................................................................

................................................................................................

................................................................................................

CHECK YOUR PROGRESSQ 1: Fill in the blanks:

a) The first three rulers of the Guptas were

...................., ....................., and ...........................

b) Independent kings liked to call themshelves as

..........................

c) Chandragupta I married the Lichchavi Princess

..........................

Q 2: How did Lichchavi-Gupta matrimonial alliance helped the

Guptas? (Answer in about 60 words)

...........................................................................................

...........................................................................................

...........................................................................................

...........................................................................................

10.4 EXTENSION OF THE GUPTA EMPIRE

The Gupta rulers established a far flung Empire in India. They were

very good conquerors and by the might of their sword, they occupied different

areas, thereby extending the dominion of the Gupta Empire. In this section

we will discuss the extension of the Gupta Empire.

10.4.1 Samudragupta’s Policy of Expansion

The extension of Gupta Empire was mainly the handi-work

of great Gupta Emperor Samudragupta, who ascended the throne

in about 335 A.D. The main source of information of his campaign is

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a lengthy eulogy, inscribed on an Asokan Pillar at Allahbad known as

the Allahbad Pillar Prasasti. The writer of this eulogy was his court

poet Harisena. Apart from this inscription, the Bhitari Seal and Pillar,

different numismatic evidences, along with Vayu Purana and

Bhagavata Purana throw a good deal of light on the political condition

of India at that time.

There is a controversy regarding a civil war for the throne,

on the basis of a Sanskrit term Tulya Kulaja i.e. ‘Princes of Equal

Birth’. Allahabad Prasasti clearly states that Samudragupta was

nominated to the throne by his father Chandragupta I on the occasion

of a full session of royal court. His nomination probably offended the

Princess of his equal birth as some historians think and provided an

opportunity of a revolt under the leadership of an obscure Prince

Kacha. This Kacha was supposed to be the eldest brother of

Samudragupta. But subsequent numismatic evidence proves that

Kacha was an alias of Samudragupta himself. This view is yet to

gain the general acceptability of the scholars and it still remains as a

matter of further research. Whatever might be the trouble that led to

his coronation, Samudragupta had successfully overcome it.

Allahbad Pillar Inscription gives an impressive list of kings

and the region that were conquered and brought under various

degrees of his subjugation. Depending on that list the victorious

campaign of Samudragupta can be discussed in the following.

The great king started his career of expansion by subjugating

the neighbouring kings in the Ganga-Yamuna Valley and thus tried to

consolidate his position at home before he started his campaign in

the remote South. It was at that initial strokes that he defeated four

important kings of modern UP and Central India. They were Achyuta

of Ahichhatra (Modern Ramnagar and Rai Bareilly district of U.P)

Nagasena of Mathura, Ganapati Naga of Padmavati (Gwalior) and

the Prince of the Kota family (yet to be ascertained).

Samudragupta was a great conqueror. After consolidating

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his position in and around his home tract of Magadha, he might have

started his campaign towards Dakshinapatha (South India). It is

interesting that his South Indian campaign was formulated with a

theory of Dharmavijaya which was marked by three principles namely

Grahana (capture of the enemy), Moksha (liberation) and Anugraha

(principle of favoring by reinstating the enemy). During the course of

his campaign, Samudragupta defeated as many as twelve kings of

South India, whom he first captured and then liberated and ultimately

reinstated in their respective kingdom. The list of the twelve South

Indian kings as put forward by the Allahbad Prasasti are as follows-

Mahendra of Kosala (Bilaspur, Raipur, Sambalpur district), Vyaghraja

of Mahakantara (forest tract of Jaipur region of Orissa), Mantaraja of

Kurala (yet to be ascertained), Mahendragiri of Pishtapuram

(Pithapuram in Godavari district), Svamidatta of Kottura (Ganjam

district), Damana of Erandapalla (Vizagopatam district), Vishnugopa

of Kanchi, Hastivarman of Vengi (Ellore in Krishna- Godavari district),

Nilaraja of Avamukta (yet to be ascertained), Ugrasena of Palakka

(Vellore district), Kuvera of Devarashtra (Gapatam district) and

Dhananjaya of Kushalapura (in North Arcot district).

Probably when Samudragupta was engaged in his Southern

Campaign, some of the North Indian rulers, by taking the opportunity

of his absence, might have started a revolt against him. To deal with

the matter Samudragupta hurried back home and found that nine of

his hostile North Indian kings formed a confederacy to resist his

victorious campaign. Among these nine rulers- three of them were

the Naga rulers of Central India, namely Achyuta, Nagasena and

Ganapati Naga whom he had defeated in his earlier campaign. The

other six rulers of North India to form the confederacy were:

Rudradeva (identified as Rudrasena I of Vakataka), Matila (Western

UP), Nagadatta, Nandin, Balavarman and three other Naga rulers of

Central India. Inspite of their combined efforts, the descriptions of

Poet Harisena has made it clear that Samudragupta not only defeated

them but also uprooted them violently.

