Research Methodology
&
Technical Writing.
Presented
By
Dr. K.T.Subhaschandra.Govt. R.C.Collge of Commerce
Bangalore – 560 001
Meaning & Significance of Research in Management. Different Approaches to ResearchScientific methods and non-scientific methodsTypes of Research: Historical Studies
Case Studies Case Studies Survey & Experimental Studies
Criteria of Good ResearchThe Manager and Researcher Relationship.
Module – 1.
Meaning and Definition of Research A search for knowledge/Movement from known to unknown or a voyage of
Discovery because of inquisitiveness or sprit of inquiry or curiosity. A systematic search for an answer to a question or a solution to a problem
is called research. Search for Facts/ Facts finding Answer to a questions and solutions to problems. It is purposive investigation or organised enquiry. Search for facts should be made by scientific method rather than by
arbitrary method then only we can get verifiable and accurate facts. Research is a scientific and systematic search for pertinent
information on a specific topic.
Module – 1.
Definition of Research 1. “A careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts
in any branch of knowledge is called research”- The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary.
2. As per Pauline v. Young A social research is “ the systematic method of discovering new facts or verifying old facts, their sequences, inter-relationships, causal explanations and the natural laws which govern them.”
3. Black and champion, “scientific research consists of obtaining information through empirical observation that can be used for the systematic development of logically related propositions attempting to establish causal relations among variables.”
4. Clifford Woody defines “research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggest solutions; collecting, organising and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulated hypothesis.”
Thus, Research is an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its advancement. It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and experiment. In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of inquiry for finding solution to a problem is research.
Characteristics of Research Systematic and critical investigation into a
phenomenon
Not a mere compilation, but purposive
investigation
Adopts scientific method
It is objective and logical,
Based on empirical evidence
Desired towards finding answers to pertinent
questions, and solutions to problems
It develops generalization, principles or theories
Test of criticism
Objectives of Research The main aim of research is to find out the TRUTH which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, the various research objectives fall into the following broad groupings:
• To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it. They are termed as exploratory / formulative research studies.
• To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual situation or a group. They are called descriptive research studies.
• To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else. They are called as diagnostic research studies.
• To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variable. they are called hypothesis testing research studies.
Other objective or purpose of Research Research extends Knowledge by Research findings. It answers
various types of questions: what, where, how and why or various phenomena and enlighten us.
Research brings to light information that might never be discovered fully during the ordinary course of life. For Ex; marketing research could result in discovery of new uses for old product.
It establishes generalisations and general laws and contributes to theory building in various fields of knowledge.
It verifies and tests existing facts and theory / hypothesis and help improving our knowledge and ability to handle situation & events.
It enable us to make reliable predictions of events yet to happen. Research aims to analyse inter-relationships between variables and
to derive causal explanations;
Applied Research aims at finding solutions to problems… Socio-economic problems (e.g., social unrest, unemployment, poverty) health problems, human relations problems in organisations and so on.
It also aims at developing new tools, concepts and theories for a
better study of unknown phenomena.
Research aids planning and thus contributes to national
development.
Analytical studies of internal and external environment of
business and non-business organisations provides factual data
for rational decision making – formulation of strategies and
polices. Studies of their operational problems contribute to an
improvement in their performance.
Motivation in ResearchThe possible motives for doing research may be any one or more of the following:
a) Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
b) Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical problems initiates research;
c) Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
d) Desire to be of service to society;
e) Desire to get respect.f) Others factors Viz., directives of government/government
authorities, employment conditions, curiosity about new things, desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening and so on.
Research in Business or Business ResearchBusiness Research is a systematic enquiry that provides
information to guide managerial decisions.The systematic and objective process of gathering,
recording and analyzing data for aid in making business decisions.
More specifically, Business Research is a processes of planning, acquiring, analysing and disseminating relevant data, information and insights to decision makers in ways that mobilise the organisation to take appropriate actions that, in turn, maximise business performance.
Most of the Business Research are applied research assumes importance since it is problem-oriented and decision-oriented.
There are lots of research topics in business a few such topics are :1. Marketing policy:
– Pricing• Advertising• Service• Channels of distribution• Customer relation
2. Market Research1. Brand name generation and testing2. Test market3. Product testing of existing products4. Package design studies5. Competitive product studies6. Demand analysis – market potential7. Sales potential and sales forecasts8. Competitive pricing analysis 9. Plant/warehouse location studies10. Channel performance studies
3. Research for financial decisions• Research on cost of capital and capital structure
• Research on risk-return-patterns of projects
• Research on working capital management
• Research on capital structure
4. Research for personnel decisions• Research on employee motivation
• Research on training and development
• Research on leadership: traits, absenteeism and job satisfaction.
