Research Ethics – A focus on
PlagarismResearch Methodology Training Postgraduate Students, Tshwane
University of Technology,
Presented by Prof Khumbulani Mpofu
REC Faculty Representative: TUT Research
Ethics Committee – 2013 to 2016
http://j.static-locatetv.com/images/content/4/561463_head_games.jpg (10 Nov 2012)
‘IT IS REQUIRED IN STEWARDS
THAT A MAN BE FOUND
FAITHFUL.’
Plagiarism is presenting someone else’s work or ideas as your own, with or without their consent, by incorporating it into your work without full acknowledgement.
All published and unpublished material, whether in manuscript, printed or electronic form, is covered under this definition.
Plagiarism may be intentional or reckless, or unintentional.
https://www.ox.ac.uk/students/academic/guidance/skills/plagiarism?wssl=1
Plagiarize (and plagiarism) comes from the Latin plagiarius “kidnapper.”
This word, derived from the Latin plaga (“a net used by hunters to catch game”), extended its meaning in Latin to include a person who stole the words, rather than the children, of another.
When plagiarius first entered English in the form plagiary, it kept its original reference to kidnapping, a sense that is now quite obsolete.
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/plagiarize
“Research is finding out
the things that we don’t
know, while Ethics is doing
it in a way that does not
hurt anyone”
Ann RobertsonUniversity of Toronto
“Ethics refers to norms for
conduct that distinguish
between acceptable and
unacceptable behaviour”
David Resnik
RESNIK D.B. What is ethics in research & Why is it important?
http://www.niehs.nig.gov/research/resources/bioethics/whatis.cfm
❑ … responsibly attempt to figure
out right vs wrong, virtuous vs
vicious
❑ … take a pause to reason, not
merely check a list of have-to-
dos
ETHICS IS TO …
http://michaeljosephtherapy.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2008/07/balancing.jpg
❑ A right is a legitimate claim that
is independent of cultural
preferences (i.e. universal)
❑ Principle: Applies equally to
all by virtue of one’s status as a
human being; everyone has it
❑ Individual rights trump Social
utility → Primacy of human person
→ Avoid abusive decisions
HUMAN RIGHTS
http://www.juventudrebelde.co.cu/img/info/un-to-adopt-cuba-human-rights-report-2009-02-09.jpg
❑ Function: To provide a framework
which enables people to choose
(determine) the course of their
own lives → Self-responsibility
❑ Autonomy (self-determination) vs
Paternalism (“expert” knows what
is “good” for others)
http://1stchoiceam.com/resources/_wsb_514x414_Direction.jpg
HUMAN RIGHTS
http://www.statebrief.com/briefblog/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/Kant.jpg (7 Sep 2012)
HUMAN DIGNITY
Immanuel Kant
➢ Principle: Treat humans as an
end, not as a means/object to
an end (categorical imperative)
➢ A fundamental principle of
bioethics & human rights
➢ Inherent inviolable right
HUMAN DIGNITY
➢ Refers to inherent “human worth”
regardless of age, sex, social
status, achievement, ethnic origin
▪ Respect for diversity
▪ Avoid discrimination and acts
of humiliation
➢ Cannot be gained
or lost, you have it
http://ec.europa.eu/justice/fundamental-rights/media/photos/frcrowd.jpg (7 Sep 2012)
➢ Ethics principle: The interests
& welfare of the individual should
have priority over the sole interest
of science or society → Not be
reduced to instruments (objects,
subjects) of research
➢ Science is not an end in itself but
a means to serve individuals and
society → Attitude of “privilege”
HUMAN DIGNITY
❑ Duty/Obligation: Responsibility to
adhere to values in a specific
context; to follow certain rules of
conduct
A QUICK DEFINITION
http://pixabay.com/en/symbol-signs-symbols-obligation-24077/ (20 Nov 2012)
HUMAN DIGNITY
➢ Two research obligations:
▪ Duty to avoid harm (non-
maleficence) – Exploitation,
Abuse, Unwarranted risks
▪ Duty to do good (beneficence)
➢ Respect & Benefits
➢ Protection of wellness, rights &
socio-cultural diversityhttp://2.bp.blogspot.com/--trxV43QPtM/Tp6vBEF7-XI/AAAAAAAABeM/1JkfIvfyzEg/s1600/respect+1.png (7 Sep 2012)
HUMAN DIGNITY
http://cst2012.wikispaces.com/file/view/6a00d8341c318c53ef00e54f2299228834-
800wi.jpeg/302160058/400x261/6a00d8341c318c53ef00e54f2299228834-800wi.jpeg (11 Nov 2012)
➢ Two research obligations:
▪ Summary: “Dignity is a minimum
threshold of research conduct”
❑ Ethics principle: Direct and
indirect benefits to participants