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Apart from these three major campaign Samudragupta also

defeated some of the forest kings or the tribal chiefs of Central India

and the Deccan. Along with that, nine republics, including the age

old Malavas, Yaudheyas, Madrakas were also forced to accept the

Gupta suzerainty. His victory over the tribal and the republican states

proved to be disastrous one for the later Guptas. Accordingly, when

the Hunas invaded North-Western India, including Punjab and

Rajasthan, no power was there to act as a buffer for the Gangetic

plain.

The impression of his power compelled some of the frontier

states Pratyanta Nripatis like Samatata (South-Eastern Bengal)

Davaka (Dabaka in Nagaon district of Assam) Kamarupa, Nepal,

Kartripura, to become voluntarily his vassals by paying tribute,

obeying his order and offering him personal homage. Apart from

that even some of the independent or semi-independent foreign

powers beyond the frontier of Samudragupta’s Empire like

Daivaputra Shahi Shahanu Shahi Saka Murundas, etc also entered

into sub-ordinate alliance with him. Moreover, Meghavahana, the king

of Ceylon (Sri Lanka) maintained diplomatic relation with him.

Thus, the Gupta Empire during the time of Samudragupta

included whole of North India except the tract of the Saka rule in

Western India, Kashmir, Western Punjab, Western Rajputana. In

the South, the Gupta hegemony was extended even upto the tract of

Tamil Nadu. Despite his all round conquest of the Indian sub-

continent, the main area of his rule, however was much more limited

as his direct rule comprised only of U.P, Bihar, West Bengal a portion

of Central Province and Vindhya region. To commemorate his victory

Samudragupta performed the Asvamedha Sacrifice (Horse

Sacrifice), the performance of which is often regarded in history as

a symbol of imperialism.

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10.4.2 Chandragupta II’s Policy of Expansion

There was another important phase of expansion of Gupta

history, which started with the reigning period of Chandragupta II,

son and successor of Samudragupta. This was a campaign against

the Sakas of Western India. This campaign took place in between

388-409 A.D. The main source of information of this campaign are

the two inscriptions in Udaygiri and Vishakhadatta’s Sanskrit drama

Devi Chandraguptam. According to the story of the drama, after the

death of Samudragupta, his eldest son Ramagupta became the king

of the Gupta Empire.The name of the wife of the king Ramagupta

was Dhruvadevi. The Sakas invaded the Gupta territory and

Ramagupta failed to resist the Saka invasion. Ultimately he had to

make an agreement with the Saka ruler to surrender his wife

Dhruvadevi in return for his kingdom. Chandragupta II who was the

younger brother of Ramagupta was disgusted with the action of his

elder brother and he in a heroic attempt not only rescued Dhruvadevi

from the Sakas but also killed the Saka king. Then Chandragupta II

killed his elder brother and occupied the Gupta throne and married

queen Dhruvadevi. Whatever might be the truth, the story in its turn

confirmed the natural tendency of Westward expansion of Gupta

Empire which Samudragupta left to his successor.

As we have already discussed, Samudragupta had extended

the frontier of the Gupta Empire on all sides. He left his vast Empire

to his successor Chandragupta II. We have to depend upon various

literary and geographical evidences for forming our idea about

Chandragupta II’s conquests. Samudragupta had extended his

frontier East and Southward. His Westward expansion halted at

Eastern Malwa. Further expansion Eastward and Southward was

not possible. Hence the natural tendency of expansion in the reign

of Chandragupta II lay Westward against the kingdom of the Saka

Satrapas of Western Malwa and Gujarat. He feared an alliance

between the Sakas and the Vakatakas of Maharastra and the Nagas.

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Therefore, he followed a policy of isolating the Sakas by forging a

matrimonial alliance with the Vakatakas and the Nagas.

As a result of that Chandragupta II married Kuvera Naga, a

Princess of the Naga family and won the friendship of the Naga power.

The Nagas formed a powerful political force in Central India and

their alliance consolidated Gupta authority in the region. Prabhavati

Gupta, the daughter of Chandragupta II and his queen Kuvera Naga,

was married to Rudrasena II, the Vakataka ruler of Maharashtra.

The geographical position of the Vakataka kingdom was such that it

could be of immense help to Chandragupta II for his projected

campaigns against the Sakas of Kathiwar and their hostility could

seriously embarrass him. Moreover, the Vakataka alliance was a

useful deterrent against any future revolt of the Sakas in Saurashtra.

