SEDIMENTATION RATE IN BERA LAKE AND
SOIL REDISTRIBUTION AT ITS CATCHMENT
USING RADIOISOTOPES
MOHAMMADREZA GHARIBREZA
THESIS/DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN FULFILMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY
FACULTY OF SCIENCE
UNIVERSITY OF MALAYA
KUALA LUMPUR
2012
UNIVERSITI MALAYA ORIGINAL LITERARY WORK DECLARATION
Name of Candidate: MOHAMMADREZA GHARIBREZA (I.C/Passport No :) L95236616
Registration/Matric No: SHC080044
Name of Degree: Doctor of Philosophy Title of Project Paper/Research Report/Dissertation/Thesis (“this Work”):
SEDIMENTATION RATE IN BERA LAKE AND SOIL REDISTRIBUTION AT ITS CATCHMENT USING RADIOISOTOPES
Field of Study: APPLIED SEDIMENTOLOGY
I do solemnly and sincerely declare that:
(1) I am the sole author/writer of this Work; (2) This Work is original; (3) Any use of any work in which copyright exists was done by way of fair dealing and for
permitted purposes and any excerpt or extract from, or reference to or reproduction of any copyright work has been disclosed expressly and sufficiently and the title of the Work and its authorship have been acknowledged in this Work;
(4) I do not have any actual knowledge nor ought I reasonably to know that the making of this work constitutes an infringement of any copyright work;
(5) I hereby assign all and every rights in the copyright to this Work to the University of Malaya (“UM”), who henceforth shall be owner of the copyright in this Work and that any reproduction or use in any form or by any means whatsoever is prohibited without the written consent of UM having been first had and obtained;
(6) I am fully aware that if in the course of making this Work I have infringed any copyright whether intentionally or otherwise, I may be subject to legal action or any other action as may be determined by UM.
Candidate’s Signature Date
Subscribed and solemnly declared before,
Witness’s Signature Date
Name:
Designation:
iii
ABSTRAK
Tasik Bera adalah bersistem lakustrin dan merupakan tasik semulajadi yang
terbesar di Malaysia. Penilaian literasi jelas menunjukkan jurang evaluasi kesan
persekitaran akibat aktiviti antropogen ke atas tanih dan sumber air dan regim sedimen di
kawasan kajian. Sehubungan itu, penentuan taburan semula tanih dan nutrien di kawasan
lembangan, kadar proses persedimenan, penilaian perubahan nutrien dan kualiti sedimen
di Tasik Bera dengan menggunakan jatuhan radioisotop 210
Pb and 137
Cs dan garis
panduan kualiti sedimen telah ditakrifkan sebagai objektif kajian ini.
Metodologi yang komprehensif telah di rangka untuk melaksanakan kajian
literasi, inovasi alatan persampelan teras sedimen, survei lapangan, pengukuran
eksperimen yang terperinci, pemetaan dan permodelan yang terkini. Kepelbagaian data
set daripada model dan geo rujukan “GIS-tersedia” telah menyokong reka bentuk
metodologi.
Aplikasi jatuhan inventori 137
Cs dan perkadaran model telah menrumuskan kadar
purata hakisan tanih 915±345, 117±36 dan 70±35, t h-1
th-1
masing-masing bagi kawasan
yang telah dibersihkan, kawasan perladangan baru dan lama. Kawasan kajian
menunjukkan korelasi negatif di antara kandungan nutrien dan perluasan pembangunan
tanah.
Pentarikhan statigrafi berdasarkan rekod-rekod jumlah jatuhan 137
Cs and 210
Pb
yang diperolehi daripada kolum sedimen di Tasik Bera walau bagaimanapun secara
relatifnya kekal malar. Keadaan ini membolehkan model CRS diaplikasikan untuk
geokronologi sedimen di Tasik Bera. Kadar maksimum 210
Pb dan sedimentasi yang di
kira dianggarkan masing-masing adalah 159±2 Bq cm-2
y-1
and 2.56 cm y-1
bagi kawasan
iv
separuh tertutup di utara Tasik Bera. Kadar purata sedimentasi pra 1950 ialah sebanyak
0.08±0.02 g cm-2
y-1
(0.1±0.1cm y-1
) dan jelas menunjukkan akumulasi yang seragam
sebelum adanya kesan aktiviti-aktiviti antropogen. Kadar sedimentasi meningkat secara
drastik iaitu sebanyak 10 kali ganda sejak 1972 kesan permulaan fasa- fasa pembasmian
hutan. Sehubungan itu, satu lapisan lumpur berpasir putih terenap secara drastik di antara
1972 dan 1993 di bahagian selatan, tengah dan utara Tasik Bera dengan kadar purata
sebanyak 0.48±0.48, 0.54±1.2 and 0.17±0.12 g cm-2
y-1
.