Factors stimulating our Interest in Studying Business Research Methods Explosive growth and influence of the Internet. Stakeholders demand to be included in company decision
making process. Competition, both at Global and Domestic level is
growing and often coming from unexpected sources. More Government Interventions. Manager to consider more variables in making decision
so, increases manager’s need for better insight from such information
The quality of Management theories & models to explain tactical & strategic results in HR, Marketing, Operations & finance is improving by providing managers with more Knowledge.
Availability of Greater Computing power & Speed and in turn it offers following advantage; Lower Cost of collection and processing of data. Better visualisation tools & High-speed downloads of images
allow researchers to help people visualise complex concepts, which enriches measurement capabilities.
Sophisticated techniques of quantitative analysis are emerging to take advantage of powerful computing capability.
Data-warehousing & Data-mining help more integration of data. MIS, EIS, ERP, E-CRM, & Expert Systems facilitates more and
faster access to information.
New perspectives on established Research Methodologies.
Approaches to ResearchThere are two basic approaches viz.,A. Quantitative Approach: It involves the generation of data
in quantitative form, which can be subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis in formal and rigid fashion.
Types of Quantitative Approach:1. Inferential Approach:
This approach is to form a database from which to infer characteristics or relationships of population.
Research usually means Survey Research where a sample of population is studied.
It is studied (Questioned/observed) to determine its characteristics, and it is then inferred that the population has the same characteristics.
2. Experimental Approach:Characterized by much greater control over the research environment and in this case some variables are manipulated to observe their effect on other variables.
3. Simulation Approach:It involves the construction of an Artificial environment within which relevant information & data can be generated.This permits an observation of dynamic behaviour of a system (or its sub-system) under controlled conditions.The term “Simulation” in the context of business and social sciences applications refers to “the operation of a numerical model that represents the structure & the structure of dynamic process., given the values of initial conditions, parameters & exogenous variables, a simulation is run to represent the behaviour of the process over time.Simulation approach can also be useful in building models for understanding future conditions.
B. Qualitative Approach It is concerned with subjective assessment of attitudes,
opinions & beaviour. It is function of research’s insights & impressions. This approach to research generates results either in non
quantitative form or in the form which are not subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis.
Generally, the techniques of focus group interviews, projective techniques and depth interviews are used in the methodology of research.
Scientific Method; Research is a scientific Endeavour it involves scientific method.
It is a systematic step-by-step procedure following the logical processes of reasoning.
It is a means of gaining knowledge of the Universe. Science is independent of any particular subject matter. It is an objective, logical and systematic method of analysis of
phenomena, devised to permit the accumulation of reliable knowledge.
Basis of Scientific Methods:1. Reliance on evidence: Truth is established on the basis of
evidences, conclusion is admitted only when it is based on evidence.
2. Use of relevant concepts
3. Commitment to objectivity. It is the hallmark of the scientific method. i.e., basing conclusion on facts.
4. Ethical neutrality: It does not say that they are good or bad.
5. Generalisation: Science aims generalisation of facts.
6. Verifiability: The conclusions arrived at by a scientist should be verifiable.
7. Logical reasoning process: It involves logical process reasoning. Reasoning process is used for drawing inference from the finding of a study or for arriving at conclusion.
INDUCTION METHOD:It is one of the method of logical reasoning process. It consists of studying several individual cases and drawing a generalisation. It involves observation and generalisation. Conclusions from Induction are tentative inferences and they are subject to further confirmation based on more evidences.
DEDUCTION METHOD:It is regarded as “reasoning from the general to the particular”This method establishes a logical relationships between a major premise, a minor premise and a conclusion. Ex: “all men are mortal, A is a man Conclusion is A is mortal”
Requisites of a Scientific Method• Careful and logical analysis of the problem.• Definition of terms, concepts and statistical units and measures
so that others can understand exactly and be able to repeat the analysis and test generalisation.