Rudrasena II had died at an early age and after his death Prabhavati

Gupta became the regent of her minor sons, which indirectly

increased Gupta influence in the Vakataka court. According to a

tradition, Chandragupta II or his son married a Kadamba Princess

of the Kuntala country. This marriage is politically useful for operation

against the Sakas. Thus, by a policy of matrimonial alliance with the

Nagas, Vakatakas and Kadambas, Chandragupta II encircled the

Sakas.

Chandragupta II’s brilliant victory over the Saka Satrap united

Western India with the rest of Northern India. It rounded off the Gupta

Empire by pushing its Western limit to the natural frontier on the

Arabian Sea. The Gupta Empire now extended from the Bay of

Bengal in the East to the Arabian Sea on the West. The annexation

of Saurashtra and Malwa by Chandragupta II opened up to the Guptas

free access to the ports of the Western coast especially to the part

of Barygaza. Indian trade between Northern and Western India vastly

increased as a result of the conquest of Malwa and Saurashtra. The

city of Ujjaini lay on the high road of trade between the Northern and

Western India. The city became a great emporium of trade. It became

a great centre of culture and religion. Chandragupta II converted this

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city into his second capital. However, Chandragupta II’s great victory

over the Sakas is not directly mentioned in any official epigraph of

the Guptas.

Chandragupta II’s greatest achievement was the conquest

of Malwa, Gujarat and Kathiwar from the Western Saka Satraps.

The Sakas of Western India were a very powerful neighbour. They

remained a thorn on the side of the Gupta Empire. Chandragupta II,

while he was a crown prince, acted as a governor of Eastern Malwa

and was conscious of the Saka problem on the frontier. He

connected Eastern Malwa as his lease of operation against the Saka

Satrap Rudrasinha II. This is corroborated by the Udayagiri

Inscription and also by the Harshacharita. The Mehrauli Iron Pillar

(near the Qutub Minar inDelhi) Inscription refers to the exploit of a

king Chandra who quelled a rebellion in Bengal and vanquished the

rulers of the Sapta Sindhu area. As Chandragupta II is called ‘Chandra’

in his coin, historians generally accept his identification with the

Chandra of the inscription. With the end of the reigning period of

Chandragupta II, the period of expansion of Gupta Empire has come

to an end. Despite his important conquests he was remembered

not as a great conqueror but as a consolidator.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESSQ 3: Write True / False:

a) Harisena was a court poet.

b) Tulya Kulaja means Princes of Unequal

Birth.

c) Dakshinapatha means the Western part of India.

d) Devi Chandraguptam is a Sanskrit drama of Vishakhadatta.

e) Chandragupta II married Kuvera Naga.

f) Ujjaini lay on the high road of trade between the Northern

and Western India.

Q 4: What is the main source of information for Samudragupta’s

policy of conquest?

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..............................................................................................

Q 5: Who was Ramagupta?

...............................................................................................

Q 6: Write about Samudragupta’s policy of conquest towards South

India in about 60 words.

................................................................................................

................................................................................................

................................................................................................

................................................................................................

10.5 CONSOLIDATION

After the vigorous campaign of Samudragupta, there came a phase

of consolidation and stabilization. Samudragupta left for his successor

Chandragupta II a legacy of a vast Empire. Justifying his nomination, the

fifth ruler of the Gupta line had not only completed the work left undone by

his father, but also assimilated large number of tribal tracts, including the

territories ruled by the Sakas and the Kushanas in Western India, Samatata

or a part of Eastern Bengal.

As we have discussed earlier, Chandragupta II liberated Western

India from the age old servitude of the Saka Satraps. Thus, by bringing the

land between the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea under the shadow of an

Imperial identity, Chandragupta II completed the work of the political unification

of Northern India.

In consolidating the Gupta power in India the political marriage had

always played a vital role. At the stage of their emergence the Lichchavi

marriage alliance provided them with political status and acceptability.

Similarly, at the stage of consolidation also marriage alliances provided them

an opportunity to strengthen their hold further in North Indian politics.

Chandragupta II, the great consolidator concluded a number of marriage

alliances with different Indian rulers which created a ring of a friendly states

around him. Except the campaign against the Western Saka, no major

military expedition had been taken by Chandragupta II. The entire period of

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his reign was a peaceful one. His pacific policy further strengthened the

process of consolidation of the Gupta Empire.

As a result of his pacific policy Gupta history entered into a phase of

cultural renaissance. It provided him an opportunity to pay more attention to

the development of Gupta art and culture. Chandragupta II was known as

the patron of legendary Nine Gems or Nava Ratna, of whom Kalidasa was

the most prominent one. This great poet Kalidasa immortalized the age by

his great literary creations.

