Research philosophy
Session outlineWhy ‘philosophy’ ?Overview of research philosophiesSome more common philosophical
approachesHow to determine your own
research philosophyLet’s philosophise
Why philosophy ?All research is based on assumptions
about how the world is perceived about how we can best come to understand it.
Nobody really knows how we can best understand the world
Philosophers have been arguing about it for 1000s of years,
For us, as researchers, need to consider how we know about the world around us. What is our philosophical approach to knowledge?
Epistemology vs MethodologyEpistemology is ‘how we come to know’Methodology is ‘how we come to know’
Epistemology is the philosophy of knowledgeMethodology is the practical ways, the
methods used to gain knowledge
Inextricably linked of course
One philosophical view - positivismthe goal of knowledge is simply to describe the
phenomena that we experiencestudy what we can observe and measureImpossible to know about anything elsedeductive reasoning to postulate theories that we can
testempiricism -- the idea that observation and
measurement is the core of the scientific endeavourMain method is the experiment, the attempt to discern
natural laws through direct manipulation and observation
What makes this view of the world attractive?Why have many researchers moved away from this
approach?
The enlightenment?Post-positivismRejection of positivist ideas has lead to an array
of alternative approachesOne end of post-positivismcritical realism - there is a reality independent
of our thinking about it that science can study. Recognizes that all observation is fallible and has error and that all theory is revisable
The other post-positivist extremeSubjectivism - there is no external reality . It’s
all in our heads!
Post-positivism generallyMultiple measures and observations, each of which
may possess different types of error, triangulation across these multiple errorful sources
to try to understand better what's happening in reality.
all observations are theory-ladenAll researchers are inherently biased by their
cultural experiences, world views etcMost post-positivists are constructivists who
believe that we each construct our view of the world based on our perceptions of it
objectivity by triangulation across multiple fallible perspectives. Thus, objectivity is not the characteristic of an individual, it is inherently a social phenomenon
Objectivity without positivism?“ The best way for us to improve the objectivity of
what we do is to do it within the context of a broader contentious community of truth-seekers (including other scientists) who criticize each other's work. The theories that survive such intense scrutiny are a bit like the species that survive in the evolutionary struggle. (This is sometimes called the natural selection theory of knowledge and holds that ideas have 'survival value' and that knowledge evolves through a process of variation, selection and retention). They have adaptive value and are probably as close as our species can come to being objective and understanding reality”
William Trochim, (2002) Research Methods Knowledgebase
PhenomenologyPhenomenology is sometimes considered a
philosophical perspective as well as an approach to qualitative methodology. It has a long history in several social research disciplines including psychology, sociology and social work. Phenomenology is a school of thought that emphasizes a focus on people's subjective experiences and interpretations of the world. That is, the phenomenologist wants to understand how the world appears to others.
Key Features of Positivist and Phenomenological Paradigms
Phenomenological paradigm Positivist paradigm
Basic beliefs:
Science is driven by human interest Observer is independent
The world is socially constructed and subjective Science is value-free
Observer is part of what is observed The world is external and objective
Researchers should:
Try to understand what is happening Focus on facts
Develop ideas through induction from evidence Formulate and test hypotheses
Focus on meanings Look for causality and fundamental laws
Look at totality of each situation Reduce phenomena to simplest elements
Preferred methods:
Small samples investigated in depth or over time Take large samples
Use multiple methods to establish different views of phenomena Operationalise concept so they can be measured
Easterby-Smith, Thorpe & Lowe 1994 pp. 27
Positivist paradigm Phenomenological paradigm
Basic beliefs:
The world is external and objectiveObserver is independentScience is value-free
The world is socially constructed and subjectiveObserver is part of what observedScience is driven by human interests
Researcher should:
focus on factslook for causality and fundamental lawsreduce phenomena to simplest eventsformulate hypotheses and then test them
focus on meaningstry to understand what is happeninglook at the totality of each situationdevelop ideas through induction form data
Preferred methods include:
operationalising concepts so that they can be measuredtaking large samples
using multiple methods to establish different views of phenomenasmall samples investigated in depth or over time
Validity Does an instrument measure what it is supposed to measure?
Has the researcher gained full access to the knowledge and meanings of informants?
Reliability Will the measure yield the same results on different occasions (assuming no real change in what is to be measured)?
Will similar observations be made by different researchers on different occasions?
Generalisability What is the probability that patterns observed in a sample will also be present in the wider population from which the sample is drawn?
How likely is it that ideas and theories generated in one setting will also apply in other settings?
Positivist viewpoint
Phenomenological viewpoint
Deductive vs Inductive reasoning
Circular model of research processInductive: begin at A
(observation/description), proceed to B (analysis), arrive at C (explanation)
Deductive: begin at C (hypothesis), proceed to A (gathering data to test hyp), proceed to B to test hyp against data
A: observation/ description
B: Analysis
C: Explanation/ Hypotheses/ Theory
How to determine your own research philosophyConsider your own research
background/experienceConsider your topic (theoretical basis, research
subjects, desired knowledge etc)Read widely on research philosophy – there are
many often contrasting and contradictory viewsMany more specific views eg relativism,
subjectivism, hermeneutics, deconstructivism, constructivism, feminism etc.
Engage in philosophical debate with peers, supervisors, yourself
Show this in your thesis, building a case for your own philosophical stance
Let this then lead your methodology
ConclusionsThere is no right or wrong research
philosophy, but a well argued case for the one you prefer showing understanding of alternatives
Your research philosophy will guide your methodology and your overall approach to your PhD
It’s hard but vital! An understanding of alternative philosophies will make you a much better researcher.
Further readingMany books and articles on thisLook for ones in your area of research as well
as general social science/business researchUse seminal texts as well as up to date
books/articles –the debate continues.Look at the approaches of other researchers
in your field of study
Review exercises
1. Read the short article ‘Toward a research philosophy’ and critique the author’s approach to research methodology
2. You are interested in examining management stress in particular kinds of organisations. You want to find out as much as you can about how it manifests itself in particular workplaces. In pairs debate whether this should be approached from a positivist or post-positivist/phenomenological perspective (one to play role of positivist other critical realist or phenomenologist)
3. Repeat the above for your own PhD topics. 4. Read ‘All research is interpretive’ and consider the
implications of this philosophical view (homework).