should be maximised & possible
harm / risks should be minimised
❑ Research is always risky
http://www.teknat.umu.se/digitalAssets/25/25328_risk_webb.jpg
(11 Nov 2012)
BENEFITS & HARMS
❑ Beneficence = Obligation
to advance the interests
of participants or society
❑ Direct benefits: Material, health,
psychological, information
❑ Societal benefits: Knowledge,
economic, public health
❑ Tendency to overestimate
https://www.baltimoreaircoil.eu/sites/default/files/images/BAC_knowledge_centre.jpg (11 Nov 2012)
BENEFITS
❑ Aim: To induce participation
❑ BUT, incentives should not under-
mine autonomy (i.e. coercion or
undue inducement vs Fair and
reasonable incentive)
❑ Monetary; Tangible items
❑ Fair compensation (travel)
❑ Gift of appreciation
INCENTIVES
http://www.interlink.org.nz/gifs/money.gif
❑ Non-maleficence = Moral
obligation to not inflict harm
❑ Harms = Potential of injuring a
participant or society/community
❑ Tendency to underestimate risks;
most risks accrue to participants
❑ Self-test: “Would YOU accept the
harms / risks?”
HARMS & RISKS
http://www.malaspina.com/jpg/hippocrates.jpg
❑ Physical harm
❑ Psychological harm: Regret
❑ Moral harm: Unfairness, disrespect
❑ Social harm: Stigmatisation
❑ Economic harm: Income,
employment
http://ospitiweb.indire.it/adi/DiffApprendimento/immagini
/DiffA_3b.jpg
HARMS & RISKS
❑ Moral sanction for exposure to
risks is the intended benefit →
Research must have favorable
benefit-harm ratio → Max benefit
& Min harm/risks
http://www.rfi.fr/actuvi/images/111/balancejusticetribunal200.jpg
BENEFITS & HARMS
❑ Ethics principle: Recognition
of the human capacity to:
▪ Hold viewpoints
▪ Make authentic decisions (wrong)
▪ Take actions based on personal
values and beliefs
▪ Take responsibility for it
❑ Autonomy (Person-centred) vs
Paternalism (Researcher-centred)
AUTONOMY
http://1stchoiceam.com/resources/_wsb_514x414_Direction.jpg
❑ Application in research contexts:
▪ Subject vs Participant
▪ Informed Consent
▪ Voluntary participation: Free
from coercion & deception;
Withdrawal at any time
AUTONOMY
http://www.referenceforbusiness.com/photos/autonomy-416.jpg (11 Nov 2012)
▪ Privacy: Free from interference
from others (personal info,
thoughts, opinions, personal
communication with others)
▪ Confidentiality: Responsibility to
protect personal information
from unauthorised access,
disclosure, use, loss or theft
AUTONOMY
❑ Children, cognitively impaired,
mental illness
❑ Proxy judgment, but respect
dignity through involvement
❑ Individual vs Communal autonomy
(Cultural knowledge / treasures)
❑ Not an absolute right; limited to
non-infringement of others’ rights
RESTRICTED AUTONOMY
❑ “Informed Consent is an expression
of respect for autonomy, dignity &
privacy”
❑ Interactive consent process:
1. Disclosure of information
2. Capacity to understand info
3. Ensure voluntariness of decision
4. Formal consent
INFORMED CONSENT
1. Adequate information: Jargon,
Language, Deception, Research
info (aims, methods, duration, risks,
benefits), Conflict of interest
2. Capacity to understand: Age;
Mental /cognitive ability;
Comprehension (literacy/reading
level, risks, harms); Ethics awareness
training prior to consent
INFORMED CONSENT
http://bemycareercoach.com/wp-content/uploads/yes-no.jpg
3. Voluntary (Free): Coercion (undue
influence), Deception, Withdrawal,
No disadvantage, Asymmetrical
power issues, Incentives
Collective/cultural consent by a
leader? Respect for cultural
diversity (authority structures) &
cultural knowledge (rituals, genome);
should not limit individual autonomy
INFORMED CONSENT
http://bemycareercoach.com/wp-content/uploads/yes-no.jpg
4. Formal consent process:
▪ Time to reflect on information
▪ Prior vs Retrospective consent
▪ Explicit/Express (written, oral,
gesture) vs Implied consent
▪ First person vs Proxy (children)
▪ Specific vs Blank consent
▪ Consent waiver – Archive
records; anonymous; traceable?http://www.voyagesphotosmanu.com/Complet/images/Mangosuthu_Buthelezi.jpg
INFORMED CONSENT
“In applying … medical
practice and associated
technologies, human
vulnerability should be taken
into account … individuals and
groups of special vulnerability
should be protected and
personal integrity … respected”
PATRÃO NEVES, M. 2009. Chapter 10 - Article 8: Respect for human vulnerability and personal integrity, In: The
UNESCO Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights: Background, principles and application, (Eds.)