Kewujudan ladang sawit matang telah meningkatkan produktiviti biojisim
sebanyak 1.5 mil y-1 menyebabkan aliran air permukaan didominasi oleh bahan organik
dengan kadar purata akumulasi sebanyak 0.2±0.1 g cm-2
y-1
(1.3 cm y-1
) di bahagian
teratas jujukan lapisan sedimen di Tasik Bera semenjak 1994. Secara keseluruhannya,
kadar sedimentasi menggunakan pentarikhan 210
Pb dan CRS model, jatuhan 137
Cs dan
model perkadaran dengan nilai kecekapan penjerapan dan luahan sedimen yang
diperolehi masing-masing adalah sebanyak 0.99, 1.025, and 1.11 cm y-1
.
Berdasarkan garis panduan kualiti sedimen menunjukkan pencemaran ketara
bahan enapan di Tasik Bera oleh logam As dan di bahagian utara oleh logam Fe. Selain
itu, profil sedimen Tasik Bera menunjukkan pencemaran sederhana oleh logam Cu, Cr
dan Ni. Eutrofikasi sangat jelas berlaku di Tasik Bera kesan akibat fasa-fasa pembasmian
hutan di kawasan lembangan.
Sebagai rumusan, keberhasilan kajian ini membolehkan keyakinan terhadap
kaedah terpilih yang digunakan untuk mencapai objektif kajian ini. Kajian ini secara
jelas telah menyumbang kepada ilmu pengetathuan berkenaan kaedah yang sesuai untuk
menentukan kadar hakisan tanih di kawasan perladangan kelapa sawit di Malaysia dan
v
kadar sedimentasi dan penjanana semula sejarah tasik semulajadi, penilaian kualiti
sedimen yang terenap dan pelan pengurusan bersepadu untuk penggunaan tanah, air dan
pemuliharaan tanih yang mapan.
vi
ABSTRACT
The Bera Lake is a lacustrine system and the largest natural lake in Malaysia.
Assessment of literature review has highlighted a clear gap in the evaluation of
environmental impacts of anthropogenic activities on the soil and water resources and
sedimentary regime. Accordingly, determination of soil and nutrient redistribution in the
catchment area, and sedimentation rates, nutrients fate and sediment quality assessment at
Bera Lake using fallout 210
Pb and 137
Cs radioisotopes and sediment quality guidelines
have been defined as aims of the present research.
A comprehensive methodology was formulated to perform an effective literature
review, innovation of core sampler, field surveying, detailed experimental measurements,
mapping, and an advanced modeling. A wide range of models and a geo-referenced
“GIS-ready” data set have supported the designed methodology.
Application of fallout 137
Cs inventories and proportional model provide the mean
of soil erosion of 914±345, 117±36, and 70±35, t h-1
y-1
in cleared lands, immature and
mature oil palm plantations. A negative correlation between nutrient contents and the
extent of land development was established in the study area
Stratigraphic dates based on records of fallout 137
Cs and 210
Pb supply rates to Bera
Lake sediment columns have remained relatively constant. As a result, the CRS model is
applied for geochronology of Bera Lake sediments. The estimated maximum 210
Pb flux
and sedimentation rate were 159±2 Bq cm-2
y-1
and 2.56 cm y-1
, respectively in the semi-
closed area at the north of Bera Lake. The mean pre-1950 sedimentation rate was
0.08±0.02 g cm-2
y-1
(0.1±0.1cm y-1
), which indicate a uniform accumulation trend prior
to anthropogenic activities. Sedimentation rates raised were by 10 times since 1972
vii
following deforestation. Accordingly, a white sandy mud layer was deposited between
1972 and 1993 at the south, middle, and the north of Bera Lake at mean rates of
0.48±0.48, 0.54±1.2 and 0.17±0.12 g cm-2
y-1
.
Establishment of mature oil palm plantations are promoting biomass productivity
to 1.5 mil y-1
, dominates organic matters in run-off and accumulation of organic-rich
deposits at mean rate of 0.2±0.1 g cm-2
y-1
(1.3 cm y-1
) at the uppermost layer of Bera
Lake sediment sequence since 1994. Overall sedimentation rates in Bera Lake basin
using 210
Pb date and CRS model, fallout 137
Cs and proportional model, and trap
efficiency and sediment discharge values were 0.99, 1.025, and 1.11 cm y-1
, respectively.