The Gupta period witnessed the ultimate revival of Brahmanical

culture which saw its beginning in the horse sacrifice of Samudragupta.

One of the main vehicles of this Brahmanical culture was the Sanskrit

language. By patronizing the gems of the Sanskrit literature, Chandragupta

II put it at the pin node of its glory. By patronizing the creative spirit of his

age, he successfully enhanced not only the military but also the cultural

pride of the Empire and consolidated the position of Gupta Empire as a

centre of creative activity.

LET US KNOWThe Nine Gems or Nava Ratna were Kalidasa,

Khatakarpara, Dhanwantari, Varahamihira,

Kshapanaka, Shankhu, Amarasimha, Vetalbhatt (or

Vetalabhatta) and Vararuchi.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESSQ 7: Which marraige alliance initially provided the

Guptas political status and acceptability?

...................................................................

Q 8: Who provided patronage to the Nava Ratna?

...........................................................................................

Q 9: Who was the most prominent amongst the Nava Ratna?

...........................................................................................

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10.6 POLITY AND ADMINISTRATION

We have a few important sources for the study of the Gupta polity

and administration. Some literary sources like various Smritis, Manava

Dharma Sastra, Yajnavalka Smritis, Narada Smriti and Kamandaka’s

Nitisara, etc are important sources. The Damodarpur and the Eran

Inscriptions throw light on Gupta administration. Let us analyse the polity

and administration of the Guptas.

Monarchy was advocated as an ideal system of government in the

Gupta period. There were some tribal republics like those of the Malavas,

Yaudheyas, Arjunayanas in Northern India. There was always contradiction

between the two systems of government. Kingship being sanctioned by the

Brahmanical Shastras was powerful and aggressive against the republics.

The king or Samrata was at the head of the government. He ruled by

hereditary right. The Gupta Emperors adopted the high sounding titles of

Maharajadhiraja, Paramabhattaraka, etc. They brought additional lustre to

their position by claiming for themselves divine origin and super human

qualities. Hence, they assumed magnificent titles like Paramesvara,

Achintyapurusha, Lokadhamadeva, Paramadaivata, etc.

Theoretically, there was no limit on the king’s power. He ruled over

his vast Empire with absolute command over all the branches of the

government. He was the supreme commander of the army. Samudragupta

and Chandragupta II personally led the army. The governors, important civil

and military officers were appointed by the king and they held office at his

pleasure. The central bureaucray functioned under his personal supervision.

The king was the master of all lands and he could grant them to anybody.

However, the claim of divine origin and the enjoyment of vast

theoretical rights did not convert the Gupta Emperors into crude despots

without any touch of benevolence among them. Samudragupta and

Chandragupta II were aware of their duties to the people. The government

did not interfere in the daily life of the people. It was sympathetic to people’s

needs. Moreover, there were certain practical checks on the king’s authority

and power. He had to share power with high officials. It was a custom for

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the king to abstain from routine duties of ministers. He had to obey the rules

laid down by the Dharmashastras. The local bodies enjoyed a good deal of

autonomy in which he normally did not interfere. Moreover, the system of

granting agrahara and brahmadeya lands led to increasing decentralization

in administration and weakening hold of the central authority. The succession

to the throne was hereditary but the Emperor reserved the right of selecting

the heir apparent. Samudragupta was nominated by Chandragupta I as his

successor from among the sons of the latter. Kumaragupta I probably

nominated Skandagupta. But the system of nomination was not free from

trouble.

The king was the supreme head of the government. Next in rank to

him was the Yuvaraja or crown prince. The Mantrin or ministers stood at

the head of the civil administration and their offices were generally hereditary.

Perhaps some other high offices were also hereditary and limited to a

number of families only. The Mahadandanayakas held offices in hereditary

capacity.Sandhivigrahika or minister of war and peace was a new office of

minister created in the Gupta period. Some of the ministers combined

different offices at the same time. We do not know whether there was a

Mantri Parishad or Council of Ministers of the Mauryan type. Kalidasa refers

to a council of ministers whose decision was conveyed to the Emperor by

the chamberlain or Kanchuki. Generally, ministers acted as individual

advisers and assistants of the king.

The vast Empire of the Guptas could only be managed with the help

of an organized bureaucracy. The central and provincial officials were

differentiated by their designation. Among the high officials in the central

administration mention may be made of Mahabaladhikrita (commander-in-

chief), Mahadandanayaka (chief general), Mahapratihara (chief of the palace

guards), Sandhivigrahika (minister in charge of war and peace),

Akshapataladhikrita (keeper of State documents); Mahakapati (head of the

cavalry force), etc. They were assisted by a host of junior officials. There

was no distinction between civil and military officials and sometimes both

duties were combined in a single person.