Ten Have, H.A.M.J. & Jean, M.S., UNESCO: Paris, pp.155-164 . Quote taken from 1st paragraph, page 155.
❑ Latin vulnus: Susceptibility of
being wounded / touched =
Human fragility & finitude
❑ Godfrey Tangwa (Cameroon):
Risk to be harmed, exploited,
deceived or unfairly treated
HUMAN VULNERABILITY …
http://www.ivyleagueinsecurities.com/wp-
content/uploads/2012/01/vulnerable.jpg (11 Nov 2012)
❑ Threats to dignity / integrity
(human fragility) that requires
recognition & non-exploitation
❑ Un-freedom to exercise
autonomy
http://www.amcr.com.au/images/travel/birdsville/dingo%20barrier%20fence%202.jpg (11 Nov 2012)
HUMAN VULNERABILITY
http://static4.businessinsider.com/image/4ed7e95feab8ea443d000011-
590-440-400-/shadow-1.jpg (20 Feb 2013)
VIEWS OF “VULNERABILITY”
❑ Emmanuel Levinas (1972): “…
when self always comes after
otherness … self is already in
relation to the other, who waits
for him/her, who makes him/her”
❑ Hans Jonas (1979): “… a
perishable characteristic
of what exists”
VULNERABILITY
❑ Social marginalisation:
Very sick, elderly, xenophobia,
illiteracy, immigrants, sexuality
❑ Socio-economic context:
Poverty, unemployment,
homelessness
❑Power imbalances: Student-
lecturer, employee-employerhttp://knowledge.allianz.com/nopi_downloads/images/poverty_homeless_feet_z_2.jpg
❑ Vulnerability can not be fully
eliminated → “Ethics of care”
obligation/responsibility on
researchers:
➢ Recognise fragility / finitude of
participants → Awareness that
vulnerable others are subject to
diverse forms of “wounding” →
Consider alternative options
HUMAN VULNERABILITY …
❑ “Ethics of care” obligation on
researchers:
➢ Not add “wounds” in our
dealings with participants
➢ To let self step out of
other’s shadow
➢ Be ethical mentors &
role models
http://homestagingmentoring.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/Home-Staging-Mentoring-Become-a-Mentor.jpg (11 Nov 2012)
HUMAN VULNERABILITY
PERSONAL INTEGRITY
❑ Latin tangere:
➢ Being “untouched”, that which
is unaltered/uncorrupted
➢ State of integration in the
private sphere of life
http://www.christysclipart.com/integrity_torch1.GIF (6 Sep 2012)
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PERSONAL INTEGRITY
❑Merleau-Ponty (1945):
➢ Multidimensionality of
humans → Physical,
mental, social, cognitive &
spiritual dimensions forms an
inseparable unity
➢ Participants are not merely a
“source of data” but an
integrated “lived body”
❑ To recognise, acknowledge &
respect the personal coherence
in someone else’s multiple
dimensions → Motivates
researchers to strive towards
keeping participants
“untouched”
PROFESSIONAL INTEGRITY
http://www.mb-hs.com/images/carer.jpg (20 Feb 2013)
❑ Definition: Virtue of being
faithful to moral values & Standing
up in their defense when they are
threatened
❑ Why do we need integrity?