Sediment quality guidelines have shown that lake deposits severely polluted by
As and the north part polluted by Fe. Besides, Bera Lake sediment profiles are
moderately polluted by Cu, Cr, and Ni. A clear eutrophication in Bera Lake has occurred
due to deforestation phases in the catchment area.
To sum up, achievements have confidently approved capability of selected
methods to achieve the research objective. Present study has remarkably contributed in
knowledge due to formulation of the suitable method to estimate soil erosion in oil palm
plantations in Malaysia, and sedimentation rates and reconstruction history of a natural
lake, assessment of sediment quality and an integrated management plan for a sustainable
land use and conservation of water and soil.
viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost I offer my sincerest gratitude to my supervisors, Professor, Dr.
John Kuna Raj and Associate Professor Dr Ismail Yusoff, and Co-supervisors, Professor,
Dr. Zainudin Othman and Associate Professor, Dr. Wan Zakaria Wan Muhamad Tahir,
whose encouragement, supervision and support from the initial to the concluding level
enabled me to develop an understanding of the subject. I attribute the level of my Doctor
of Philosophy degree to their encouragement and effort and without them this thesis, too,
would not have been completed or written.
The great acknowledge go to Professor Dr. Dess Walling, Exeter University, UK
for his valuable advises to chose suitable model to estimate soil erosion at my study area.
I offer my sincerest gratitude to Professor Dr. Peter Appleby, Liverpool University, UK
for his great advises and geochronology calculation model to determine sedimentation
rate in Bera Lake. I would like to show my gratitude to Professor Dr. Lee Kheng Heng
and Professor Dr. Lionel Mabit, IAEA staff for their heartily helps to provide soil erosion
conversion models.
I am acknowledging the Soil Conservation and Watershed Management Research
Institute, Iran and Institute of Research Management and Monitoring (IPPP), University
Malaya for their valuable executory and financial supports to accomplish this research.
I would like to show my gratitude to Professor Dr. Azman A.Ghani the Head of
Geology Department for his great official supports and to Dr. Zal U’un Wan Mahmood,
Academic staff of Nuclear Malaysia, for advice and guidance the sediment age
calculation models. I owe my deepest gratitude to the Mr. Yii Mee Wo, Gama-
ix
Spectrometer Lab Manager, Nuclear Malaysia for his great guidance in the more esoteric
methods necessary to run Gama-spectrometer and deeply thank to technicians of Gama-
Spectrometer Lab, Mr. Ishak Kamarozaman, and Mr. Mr. Johari Abd Latif for their
effective helps during analysis of samples for radioisotopes inventory.
I would like to show my gratitude to my friend Mr. Muhammad Aqeel Ashraf, for
his kindly assistant to complete my writing up the thesis. I am also grateful to Mr. Mohd
Yusri Abdul Rahim, Hydrology Lab, Geology Department, for his kindly helps in
running the equipments especially during ICP-OES operation. I would like to thank to
RAMSAR site Director, Mr. Amin and Mr. Ahmad Farid Abu Bakar for their kindly
supports and helping in the field works.
I owe my deepest gratitude to my Parents, and my Brothers who gave me the
financial and moral supports. I am indebted to my many of my colleagues in Soil
Conservation and Watershed Management Research Institute for their contribution in the
official and departmental supports.
I offer the heartily and sincerest acknowledgment to my family members,
especially my wife, Mahboubeh Hadadfard, and my daughters, Zahra, Roghayeh, and
Sara, whose encouragement, assistance and support from the beginning to the concluding
level enabled me to accomplish this project.
Lastly, I offer my regards and blessings to all of those who supported me in any
respect during the fulfillment of the project and getting to the Doctor of Philosophy
degree.
Mohammadreza Gharibreza
x
This thesis is sincerely dedicated to my family.