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There was another class of officials called Kumaramatyas and

Ayuktas. They worked as the link between the central and provincial

administration. High imperial officers and officers of the personal staff of the

Emperor were included in the rank of the Kumaramatyas. It is said that

Kumaramatyas means ministers for Kumara or crown prince. It is also

said that Kumaramatya was a cadet or apprentice minister, who was minister

from youth. However, Kumaramatyas served both the Emperor and crown

prince and served in the province and district level. Ayuktas were employed

by the Emperor specially in districts and metropolitan towns. They also

performed the duty of restoring properties of the defeated king who had

been reinstated.

10.6.1 Administrative Divisions

The Empire was divided into a number of provinces. The

usual names of the provinces were Bhuktis, Desas and Bhogas.

The provinces were sub-divided into districts called Vishayas. A

part of the Vishaya was called Vithi. The villages or Grama were

the lowest administrative units.

The provinces called Bhuktis were governed by officers called

Uparikas or sometimes by princes of royal blood bearing the title

Maharajajouta Devabhattarka. The provinces called Desas were

governed by officers called Goptis or wardens of the marches.

The districts or Vishayas were ruled by district officers styled

Vishayapatis, Kumaramatyas and Ayuktas. Sometimes districts

were governed by feudatories or Samantas. Usually the district

officer was appointed by the provincial governor, though sometimes

he was directly appointed by the Emperor. The Ayuktas served as

a link between the central and district administration as discussed

earlier. The Vishayapati or district officer generally acted under the

Uparikas or provincial governors as testified by the Damodarpur

Copper Plate. The Antarvedi Vishaya or the Doab region was the

heartland of the Gupta Empire. The Vishayas were pivots of the

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Gupta provincial administration. In every Vishaya perhaps there

was an advisory council or Parishad comprising local

representatives. (village headman), Bhojakas, etc. The Gramikas

ruled the villages with the help of village councils. He was a paid

official of the state. The Talabara, Vinayasthitisthapaka were new

dignitaries vested with military and religious and judicial duties

respectively.

Some North Bengal inscriptions throw an interesting sidelight

on the association of popular representatives in the Gupta

administration. In the provincial, district or village level of

administration, the officer in charge was assisted by an Adhikarana

or Council consisting of local representatives. In the cities, the

Municipal Boards (Adhikaranas) consisted of guild president, chief

merchant or Nagara Shresthi, chief artisan or Prathama Kulika

and chief scribe or Prathama Kayastha. In the districts and villages

the Boards consisted of village head-men, householders, etc. The

Guptas made a bold administrative experiment by associating

popular elements in the administration.

LET US KNOWBeyond the Empire under direct rule of the Guptas

lay the frontier states both monarchical and

republican. With politic generosity the Guptas left

them in a position of sub-ordinate status of vassals to the Gupta

suzerain without disturbing their internal autonomy. Samudragupta’s

prasasti (eulogy) gives a long list of such frontier vassal states brought

under his sub-ordinate dependence. Their status varied according

to their relative strength in comparison with that of the suzerain power.

Among the states in the Eastern frontiers were the monarchies of

Samatata, Kamarupa, Davaka, Nepal and Kartripura and on the

Western frontier the nine tribal republics of Punjab and Rajputana.

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10.6.2 Judicial Administration

The inscriptions of the Guptas do not throw any definite light

on their judicial system. The Katyayana Smriti lays down in the

traditional way that the king is the highest judge. He personally

attended the court to listen to cases and was assisted by the body

of Ministers (Amatyas) , Judges (Pradvivaka), Brahmins (Purohita).

In the cities, the city magistrates were assisted by the heads of the

Shrenis or guilds, merchants, etc. In the villages, the village

panchayats or family gatherings (Kulas) disposed of the cases. The

criminal law as a whole was lenient as testified to by the Chinese

pilgrim Fa-hien.

10.6.3 Revenue Administration

The main sources of royal revenue were various types of

land revenues, fines realized for offences, commercial taxes and

tax on salt, taxes on mines, etc. Exemptions from taxes were granted

to villages on some occasions. The officials were recruited on the

basis of merit and ability. No distinction between caste and creed

was made. Guilds continued to flourish among the merchants and

artisans.

The guilds or Shrenis were autonomous, and the guilds were

governed by their own laws. Even the Buddhist Churches or

Sanghas participated in trade and acted as bankers or Shresthis

and lent money on interest. The state and the village society

collectively held the ownership of land and without mutual consent

land could not be bought or sold.

As a whole, the Gupta administration had a benevolent

character and people lived happily under it. The benevolent ideal of

the government even survived after the fall of the Gupta Empire.