• Collection of data pertinent to the problem under study.• Classification of data.• Expression of variables in quantitative terms whenever possible• Rigorous & exacting experimental or statistical procedure in
summarising the data.• Sound logical reasoning as to the testing of hypothesis &
drawing generalisations.• Statement s in unusable terms of the exact conclusion arrived
from the finding.• Specific & clear statement of generalisation to facilitate checking
& testing by others.• Complete elimination of personal equation. • Complete & careful reporting of the research process.
Component of Scientific ApproachI. Procedural Components:
Define the problem/research topic Establish hypothesis as cause and effect or solution to a problem. Collect data. Analyse the data & test hypothesis. Draw inferences.
II. Scientific Attitude: Consistent thinkingObjective, dispassionate & unbiased devotion to collection & treatment of fact.Overcoming personal preconception & value judgmentAvoid personal & vested interest Avoid wishful thinking .Stubborn determination to analyse one’s own system of thinking & taking nothing for granted without evidence, tests & proofsFaith in the universality of cause & effectArdent curiosity & love of experimental enquirySelf – Control Keeping an open-mind.
Research & Theory:Theory provides conceptual model for research, Research in turn
contributes to theory. One of the myths about the theory is “It is perceived as speculative or
unsubstantiated or unrealistic or ivory – tower ideas.”
Kerlinlger Fred.N defines theory as “ A set of systematically interrelated concepts, definitions, and propositions that are advanced to explain and predict phenomena/facts.”
A theory may not only explain or predict phenomena, but also specify causal relationships among variables or hypothesis. Example: “ the standard of living of a family is the function of its income, size and life style.”
Theories start out as ideas. It is the extent to which ideas conform to basic demands of proposition, formulation that determines whether or not they will assume the stature of theory.
Theory and facts are interrelated. While a fact is an “empirically verifiable observation and cannot produce a body of knowledge. A theory specifies the relationships between facts or order them in a meaningful way. When the related facts are gathered and studied , the development of science can take place.
Criteria of TheoryThey must be logically consistent. There must be no internal contradictions.
They must be interrelated
The statements must be exhaustive as to cover the full range of variations concerning the nature of the phenomena in question.
The propositions should be mutually exclusive
They must be capable of being tested through research.
Components of Theoretical ideas:Assumptions and ideas: they consist of testable premises about the nature of selected aspect or selected aspects of social life.
They identify the major dimensions of social life that will be subjected to empirical scrutiny. i.e., theory provides Frames of reference.
Concepts are abstractions: for example: group, motivation, democracy.
Variables are relational units of analysis that can assume designated sets of values. E.g., age, educational level, income
Propositions are statements between or among variables
theory is the end – product of the above components
Theory V/s Hypothesis.
A hypothesis is formulated before empirical evidences or
facts are gathered. It deals with a narrow range of ideas. It is a
preliminary assumption adopted for the explanation of a
phenomenon. A theory, on the other hand, is a generalisation
arrived at after verification and it deals with a broader range of
facts. It is one of the sources of hypotheses.
The assembled facts are transformed by a researcher into
constructs. The constructs are then assembled into a provisional
hypothesis. When is tested and verified and found to be true, it is
designated as a scientific theory. When the theory is tested and
accepted by scientists as correct under the same conditions, it is
regarded as a law.
Use of Theory in Research
Theory is useful:• In suggesting a problem / topic for study.
• In perdition of further facts
• In giving a hypothesis to be tested’
• In providing a conceptual model for delimiting the scope of the study.
• In helping selection of variables or identification of classes of data to be collected,
• In making research findings intelligible.
Theory also points outs gap in knowledge.
Contribution of Research to Theory
• Research initiates theory: i.e., the findings of research may lead to the formulation of theories.
• Research tests an existing theory
• Reformulation of an existing theory
• Research refocuses theory.
• Research clarifies theory.
To sum up, a research should use theory to plan and direct his lines of study, but use empirical observations to test and refine his theoretical propositions.
Conceptual and Theoretical Model• Conceptual or theoretical model is a simplified systematic
conceptual structure of interrelated elements in some schematic form, such as narrative statement or mathematical equation. It describes relationships between and among concepts and variables.
• A model possess five different characteristics viz., level of analysis, boundaries, specificity, construct relationship statement, and assumptions.
Process of model building1. Identify the phenomenon to be represented by a model;
2. Determine the nature & purpose of analysis for which the model is constructed;
3. Gain a through understanding of the phenomenon through observation or survey or available literature relating to it;
4. Conceptualise its meaning and nature;
5. Identify the important variables and attributes;
6. Examine the nature of inter-relationships among them;
7. Formulate the structure of the inter-relationships; &
8. Presents the structure in the form of a precise statement or mathematical equation, defining the concepts, stating the assumptions and using the rules of logic.