Their support, encouragement, and constant assistance
have sustained me throughout my life
xi
CONTENTS
ABSTRAK ......................................................................................................................... iii
ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................. viii
TABLE OF FIGURES .................................................................................................... xvii
LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................... xxii
LIST OF ABBREVIATION .......................................................................................... xxiv
1. CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................1
1.1. An Introduction of Study Area ......................................................................1
1.2. Issues in Which the Research is Concerned ..................................................3
1.3. Problem Statement ........................................................................................3
1.4. Aims and Objectives .....................................................................................5
1.5. Outline of Research .......................................................................................6
2. Chapter II: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE...................................................8
2.1. Literature review ...........................................................................................8
2.2. Nature of Radioisotopes ................................................................................9
2.3. Analytical Methods .....................................................................................11
2.3.1. Radioisotopes Applications ................................................................12
2.3.1.1. Sedimentation Rate ...................................................................12
2.3.1.2. Soil Erosion ...............................................................................14
2.3.2. Sediment Quality Assessment ............................................................15
2.3.3. Historical Sediment Quality Assessment............................................16
2.3.4. Historical Variation in Nutrient Content ............................................16
2.3.5. Watershed Management .....................................................................17
2.4. Previous Studies of Bera Lake ....................................................................18
xii
2.5. Conclusions .................................................................................................20
3. CHAPTER III: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .......................................................22
3.1. Introduction .................................................................................................22
3.2. Field Studies ................................................................................................22
3.2.1. Pre-field Works ...................................................................................23
3.2.2. Core Sampling ....................................................................................26
3.2.2.1. Sampling Strategy .....................................................................28
3.2.3. Hydrographic Operation .....................................................................32
3.2.4. Water and Sediment Discharge ..........................................................33
3.2.5. Soil Sampling......................................................................................35
3.2.6. In-situ water Quality Recording .........................................................38
3.3. Experimental Studies ..................................................................................38
3.3.1. Soil and Sediment Cores Preparation .................................................39
3.3.2. Radioisotopes Analysis .......................................................................41
3.3.3. Chemical and Pollution Analysis ........................................................42
3.3.3.1. Quality control ...................................................................................43
3.3.4. Nutrient Content Analysis ..................................................................45
3.3.5. Soil and Sediment Physical Properties Analysis ................................46
3.4. GIS Studies .................................................................................................47
3.4.1. Map Development ..............................................................................48
3.4.1.1. Physiographic Maps ..................................................................48
3.4.1.2. Geology Maps ...........................................................................48
3.4.1.3. Land use Maps ..........................................................................49
3.4.1.4. Bathymetric Map.......................................................................49
3.4.1.5. Water quality Maps ...................................................................49
xiii
3.4.1.6. Sedimentation Map ...................................................................49
3.4.1.7. Soil Map ....................................................................................50
3.4.1.8. Soil Erosion Map ......................................................................50
3.4.1.9. Nutrient content Map ................................................................51
3.5. Modeling .....................................................................................................51
3.5.1. Geo-chronological Models .................................................................51
3.5.1.1. The Constant Rate of Supply CRS Model ................................52
3.5.1.2. The Constant Initial Concentration CIC Model ........................54
3.5.1.3. The Limitation of Models .........................................................55
3.5.2. Soil Redistribution Models .................................................................57
3.5.3. Ecological Risk Assessment Models ..................................................60