The Kalachuris, the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas were inspired

by the models of the Gupta administrative system.

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CHECK YOUR PROGRESSQ 10: Match the following:

a) Samrat 1. Chamberlain

b) Sandhivigrahika 2. Provincial Officer

c) Kanchuki 3. Head of the Cavalry Force

d) Mahakapati 4. Record Keepers

e) Goptis 5. King

f) Pusta Palas 6. Minister of War and Peace

Q 11: Who was Mahabaladhikrita?

.................................................................................................

Q 12: Write a note on the revenue administration of the Guptas in

about 50 words.

.................................................................................................

.................................................................................................

.................................................................................................

.................................................................................................

10.7 DOWNFALL OF THE GUPTAS

The factors responsible for the decline of Gupta power in India were

many. The Huna invasion was one of the prime factors responsible for the

decline of the Gupta power in India. A branch of the Hunas from Central Asia

had occupied Bactria in the 4th century A.D. and crossed the Hindukush

mountains during the time of Kumaragupta I, son and successor of

Chandragupta II (415-54 A.D.). But we learn from the Bhitari Pillar Inscription

and Junagarh Rock Inscription that the Yuvaraja Skandagupta succeeded

in repelling this invasion in the 5th century A.D.

But, after him, repeated waves of the Huna invasions made the Gupta

power weak. Even Skandagupta who battled violently and resisted the Hunas

for some time from entering into the main heartland of India had to face

different internal problems, like the revolt of his feudatories, which made his

task a difficult one. The death of Skandagupta in about 467 A.D. was followed

by a succession of various kings, who could not keep the Empire intact.

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The final blow to the Gupta power came towards the end of 5th century

A.D., when the Hunas poured into North India and hastened the process of

ultimate disintegration of Gupta Empire within the next half a century and

thus it paved the road for the creation of a number of small kingdoms.

Apart from the Huna invasions there were number of other factors

responsible for the decline of Gupta power in India. As we have stated earlier,

the breaking away of the feudatories of Gupta was one such major factor of

the decline of Gupta power. One such good example was the invasion of

the Vakataka. By means of a matrimonial alliance Chandragupta II had

established a friendly relation with the Vakatakas. But the successors of

Chandragupta II had no peaceful relation with the Vakatakas. In the reigns of

Budhagupta, the Vakataka king Narendrasena invaded some of the Central

Indian region like Malwa, Kosala, and Mekala, etc. This invasion considerably

weakened the Gupta hegemony in Central Indian region. In subsequent years,

another Vakataka king Harisena conquered Gujarat and Malwa from the

Imperial Guptas, which on the one hand weakened the Gupta prestige and

on the other hand, inspired their feudatories to declare their independence.

Similarly, the rulers like Yasodharman also inflicted a death blow to the Gupta

Empire. These examples were followed by other feudatories which led to

the ultimate disintegration of the Gupta Empire.

At the same time the decentralized form of administration had also

contributed substantially to its downfall. The provincial governors of the Gupta

Empire enjoyed a good deal of freedom and authority. The Gupta rulers

failed to erect any such administrative machinery to keep a check on the

highhandedness of the provincial governors. The Gupta rulers also failed to

pay cash salary to any of their officials. In lieu of that they granted land by

which the official developed a feudal character in them. They identified

themselves only to their local interest in defiance of the central authority.

Thus, the growth of the feudal elements further accelerated the process of

decentralization of Gupta Empire.

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CHECK YOUR PROGRESSQ 24: During whose reign did the Hunas cross

the Hindukush mountains?

...........................................................................................

...........................................................................................

Q 25: How Chandragupta II established a friendly relationship with

the Vakatakas?

...........................................................................................

...........................................................................................

Q 26: How did feudal character develop in the Gupta administration?

...........................................................................................

...........................................................................................

10.8 LET US SUM UP

After going through this unit, we have learnt about–

The emergence of the Guptas in India marked the beginning of a

glorious period in ancient Indian history. But the origin of the Guptas

cannot be directly ascertained as it is somewhat obscure in nature.

Srigupta laid down the foundation of the Gupta Empire and he was

followed by rulers like Ghatotkachagupta, Chandragupta I,

Samudragupta, Chandragupta II, Kumaragupta I, Skandagupta and

others. The first two rulers of the Gupta dynasty were probably sub-

ordinate chiefs as they took the tile Maharaja. But the third ruler

Chandragupta I not only brought the Gupta dynasty to its glory but also

became an independent ruler adopting the title Maharajadhiraja.