Advantages of Models for Research.a) A model is a guiding tool for the entire process of research from the
conceptualization to analysis through the testing of hypotheses.
b) It enables the research to identify the concentrate on important & relevant variable.
c) It helps considerably in ensuring that the reasoning is sound
d) A model represents pictures of theories as such, it enables to grasp more quickly and comprehensively the sort of relation among variables postulated by theories.
e) It enables us to comprehend precisely the direction of the relations among variables
f) A model shows more Cleary the boundaries or conceptual limits of theories.
g) It reminds us the need for abstraction in any systematic investigation.
h) In social sciences it is impossible to conduct strictly controlled experiments. A series of models can serve as a reasonable substitute for controlled experiments by acting as a mental laboratory for identifying new relationships and clarifying thought.
i) A model suggests the techniques of analysis ways to interpretation of data and ways to draw conclusions.
Drawbacks of Models A model building calls for high levels of logical skills and
mathematical competence. Those who have expertise in constructing models may go too far
and they may be tempted to create abstract models unrelated to any real understanding of problem.
Some time Abstract models have a tendency to pose themselves as reality.
Model does not represent scientific progress, it comes nearer to being an intellectual fraud.
Models may suffer from the problem of inadequacy or the functional forms of mathematics.
In social sciences, there a tendency to present extremes or polar ends a dichotomies, for e.g., good/bad, formal/informal etc.,
Models narrow the full implications of theories so much that fruitful avenues of exploration not portrayed explicitly may be ignored.
Models tend to convey the impression that all the logically consistent dimensions have been included. This, however, is not always the case.
Social Science Research• The Social Sciences are behavioural sciences. The behaviour of
human beings is influenced by biological, psychological, socio–cultural, temporal and environmental factors. It is difficult to see the underlying uniformities in the diversity of complex human behaviour.
• The social science research is a systematic method of exploring, analysing and conceptualising human life in order to extend, correct or verify knowledge of human behaviour and social life. In other words social science research “seeks to find explanations to unexplained social phenomena, to clarify the doubtful, and correct the misconceived facts of social life.”
Objectives of Social Science Research. – To Discover new facts or verify and test old facts– To understand the human behaviour & its interaction with the environment & the
social institutions.– To find out the causal connection between human activities & natural laws governing
them.– To develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories which would facilitate reliable
and valid study of human behaviour and social life.
Functions of Social Science Research
• Discovery of facts and their interpretation: Research provides answer to questions of what, where, when, how and why man, social life and institutions. There are half-truths, pseudo-truths, and superstitions. Discovery of facts and their interpretation help us to discard such distortions and thus enlighten us and contribute to our understanding of social reality.
• Diagnosis of problems and their analysis; Problems like poverty, unemployment, economic imbalance, economic inequality, social tension, low productivity, technological backwardness ete., the diagnosis and analysis of such problems leads to an identification of appropriate remedial actions.
• Systematisation of knowledge: The facts discovered through research are systematised and the body of knowledge is developed.
• Control over Social Phenomena: Research in social areas equip us with first-hand knowledge about the working of society and its institutions in turn gives us a greater power of control over the social phenomena.
• Prediction: Prediction in social science may not be perfect but predictions will be fairly useful for better social planning and control.
• Development of Planning: Systematic Research can give us the required data base for planning designing developmental schemes and programmes. Analytical studies can illuminate critical areas of policy and testing the validity of planning assumptions. Evaluation studies point out the impact of plan, policies and programmes and throw out suggestions for their proper reformulation.
• Social Welfare: Social research can unfold and identify the causes of social evils and problems. It can thus help in taking appropriate remedial actions. It can also give us sound guidelines for appropriate positive measures of reform and social welfare.
Objectivity in Research• Objectivity means the willingness and ability to examine evidence
dispassionately. It is the first condition of research.
• Objectivity means basing conclusion on facts without any bias and value judgment or prejudices.
Factors affecting objectivity.
It is very difficult to achieve objectivity in social science research. This difficulty arises out of the adverse influence of the following factors.
Personal prejudice and biasesValue related problemsPersonal PreconceptionsEthical dilemmasSocial Phenomena
Achieving reasonable Objectivity in Social science Research
The following approaches and measures may contribute to some degree of objectivity.