3.5.4. Comparison of Heavy Metal Concentration with Standard Levels ....63
3.5.5. Grain Size and Statistics Programme .................................................64
4. CHAPTER IV: STUDY AREA ...................................................................................66
4.1. Physiographic Particulars ............................................................................66
4.2. Geology .......................................................................................................72
4.2.1. Stratigraphy .........................................................................................74
4.2.1.1. Bera Formation .........................................................................74
4.2.1.2. Semantan Formation .................................................................76
4.2.1.3. Post-Semantan Formation Redbeds ..........................................78
4.2.1.4. Granitic rocks ............................................................................79
4.2.1.5. Quaternary Deposits ..................................................................80
4.2.2. Structural Geology ..............................................................................81
4.3. Climatology .................................................................................................85
4.4. Land Use .....................................................................................................88
xiv
4.5. Soil Type .....................................................................................................91
4.6. Hydrology ...................................................................................................93
4.7. Bathymetry ................................................................................................100
4.8. Water quality .............................................................................................102
4.9. Physical Properties of Bera Lake Sediment ..............................................115
4.9.1. Sediment Layers Stratigraphy ...........................................................123
4.9.1.1. Gray Mud to Sandy Mud (Layer 1) ........................................123
4.9.1.2. Gray to Dark Sandy Mud (Layer2) .........................................124
4.9.1.3. White Sandy Mud (Layer 3) ...................................................124
4.9.1.4. Organic-Rich Deposits (Layer 4) ............................................125
5. CHAPTER V: SEDIMENTATION RATE IN BERA LAKE ...................................127
5.1. Introduction ...............................................................................................127
5.2. 210
Pb and 137
Cs Inventories and 210
Pb Flux ...............................................127
5.3. Sedimentation Rate at the South of Bera Lake .........................................129
5.4. Sedimentation Rate at the Middle of Bera Lake .......................................134
5.5. Sedimentation Rate at the North of Bera Lake .........................................139
5.6. Discussion .................................................................................................144
6. CHAPTER VI: SOIL AND NUTRIENT REDISTRIBUTION AT THE BERA LAKE
CATCHMENT ...........................................................................................................152
6.1. Introduction ...............................................................................................152
6.2. 137Cs Inventory in Soil Samples ................................................................152
6.3. Soil loss estimation ...................................................................................156
6.4. Nutrient Content in Bera Lake Catchment Soil Profile ............................163
6.5. Soil Accumulation Rate in Wetlands and Open Waters ...........................167
6.6. Soil Redistribution Mapping .....................................................................168
6.7. Discussion .................................................................................................170
xv
7. CHAPTER VII: CHEMICAL PROPERTIES AND QUALITY ASSESSMENT OF
BERA LAKE SEDIMENT ........................................................................................176
7.1. Introduction ...............................................................................................176
7.2. Background Concentration of Heavy Metals in Bera Lake Sediments.....176
7.3. Heavy metal Concentration in Bera Lake Sediments ...............................177
7.3.1. Pearson Correlation Coefficient .......................................................179
7.3.2. Cluster Analysis ................................................................................182
7.4. Bera Lake Sediment Quality .....................................................................186
7.5. Historical Ecological risk Assessment of Bera Lake Sediment ................191
7.5.1. Historical Ecological Risk Assessment at South of Bera Lake ........192
7.5.2. Historical Ecological Risk Assessment at the Middle of Bera Lake 195
7.5.3. Historical Ecological Risk Assessment at the North of Bera Lake ..198
7.6. Historical Variation of Nutrient Contents in Bera Lake Sediments ..........200
7.7. Discussion .................................................................................................208
8. CHAPTER VIII: CONCLUSION..............................................................................218
8.1. Introduction ...............................................................................................218
8.2. Sedimentation Rates ..................................................................................218
8.3. Soil Redistribution ....................................................................................221
8.4. Sediment Quality Assessment ...................................................................223
8.5. Nutrient Contents in Bera Lake Sediment ................................................225
9. CHAPTER IX: SUGESSTIONS and RECOMMENDATIONS ...............................228
9.1. Introduction ...............................................................................................228