▪ Being trustworthy (Society &
colleagues)
▪ Being morally accountable for
knowledge, skills and conduct
INTEGRITY
http://www.christysclipart.com/integrity_torch1.GIF (6 Sep 2012)
❑ Lack of Integrity → Exploitation,
Negligence, Sub-optimal care,
Abuse, Objectification, Sloppiness,
Doubtful contribution to body of
knowledge → Participants and/or
society are wounded
INTEGRITY
http://www.christysclipart.com/integrity_torch1.GIF (6 Sep 2012)
Adapted from: Prof W Landman, “Governing and managing ethics in the
university”, Presentation at TUT, 21 May 2012.
INTEGRITY GROWTH
Survival Reactive
Ethics
Compliance Integrity Ethical
Society
Bread first,
morals later
Mere
awareness
of ethical
“rules”
“Cold
adherence”
to norms
and
checklists
Internalised
personal
ethical
behaviour &
Benevolence
Ethics
entrenched
in the “way
we all live
and work”
Unethical
practices
endorsed
Ethical
standards,
but no
enforcement
Rules and
external
enforcement
Values,
virtues and
internal
commitment
Unethical
practices
regarded as
“stupid”
Some things in life are
morally more important
than research endeavors,
namely human dignity
and respect for individual
autonomy
“Moral responsibility
increases in proportion
to knowledge”
UNESCO. Report of the International Bioethics Committee (IBC) of UNESCO on the Principle of Social
Responsibility and Health (2010), UNESCO, Paris, pp.69. Quote taken from paragraph 88, page 40.
▪ UNIVERSITY OF CAPE TOWN, Bioethics Centre,
International Research Ethics Network for
Southern Africa (IRENSA), Diploma in
International Research Ethics, 2007-2008.
▪ UNESCO, Sector for Social and Human Sciences,
Division of Ethics and Global Change, Ethics
Education Programme, Paris. Specific Event:
Ethics Teacher Training Course, Dubrovnik,
Republic of Croatia, 2-6 July 2012
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
▪ RACHELS J. & RACHELS S. 2007. The elements of moral
philosophy. 5th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
▪ UNESCO. 2008. Bioethics Core Curriculum, Section 1: Syllabus
Ethics Education Programme. UNESCO, Sector for Social and
Human Sciences, Division of Ethics of Science and
Technology, Paris, 68pp.
▪ UNESCO. 2011. Casebook on Human Dignity and Human
Rights, Bioethics Core Curriculum Casebook Series, No. 1,
UNESCO: Paris, 144pp.
▪ The UNESCO Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human
Rights: Background, principles and application, (Eds.) Ten
Have, H.A.M.J. & Jean, M.S., UNESCO: Paris, pp.370
REFERENCES
▪ UNESCO. 2009. Report of the International Bioethics
Committee (IBC) of UNESCO on Consent, UNESCO, Paris,
pp.65.
▪ UNESCO. 2011. Report of the International Bioethics
Committee (IBC) of UNESCO on the Principle of Respect for
Human Vulnerability and Personal Integrity, UNESCO, Paris,
pp.15.
▪ Milgram Experiment (Derren Brown) (Running time - 10:48
minutes). Available at:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y6GxIuljT3w
REFERENCES
▪ Privacy and Confidentiality in Human Subject Research
(Running time - 5:15 minutes). Available at:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DPOxvNbVwKk&feature
=relmfu
▪ Blood Trail - Havasupai Diabetes Study (Running time: 6:02
min). Available at:
http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/22/us/22dna.html?_r=1&pa
gewanted=all
▪ Pfizer & Trovan I (Running time - 1:26)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4EjNxYP9Swg&feature=re
lated
▪ Pfizer & Trovan II (Running time - 3:06)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9PDE9G0ahU4
REFERENCES
▪ Diversity makes the world colorful. Available at:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7cgbewUnGFQ&play
next=1&list=PL2CA61ADAB81A5072&feature=results_videoUploaded on March 9, 2010. Video by Giulia Peruzzotti,
Giulia Colella, Gabriele Squizzato & Liceo Scientifico
"Leonardo da Vinci" (2009, Italy), PLURAL+ 2009 Paley
Center for Media Education Award.▪ https://www.ox.ac.uk/students/academic/guidance/skills/
plagiarism?wssl=1 accessed 26 April 2020.
▪ https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/plagiarize,
accessed 26 April 2020.
REFERENCES
Acknowledgements to Prof
Braam Hoffmann
(Past TUT REC Chair)
E-mail: [email protected]
Tel (W): (012) 382-5571