1. Researcher must have utmost patience and self-control.
2. Researcher must have an open mind to subject his research process.
3. Research must use Standardized concepts.
4. Appropriate Quantitative i.e., Statistical and Mathematical techniques of analysis may be used, as they are free from subjective bias.
5. Group research will be more objective than an individual research.
6. Random sampling may be used, as it is free from personal prejudices.
Limitation of Social Science Research.• Social researcher - a part of what is studied.
• Complexity of the Subject Matter
• Human Problems
• Personal Values
• Dangers of temptation
• Wrong decisions.
Types and Methods of ResearchClassification of Research
According to the Intent According to the Methods of Study
Pure Research
Applied Research
Exploratory Research
Descriptive Study
Diagnostic Study
Evaluation Studies
Action Research
Experimental Research
Analytical Study
Historical Research
Survey.
Case Studies
Field Studies
Pure Research. This type of research is undertaken for the sake of knowledge without any intention to apply it in practice. Pure research is also known as basic or fundamental research. it is not necessarily problem-oriented. It aims at extension of knowledge and leads to either discovery of a new theory or refinement of an existing theory. It is the foundation of applied research. The findings of pure research formed the basis for innumerable scientific and technological inventions like steam engine, machines, automobiles, electronic gadgets, electronic data processing , telecommunication etc., which have revolutionised and enriched our human life.
Applied Research. Applied research is carried on to find solution to a real-life problem requiring an action or policy decision. It is thus problem-oriented and action-directed.
There is vast scope for applied research in the fields of technology, management, commerce, economics & other social science. They need empirical study for finding solutions. It may also contribute to the development of theoretical knowledge by leading to the discovery of new facts or testing of a theory or to conceptual clarity.
Contribution of Pure Research. • By developing principles, pure research offers solution to
many practical problems. For ex. Maslow’s theory of motivation serves as a guideline for formulation incentive schemes.
• Pure research helps to find the critical factors in a practical problem
• Pure research develops many alternative solutions and thus enables us to choose the best solution.
Contribution of Applied Research. Applied research can contribute new facts It puts theory to test. It may aid in conceptual clarification. It may integrate previously existing theories.
Exploratory or Formulative Research.Exploratory researcher is preliminary study of an
unfamiliar problem about which the researcher has little or no knowledge. It is similar to a doctor’s initial investigation of a patient suffering from an unfamiliar malady for getting some clues for identifying it “ it is ill-structured and much less focused on pre-determined objectives” it usually takes the form of a pilot study.
Purposes of exploratory research.
To generate new ideas or
To increase the researcher’s familiarity with the problem or
To make a precise formulation of the problem or
To gather information for clarifying concepts or
To determine whether it is feasible to attempt the study.
Levels of exploratory studies.
Katz conceptualises two levels of exploratory studies. The Discovery of the significant variables in the
situation; The Discovery of relationships between variables.
it is necessary to delimit the area to be studied even at th4e first level.
The Steps in Exploration
a) A Review of pertinent literature.
b) An Experience Survey.
c) An Analysis of ‘insight stimulating’ cases.
Descriptive ResearchDescriptive study is a fact-finding investigation with
adequate interpretation. It is more specific than an exploratory study, as it has focus on particular aspects or dimensions of the problem studied. It is designed to gather descriptive information and provides information for formulating more sophisticated studies. Data are collected by using one or more appropriate methods: observation, interviewing and mail questionnaire.
Criteria to be satisfied in the problem for conducting descriptive research
The problem must be describable & not arguable. The data should be amenable [agreeable] to an accurate, objective,
and if possible quantitative assemblage for reliability and significance.
It should be possible to develop valid standards of comparison. It should lend itself to verifiable procedure of collection and analysis
of data
Objective of Descriptive Research1. It aims at identifying the various characteristics of a community
or institution or problem under study, but it does not deal with the testing of propositions or hypotheses, However, it “ can reveal potential relationships between variables, thus setting the stage for more elaborate investigation later.”
2. A descriptive study also aims at a classification of the range of elements comprising the subject matter of study. The classification must satisfy two criteria, Viz., (1). Exhaustiveness & (2). Mutual exclusiveness. Exhaustiveness is achieved when all the important elements are identified. Mutual exclusiveness occurs when each item can be unambiguously placed in only one category in the system. Descriptive information should also be useful for explanation, prediction and awareness.