9.2. Soil and Sediment Management Plan .......................................................230
9.2.1. Mechanical methods..................................................................................232
9.2.1.1. Soil Conservation ............................................................................232
9.2.1.2. Construction of Retention Pond ......................................................233
xvi
9.2.1.3. Check Dams ....................................................................................235
9.2.1.4. Stream Reintegrate ..........................................................................235
9.2.1.5. Terracing and Silt Pits .....................................................................237
9.2.2. Agronomic Methods .................................................................................238
9.2.2.1. Contour Line Cultivation .................................................................238
9.2.2.2. Crop Management ...........................................................................239
9.2.2.3. Mulching .........................................................................................241
9.2.2.4. Organic Waste and Organic Fertilizer .............................................242
9.2.3. Research and Monitoring ..........................................................................243
9.2.4. Socio-Economic Controlling .....................................................................245
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................247
PPENDIX 1: Documented land use history at BLC since 1972 ......................................274
xvii
TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1: Research outline and procedures ...................................................................... 7
Figure 2.1: Types of radiation from unstable isotopes (IAEA, 2001) .............................. 10
Figure 3.1a: The design and accessories of Core Sampler Type A .................................. 25
Figure 3-1b: The design and accessories of Core Sampler Type B .................................. 26
Figure 3.3: Some of core samples which were taken from Bera Lake ............................. 30
Figure 3.2: The bathymetric condition (m) and core sampling positions ......................... 31
Figure 3.4: Echosounder Garmin 400C and GPS used for hydrographic operation ......... 33
Figure 3.5: Discharge measurement at the south inlet of Bera Lake ................................ 34
Figure 3.6: Soil sampling integrated with land use at the BLC ........................................ 36
Figure 3.7: Sampling of soil using bulk core samplers ..................................................... 37
Figure 3.8: Utilizing scrapper plate to take reference soil samples .................................. 37
Figure 3.9: Water quality survey at Bera Lake using Hydrolab DS5 ............................... 39
Figure 3.10: Sliced samples before and after drying and charcoal content ...................... 40
Figure 3.11: Packing of soil and sediment samples before radioisotope counting ........... 40
Figure 3.12: Gamma-spectrometer model GCW2523 used in this study ......................... 41
Figure 3.13: Digestion using Perkin Elmer, Multiwave 3000 Oven ................................ 44
Figure 3.14: Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) Model Agilent
Technologies 7500 Series ......................................................................................... 44
Figure 3.15: PerkinElmer 2400 Series II CHNS/O Elemental Analyzer .......................... 45
Figure 3.16: Mechanical shaker and Master Seizer model MALVERN .......................... 47
Figure 3.17: Mean sedimentation rate by plotting In 210Pb against depth by CRS .......... 53
Figure 3.18: Mean sedimentation rate by plotting In 210Pb against mass depth by CIC .. 55
xviii
Figure 4.1: Geographical position of BLC in Peninsular Malaysia .................................. 67
Figure 4.2: The topographic map of BLC and surrounding area ...................................... 68
Figure 4.3: Digital elevation model of BLC ..................................................................... 69
Figure 4.4: Slope categories at BLC ................................................................................. 70
Figure 4.5: Stream pattern and sub-catchment of Bera Lake watershed .......................... 71
Figure 4.6: Geological map of Peninsular Malaysia after (Hutchison & Tan, 2009) ....... 73
Figure 4.7: Mesozoic stratigraphic column of Central Belt. (In Ismail et al., 2007) ........ 73
Figure 4.8: Geological map of BLC ................................................................................. 75
Figure 4.9: Bera Formation bedding and lithology in the east of the study area .............. 75
Figure 4.10: Thick outcrop of mudstone, Bera Formation at the twelfth sub-catchment . 76
Figure 4.11: Structural setting of Semantan Formation (Hutchison & Tan, 2009) .......... 77
Figure 4.12: Lithological sequence of Semantan Formation in BLC ............................... 78
Figure 4.13: Historical sedimentation profiles in Bera Lake, after Wüst & Bustin (2004)
................................................................................................................................... 81
Figure 4.14: Structural zones of Peninsular Malaysia (Hutchinson & Tan, 2009) ........... 83
Figure 4-15: Major fault trends in catchment with 5% frequency .................................... 84
Figure 4.16: Joint system appeared in the Semantan Formation ...................................... 84
Figure 4.17: Rose diagram showing direction of joints and fractures in study area ......... 85
Figure 4.18: Annual precipitation of Triang station 1966-1996 ....................................... 87
Figure 4.19: Long-term mean monthly rainfall between 1966 to1996 in Triang station . 88
Figure 4.20: Land use map of BLC .................................................................................. 90
Figure 4.21: Soil texture classification at BLC ................................................................. 93