The first three rulers of the Gupta dynasty laid down the basis upon

which the superstructure was built by Samudragupta, and

Chandragupta II with their expansionist policies. Samudragupta after

consolidating his position at home brought Dakshinapath (South India)

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upto Tamil Nadu under his control defeating as many as twelve rulers

as stated in the Allahbad Prasasti. He too defeated the rulers of North

India, Central India and Eastern India along with the forest kings, tribal

chiefs, etc. and performed the Asvamedha sacerifice showing his

imperial authority. His son and successor Chandragupta II too

continued his father’s policy led his expansion campaign in Western

India and gought against the Sakas who dominated Western India at

that time. By a policy of matrimonial alliance with the Nagas, Vakatakas

and Kadambas, Chandragupta II encircled the Sakas, defeated them

and united Western India with the Northern India by occupying

Malwa,Gujarat and Kathiwar. He too had other successful military

campaigns to his credit.

Chandragupta II is more remembered as a consolidator than a

conqueror. He completed the task of conquest left incomplete by his

father Samudragupta and after that stabilized and consolidated the

conquest made by the Gupta rulers. By concluding a number of

marraige alliances with different Indian rulers, Chandragupta II created

a ring of a friendly states around the Gupta Empire. His pacific policy

created such a peaceful atmosphere in the Gupta Empire that there

began a cultural renaissance in the Empire. Chandragupta II provided

patronage to the Nava Ratna.

Monarchy was the form of government with the king being the supreme

head. The kingship was hereditary. He was assisted by the crown

prince, ministers and other officials. The Guptas had an organized

bureaucracy with the central and provincial officials being differentiated

by their designation. The Empire was divided into provinces called

Bhuktis or Desas. The provinces were divided into districts or

Vishayas. In Judicial matters, the king was the highest judge who

personally attended the court to hear the cases and was assisted by

other officials. In cities the city magistrates and in villages the

panchayats or family gatherings used to dispose of the cases. Different

sources of royal revenue were there in the form of land revenues,

fines, commercial taxes, etc. The ownership of land was collectively

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held by the state and village society. As a whole the Gupta administration

was benevolent one and was followed by later dynasties like Chalukyas,

Rashtrakutas, etc.

Several factors brought about the downfall of the Gupta Empire.

Foremost among these factors was the invasion of the Hunas who,

towards the end of the 5th century A.D, gave a death blow to the Gupta

power. The breaking away of the feudatories also weakened the power

of the Guptas. With the decentralization in administration, the provincial

governors under the Guptas enjoyed much freedom and authority for

which they displayed their local interest defying the central authority.

Instead of cash salary the provincial governors were given land which

developed a feudal character in them further accelerating the process

of decentralization of Gupta Empire and leading to its eventual downfall.

10.9 FURTHER READINGS

1) Majumdar, R. C., Raychaudhuri, H.C., Datta, K. (1986). An Advanced

History of India. New Delhi, Macmillan India Ltd.

2) Sharma, L. P. (1981). Ancient History of India (pre-historic Age to 1200

A.D.). New Delhi, Vikas Publication House Pvt. Ltd.

3) Thapar, Romila. (2002). The Penguin History of Early India from The

Origins to A D 1300. New Delhi, The Penguin Group.

10.10ANSWERS TO CHECK YOURPROGRESS

Ans to Q No 1: a) Srigupta, Ghatotkachagupta, Chandragupta I,

b) Maharajadhiraja, (c) Kumaradevi

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Ans to Q No 2: Chandragupta I married into the Lichchavi family. This

Lichchavi-Gupta matrimonial alliance was an important one from the

political angle as it greatly helped in the emergence of Gupta power .

Romila Thapar said that this matrimonial alliance provided acceptability

to the Guptas who perhaps had no royal origin. V.A Smith expressed

the view that the Lichchavi Princess Kumaradevi brought to her

husband the needed political influence.

Ans to Q No 3: a) True, b) False, c) False, d) True, e) True, f) True

Ans to Q No 4: Allahbad Pillar Inscription.

Ans to Q No 5: Ramagupta was the eldest son of Samudragupta.

Ans to Q No 6: A great conqueror Samudragupta probably started his

campaign towards Dakshinapatha (South India) after consolidating

his position at home. His South Indian campaign was one of

Dharmavijaya which was marked by three principles namely, grahana,

moksha and anugraha. In this campaign,Samudragupta defeated as

many as twelve kings of South India, whom he first captured and then

liberated and ultimately reinstated in their respective Kingdom.

Ans to Q No 7: Lichchavi.

Ans to Q No 8: Chandragupta II.

Ans to Q No 9: Kalidasa.

Ans to Q No 10: a) 5, b) 6, c) 1, d) 3, e) 2, f) 4

Ans to Q No 11: Mahabaladhikrita was the Commander-in-Chief.

Ans to Q No 12: The royal revenue was collected from different sources

like various types of land revenues, fines for offences, commercial

taxes, etc.Revenue officials were recruited on the basis of merit and

ability without having any distinction on the basis of caste and creed.