Usefulness of descriptive studies. Contribute to the development of a young science as descriptive
information can focus directly on a theoretical point Descriptive information can highlight important methodological
aspects of data collection and interpretation. Descriptive information obtained in a research may be useful for
prediction about areas of social life outside the boundaries of the research.
Descriptive studies are valuable in providing facts needed for planning social action programmes.
Limitations• It is not applicable to problems which cannot satisfy the required criteria.
• The researcher may make description an end in itself.
• Although social science problems are continuous and have past and a future, the researcher may lose himself in current conditions only.
• The researcher may tend to over-use statistics. In making statistical analysis.
Diagnostic StudyDiagnostic study is similar to Descriptive study but, with a different focus. It is directed towards discovering what is happening, why is it happening, and what can be done about. It aims at identifying the causes of a problem and the possible solutions for it.
Evaluation Studies.It is a type of applied research made for assessing the effectiveness of social or economic programmes implemented (for example: family planning scheme) or for assessing the impact of developmental projects (for example: irrigation projects) on the development of the project area. Such man defines evaluation as “ determination of the results attained by some activity ( whether a programme, a drug or a therapy or an approach) designed to accomplish some valued goal or objectives.
Types of Evaluations
Concurrent evaluation: it aims at the evaluation of the quality of implementation & serves as a feed back for improving the performance.
Periodic evaluation: this is made after each distinct phase of project has been completed.
Terminal evaluation: This is done after the completion of a programme or project.
Action Research.It is a type of evaluation study. It is a concurrent evaluation study of an action programme launched for solving a problem or improving an existing situation. In the quest for development, advancement, excellence and promotion of welfare of people, government, institutions and voluntary agencies undertake action programmes for achieving specific goals or objectives. Examples: Land reform programmes, agricultural extension programmes, social welfare programmes, HRD programmes, social welfare programmes, rural development programmes etc.
Experimental Research.Experimental research is designed to asses the effects of particular variables on a phenomenon by keeping the other variables constant or controlled. It aims at determining whether and in what manner variables are related to each other. The factor which is influenced by other factors is called a dependent variable. And the other factors which influence it are known as independent variables. The nature of relationship between independent variables and dependent variables is perceived and stated in the form of causal hypotheses. A closely controlled procedure is adopted to test them.
Analytical study or Statistical Method.Analytical study is a system of procedures and techniques
of analysis applied to quantitative data. It may consist of a system of mathematical models or statistical techniques applicable to numerical data. Hence it is also know as the Statistical Method.
• The study aims at testing hypothesis and specifying and interpreting relationships. It concentrates on analysing data in depth and examining relationships from various angles by brining in as many relevant variables as possible in the analysis plan.
• This method is extensively used in business and other fields in which quantitative numerical data are generated
• Data may be collected from either primary sources or secondary sources.
• There is vast scope for making analytical studies by using data published by various Departments of Government and institutions like RBI, Bureau of Public Enterprises, NABARD, Central Statistical Organisation.
Historical Research.Historical study is a study of past records & other information
sources with a view to reconstructing the origin and development of an institution or a movement or a system and discovering the trends in the past.
It is descriptive in nature. It is a difficult task; it must often depend upon inference and logical analysis of recorded data and indirect evidences rather than upon direct observation. Hence it is aptly described as “the induction of principles through research into the past and social forces which have shaped the present”.
Sources of Data for Historical Research.
• Eyewitness accounts narrated by an actual observer or participant in an event,
• Oral testimony by elders,• Records and other documentary materials : and • Leftovers (Relics).
The data available from there sources may be scattered and discontinuous and fragmented.
Steps in Historical Method.1. The Feasibility of the study should be examined.2. The selected problem should be formulated & plan of study
should be designed.3. The sources of data should be located.4. The genuineness of the sources and the validity of the facts
contained in them should be tested.5. Relevant facts should be collected from the authentic sources
and they should be checked and crossed-checked.6. The facts should be arranged into a logical sequence and this
synthesis of facts is the basis for rebuilding of the past situation.7. By adopting induction process meaningful interpretations and
generalizations should be made. The quality of a historical study depends on the relevance, adequacy and completeness of facts collected, their reliability, and the ingenuity of the researcher in classifying & integrating them and in drawing inferences.
Limitations & Difficulties in Historical Research. Reliable and adequate data may not be available.