Figure 4.22: Water and sediment discharge into and from Bera Lake, October, 2009 .... 96
xix
Figure 4.23: Water and sediment discharge into and from Bera Lake, February, 2010 ... 97
Figure 4.24: Water and sediment discharge into and from Bera Lake, April, 2010 ......... 98
Figure 4.25: Bera Lake water level fluctuations since 2007 ............................................. 99
Figure 4.26: Bera Lake cross section and bed morphology ............................................ 101
Figure 4.27: Bathymetric map of Bera Lake (accuracy1:500) ....................................... 102
Figure 4.28: Distribution of DO (mg l-1
) in Bera Lake, February, 2011 ........................ 105
Figure 4-29: Distribution of EC (mS cm-1
) in Bera Lake, February, 2011 ..................... 106
Figure 4.30: Distribution of TDS (mg l-1
) in Bera Lake, February, 2011....................... 107
Figure 4.31: Distribution of acidity (pH) in Bera Lake, February, 2011 ........................ 108
Figure 4.32: Distribution of NO32-
(mg l-1
) in Bera Lake, February, 2011 ..................... 109
Figure 4.33: Distribution of ammonium (mg l-1
) in Bera Lake, February, 2011 ............ 110
Figure 4.34: Distribution of chloride (mg l-1
) in Bera Lake, February, 2011 ................. 111
Figure 4.35: Stratigraphic layers of Bera Lake sediment profile .................................... 117
Figure 4.36: Grain size distributions along the master core 7 ........................................ 118
Figure 4.37: Northward bulk density variations in Bera Lake sediment profile ............ 121
Figure 4.38: Northward porosity variations in Bera Lake sediment profile ................... 122
Figure 5.1: Annual flux and distribution of 210
Pb in Bera Lake ..................................... 129
Figure 5.2: Geochronology of sediment Core 2, using 210
Pb dates and CRS model ...... 132
Figure 5.3: Geochronology of sediment Core 7, using 210
Pb dates and CRS model ...... 133
Figure 5.4: Geochronology of sediment Core 3, using 210
Pb dates and CRS model ...... 133
Figure 5.5: Mean sedimentation rates at Cores 2 and 3 using slope regression model .. 134
Figure 5.6: Geochronology of sediment Core 8, using 210
Pb dates and CRS model ...... 137
Figure 5.7: Geochronology of sediment Core 6, using 210
Pb dates and CRS model ...... 138
xx
Figure 5.8: Mean sedimentation rate at Core 8, using slope of the regression model .... 138
Figure 5.9: Geochronology of sediment Core 5, using 210
Pb dates and CRS model ...... 142
Figure 5.10: Geochronology of sediment Core 1, using 210
Pb dates and CRS model .... 142
Figure 5.11: Sediment distribution and sedimentation rate map of Bera Lake .............. 143
Figure 5.12: Correlation between deforestation phases and sedimentation rate ............. 146
Figure 5.13: Correlation between rainfall and sedimentation rate .................................. 146
Figure 6.1: Variation of 137
Cs inventory with depth at the reference site ....................... 154
Figure 6.2: 137
Cs inventories, soil loss and soil erosion rate for various land use types. 156
Figure 6.3: Intense surface erosion and its feature in exposed areas .............................. 157
Figure 6.4: Intense surface erosion observed at recent cleared and exposed lands ........ 161
Figure 6.5: Burning features was observed at the north of the study area ...................... 162
Figure 6.7: TN values at different land use districts ....................................................... 166
Figure 6.8: Soil erosion rate map of BLC ....................................................................... 170
Figure 7.1: Variation in Fe concentration prior and post land use changes (Core, 5) .... 177
Figure 7.2: Clusters and relationships between metalloid elements in Core 2 ............... 184
Figure 7.3: Clusters and relationships between metalloid elements in Core 6 ............... 184
Figure 7.4: Clusters and relationships between metalloid elements in Core 4 ............... 185
Figure 7.5: Clusters and relationships between metalloid elements in Core 5 ............... 185
Figure 7.6: Clusters and relationships between metalloid elements in Core 1 ............... 186
Figure 7.7a, b: Contamination levels in compare with the Sediment Quality Guidelines
................................................................................................................................. 188
Figure 7.7c, d, e: Contamination levels in compare with the Sediment Quality Guidelines
................................................................................................................................. 189
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Figure 7.7f, g, h: Contamination levels in compare with the Sediment Quality Guidelines
................................................................................................................................. 190
Figure 7.8: Historical changes of EF value at the south of Bera Lake ........................... 195
Figure 7.9: Historical changes of EF value at the middle of Bera Lake ......................... 197
Figure 7.10: Historical changes of EF value at the north of Bera Lake.......................... 200
Figure 7.11: Historical variations of nutrient contents at the middle of Bera Lake ........ 202
Figure 7.12: Historical variations of nutrient contents at the north of Bera Lake .......... 202
Figure 7.13: Charcoals found from different layers in the core samples ........................ 203
Figure 7.14: Similarities in chemical media of elements and TOC and TN at Core 6 ... 205
Figure 7.15: Similarities in chemical media of elements and TOC and TN at Core 5 ... 205
Figure 7.16: Clear increment of organic carbon at the north of Bera Lake since 1980 .. 216
Figure 7.17: Nitrogen content in Bera Lake and deforestation phases ........................... 217
Figure 9.1: A comprehensive management plan, suggested for Bera Lake catchment .. 231
Figure 9.1: Soil erosion risk depicts priority management risk practices in study area . 233
Figure 9.3: Suggested retention ponds at Bera Lake sub-catchments ............................ 234
Figure 9.4: Reduction in water way capacity due to sedimentation ............................... 236