Exemption from taxation were granted to villages on some occassions.

Ans to Q No 13: a) True, b) True, c) False, d) True, e) False, f) False,

g) False

Ans to Q No 14: a) Vedas, b) slave, c) eight, d) Kumaragupta,

e) Varamihira, f) China

Ans to Q No 15: Brahmacharya, Garhastha, Banaprastha and Sanyas.

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Ans to Q No 16: Elephant Riding.

Ans to Q No 17: By digging of tanks, wells, cutting of cannals, etc.

Ans to Q No 18: An all round industrial growth was witnessed in the Gupta

period.This growth was facilitated by the richness of the country in

natural resources, mineral, animal and plant produce.Gold, Copper,

Textile and Wood Carving were popular industry of the period.

Ans to Q No 19: a) True, b) False, c) True, d) False, e) True, f) False,

g) True

Ans to Q No 20: a) 3, b) 1, c) 2

Ans to Q No 21: a) Chandragupta II, b) Mihirakula, c) Bimola,

d) Buddhism, e) Samudragupta, f) Kalidasa,

g) Harisena, h) Kavya

Ans to Q No 22: Small flat roofed temples, sometimes surrounded by the

pillared halls are characteristic of the early Gupta period.

Ans to Q No 23: Paintings of Ajanta are religious by nature, wheresas Bagh

paintings are purely secular.

Ans to Q No 24: Kumaragupta I.

Ans to Q No 25: By means of a matrimonial alliance Chandragupta II had

established a friendly relationship with the Vakatakas.

Ans to Q No 26: The Guptas did not pay cash salary to their officials. In lieu

of that they granted land to the officials which developed a feudal

character in the Gupta administration.

10.11 MODEL QUESTIONS

A) Very Short Questions (Answer each Question in about 50 words)

Q 1: Who was Srigupta?

Q 2: Name the mother of Prabhavati Gupta.

Q 3: Who was Vishnudeva?

Q 4: Give one reason of the downfall of the Guptas.

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B) Short Questions (Answer each question in about 150 words)

Q 1: What do you know about the emergence of the Gupta dynasty?

Q 2: What light does Allahbad Pillar Inscription throw on Samudragupta’s

policy of conquest?

Q 3: What was the contribution of Chandragupta II in building up the Gupta

Empire?

Q 4: Write a note on the administrative divisions under the Gupta

administration.

Q 5: How was the society divided in the Gupta period?

Q 6: What was the position of women in the Gupta period?

Q 7: Write a note on the development of agriculture in the Gupta period.

Q 8: Write a note on the development of Brahmanical Hinduism during the

Gupta rule.

Q 9: What do you know about the development of Sanskrit literature in the

Gupta period?

C) Long Questions (Answer each question in about 300-500 words)

Q 1: Discuss the extension and consolidation of the Gupta Empire.

Q 2: Explain the administrative system of the Gupta rulers.

Q 3: Describe the socio-economic condition of the Gupta period.

*** ***** ***

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Reference Books

English Books:

1. Chandra, Satish. (1990). Medieval India, NCERT, New Delhi.

2. Chandra, Sathish(2007 ) A History of Medieval India, Orient Black

Swan, New Delhi

3. Chattopadhyaya, Brajadulal (2012). The Making of Early

Medieval India, Second edition, Oxford Press, New Delhi.

4. Jha, D.N. (1977), Ancient India-An Introductory Outline, Peoples’

Publishing House, New Delhi-110055

5. Kosambi, D.D. (2001): The cultural and Civilization of Ancient

India in Historical Outline, Vikas Publishing House.

6. Majumdar, R.C., Raychaudhuri, H.C., Datta, K. (1986). An

Advanced History of India. New Delhi, Macmillan India Ltd.

7. Maiti, P.(2001): Studies in Ancient India, Kolkata, Shreedhar

Prakashani

8. Raychaudhuri, H.C. (1972). Political History of Ancient India.

Calcutta, University of Calcutta.

9. Sharma, L.P. (1981). Ancient History of India (pre-historic Age to

1200 A.D.). New Delhi, Vikas Publication House Pvt. Ltd.

10. Singh, Upinder (2009): A History of Ancient and Early Medieval

India, from the Stone Age to the 12th Century, Pearson.

11. Singh, Vipul (2009). Interpreting Medieval India: Early medieval,

Delhi Sultanate, and regions (circa 750-1550), Macmillan

12. Thapar, Romila(2003): The Penguin History of Early India, from

the origins to AD 1300 , Penguin Books India.13. Tripathi, Ramashankar (1999). History of Ancient India. Delhi,

Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.


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