It is also difficult to test the genuineness and authenticity of
sources and the data available from them. Personal biases and
private interpretations often enter unconsciously.
It is difficult to establish the time order of events.
Inferences may not be full or accurate.
The dispersal of documents is another limitation.
It is difficult to perceive the real significance of the data because
of their remote time period.
Precise measurements, verifications and application are not
possible.
Surveys.Survey is a “fact-finding” study. It is a method of research involving
collection of data directly from a population or a sample thereof at particular time. It must not be confused with the mere clerical routine of gathering and tabulating figures. It requires expert and imaginative planning, careful analysis and rational interpretation of the findings. Data may be collected by observation, or interviewing or mailing questionnaires. The analysis of data may be made by using simple or complex statistical techniques depending upon the objectives of the study.
The purpose of Surveys.1. The purpose of many surveys such as population census, socio-
economic surveys, expenditure surveys etc., is simply to provide information to government or planners or business enterprises.
2. Many enquires aim to explain phenomena. Their function is to test hypotheses to explain the causal relationships between variables and to access the influences of various factors on some phenomenon. like job-satisfaction, labour productivity & consumer behaviour. Surveys aiming at explanation involve in-depth analysis and complex interpretations.
3. Surveys may be designed to make comparisons of demographic groups. Comparison of behavioural or attitudinal groups can also be made.
4. Surveys concerned with cause and effect relationships can be useful for making predictions
Steps involved in a Survey.a. Selection of a problem & its formulationb. Preparation of the research design,c. Operationalisation of concepts & construction of measuring
indexes and scales.d. Samplinge. Construction of tools for collection of data and their pre-test.f. Field work and collection of datag. Processing of data and tabulation,h. Analysis of data, and i. Reporting.
Case Study A case study is an in-depth comprehensive study of a person, a social group, an episode, a process, a situation, a programme, a community, an institution or any other social unit.
Purpose of Case Study
• To understand the life cycle or the unit under study or
• Interaction between factors that explain the present status or
• The development over a period of time.
Some Example of Case studies are:A social anthropological study of a rural or tribal community.
A causative study of a successful cooperative society.
A study of the financial health of a business undertaking
A study of labour participation in management in a particular enterprise., ete.,
A study of life in slums
A study of urban poor., etc.,
Field Studies.Field studies are scientific enquires aimed at discovering
the relations and interactions among sociological, psychological and educational variables in real social structures and life situations like communities, schools, factories, organisations and institutions. A social or institutional situation is selected and the relations among the attitudes, values, perceptions and behaviours of individuals and groups in the selected situation are studied.
Examples of field studies are:
Dollard’s study of cast and class in a southern towns
Jone’s study of land and labour in a Deccan village
Aiyayappan’s study of social revolution in a Kerala village.
Steps in Research. In General the Research Process consists of the following steps:
1. Identification and selection of a research problem/topic.2. Review of literature; includes preliminary, systematic review &
notes taking.3. Formulation of selected problem/topic ie., definition or the
problem, conceptual mode, delimitation of the study, formulation of objectives of the study, and the hypotheses/investigating questions
4. Operationalisation of concepts; definition of concepts, construction of indexes/scales for measuring variables
5. Preparation of research plan: statement of the problem, objectives of the study, hypotheses, operational definition of concepts geographical area of the study, methodology ( type of research and methods of collection of data), sampling design, tools for collection of data, plan of analysis, over-view of the research report, time-schedule.
6. Construction of tools of data-collection: identification of data
needs, description of data sources, drafting observation schedule,
interview schedule/guide, mailed questionnaire and /or check lists
or experimental design, pre-testing and possible revision.
7. Collection of data: Experimental/field work, preparing sample
frame, drawing sample of respondents, interviewing
them/mailings questionnaires to them and follow-up.
8. Process of data: editing, coding, transcription, tabulation,
construction of tables and charts.
9. Analysis of data; Statistical treatment, testing hypotheses,
interpretation of findings.
10. Report-writing: Planning report writing work, drafting the report
and its finalisation.
In simple the steps in research are grouped as follows:1. Planning.
Selection of the problem/topic Formulation of the selected problem/topic Operationalisation of concepts Preparation of the research design Planning report-writing work.
2. Operation. Construction of tools of data collection Pre-testing tools and their revision Collection of data Processing of data Analysis of data & interpretation of results.
3. Reporting. Drafting the Report Finalisation of the Report Forwarding the Report copies to the target audience/ clients/users
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