Figure 9.5: Retrogressive bank erosion at BLC .............................................................. 237
Figure 9.6: Diagram of planting terrace construction (after Turner& Gillbanks, 2003) 238
Figure 9.7: Feasibility of mature oil palm integrate into cattle feeding .......................... 241
Figure 9.8: Application of empty fruit bunches for soil redistribution controlling ........ 243
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Physical properties of radionuclides (IAEA, 2001) ..........................................11
Table 3.1: Quality control results of ICP-MS using SRMs (4354) freshwater lake
sediment standard samples ...........................................................................................43
Table 3.2: CRS model running for calculation of sediment date, and flux .......................54
Table 3.2: List of parameter requirements for individual models .....................................58
Table 3.4 Sediment quality indices which were applied in this study (mg kg-1
) ...............63
Table 4.1: Physiographic and drainage characteristics of Bera Lake watershed ...............70
Table 4.2: Land use and natural land cover of BLC ..........................................................89
Table 4.3: Soil particle size distribution at different land use areas ..................................92
Table 4.4: Contribution of water and sediment entry points in Bera Lake ........................95
Table 4.5: Water quality characters of Pos Iskandar open water, IBP, 1972 ..................103
Table 4.6: Bera Lake in-situ water quality sampling results ...........................................104
Table 4.6: Bera Lake water quality based on NWQS and WQI guidelines .....................112
Table 4.7a: Sediment size distribution in master core 7 and statistical parameters .........118
Table 4.7c: Sediment size distribution in master core 7 and statistical parameters .........118
Table 4.7d: Sediment size distribution in master core 7 and statistical parameters ........119
Table 4.7e: Sediment size distribution in master core 7 and statistical parameters .........119
Table 4.7f: Sediment size distribution in master core 7 and statistical parameters .........119
Table 4.7g: Sediment size distribution in master core 7 and statistical parameters ........120
Table 4.8: Mean bulk density (g cm-3
) of Bera Lake sediment layers .............................120
Table 5.1: 210
Pb inventory and flux in sediments cores ...................................................128
Table 6.1: 137
Cs inventory, grain size distribution, and classification of studied samples155
Table 6.2: Soil loss, erosion magnitude, and erosion rate at BLC ...................................160
Table 6.3 Nutrient contents, 137
Cs inventory, and physical properties of soil samples ...164
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Table 6.4: 137
Cs inventory and accumulation rate in wetlands and open waters samples167
Table 7.1: Major and minor metals background levels in Bera Lake ..............................177
Table 7.3: Strong positive correlation (r-value>0.7) between metalloid elements..........183
Table 7.4: Contamination factor and degree of contamination for cores 2, 5, and 6 .......193
Table 7.5: Ecological risk index for individual metals and for basin in Cores 2, 5, and 6194
Table 7.6: POC (dry weight) content in analyzed samples of master Cores 2, 5, and 6 ..204
Table 9.1: Agro forestry system, The Third National Agriculture Policy (Ahmad, 2001)239
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LIST OF ABBREVIATION
AWB : Asian Wetland Bureau
BLC : Bera Lake Catchment
BP : Before Present
Bq m-2
: Becquerel per square Meter
Bq m-2
y-1
: Becquerel per square Meter per Year
CBSQG : Consensus-Based Sediment Quality Guidelines of Wisconsin
cm y-1
: Centimeter per Year
CF:CS : Constant Flux: Constant Supply
Cf : Contamination Factor
CIC : Constant initial concentration model
Cl- : Chloride
CRS : Constant rate of supply model
CV : Coefficient of Variation
137Cs : Fallout Caesium-137 Radionuclide
DEM : Digital Elevation Model
DWNP : Department of Wildlife and National Parks
Df : Degree of Contamination
DO : Dissolved Oxygen
EC : Electric conductivity
EF : Enrichment Factor
EFB : Empty Fruit Bunches
EIA : Environmental Impact Assessment
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Er : Potential Ecological Risk Factor for Individual Metal
FELDA : Federal Land Development Authority
FWHM : Full Width at Half Maximum
GC : Gas Chromatographic
GIS : Geographical Information System
g cm-3
: Gram per cubic Centimeter
H3BO4 : Boric Acid
HCA : Hieratical cluster analysis
HCl : Chloride Acid
HF : Fluoride Acid
HNO31-
: Nitrate Acid
LDO : Lowest Dissolved Oxygen
LEL : Lowest Effect Level
LGM : Last Glacial Maximum
ICP-MS : Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry
ICP-OES : Inductively Coupled Plasma Optic Emission Spectrometry
IAEA : International Atomic Energy Agency
Igeo : Index of Geoaccumulation
IRBM : Integrated River Basin Management
ISQG : Interim Fresh Water Sediment Quality
IWRM : Integrated Water Resource Management
MACRES : Malaysian Centre for Remote Sensing
MPOB : Malaysian Oil Palm Board
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mg l-1
: Milligram per Liter
mg kg-1
: Milligram per Kilogram
MnCO3 : Manganese Carbonate
NH4+1
: Ammonia
NE-SW : North East- South West
NO32-
: Nitrate
NO2-1
: Nitrate
NW-NE : North West-North East
NWQS : National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia
210Pb : Fallout Lead-210 Radionuclide
PEL : Probable Effect Level
PFE : Permanent Forest Estate
pH : Acidity
POC : Particular Organic Carbon
PO4 : Phosphate
PPM : Per Part Million
RI : Potential Ecological Risk Factor for Basin
QAQC : Quality Assurance and Quality Control
SQG : Sediment Quality Guidelines
SEL : Severe Effect Level
SRM : Standard Reference Material
SW : South West
t h-1
y-1
: ton per hectare per year
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TCD : Thermal Conductivity Detection
TDS : Total Dissolved Solid
TOC : Total Organic Carbon
TN : Total Nitrogen
USLE : Universal Soil Loss Equation
WGS : World Geographic Coordinate System