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CHAPTERl
1. The Boston Sunday Globe, November 29,1942. 2. The Boston Herald, November 29, 1942. 3. The Boston Daily Globe, November 30, 1942. 4. The Boston Daily Globe, December 2, 1942. 5. The New York 'firnes, p. 21, June 26, 1945.
CHAPTER2
1. Waksman, S. A. The microbiology of soll and the antibioties. In: The Impact of the Antibiotics on Medicine and Society. (Galdston, 1., Ed.) International Universities Press, Inc. New York, p. 3, 1958.
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CHAPTER3
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CHAPTER 6
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CHAPTERIO
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INDEX
Abscesses, 26-27, 33, 120 Acne, 147, 210 Acquired immune deficiency
syndrome (AIDS), 29-30, 97, 115, 200
Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae, 23 Actinomycetes, 42 Advertising, 238
historical overview of, 62-63 Aerial spraying of crops, 161 Aerobic bacteria, 22, 84 Aeromonas, 172 Aeromonas hydrophila, 172 Aesculapius, 57 African sleeping sickness, 33 Agar plates: see GelatinJagar plates Agriculture, 158-166 AIDS: see Acquired immune
deficiency syndrome Alaska oll spill, 22 Allergie reactions, 125-126, 135, 209,
218,227 Alliance for the Prudent Use of
Antibiotics (APUA), 248-251, 252 Amikacin, 119
Aminoglycosides, 43, 119, 191; see also specific types
resistance to, 91, 111, 195 p-Aminosalicylic acid, 120 Amoxycillin, 118, 214 Ampicillin; 47, 118, 194, 199; see also
Ampiclllin resistance accessibility of, 226 changing patterns in use of, 214 indications for, 124 misuse of, 114-115 for pets, 178, 179
Ampicillin resistance, 10-11, 233, 245 antibiotic underuse and, 235 community-acquired, 134 gene exchange and, 86, 87 in livestock, 145 multiple-drug resistance and, 110
Amulets,62 Anaerobic bacteria, 22, 84, 123, 180 Anemia, 45, 110 Animals: see Aquaculture; Livestock;
Minor species, Pets Anthrax, 31-33 Antibiotic accessibility, 208-214, 225-227
267
268
Antibiotic accessibility (Cont.) community resistance and, 130-136 international response to, 247-249
Antibiotic Guidelines, 185 Antibiotic misuse, 53-66, 221, 223
antibiotic myth and, 105-115 historical overview of, 54-66 multiple-drug resistance and, 97,
110-112,131 in prophylaxis, 112-114 societal consequences cf, 227-231
Antibiotic myth, 105-136 antibiotic misuse and, 105-115 antibiotic selection and, 117-127
Antibioticsi see lIlso Antibiotic accessibilityi Anöbiotic misusei Anb'biotic myth
alteration in target of, 92 broad-spectrum, 44-48, 117, 218 changing patterns of use in, 214-
215 consequences of not controlling,
198-202 cost of, 124-125 cost of developing new types, 197-
198 decreased entry of, 90-91 development of new types, 189-193 discovery of, 29-43 first types of, 32-34 future of, SO-51 inactivation of, 91-92 narrow-spectrum, 117 old resistance determinants in new
types, 194-197 over-the-counter sale of: see Over-
the-counter antibiotics prophylactic use of: see Prophylaxis providers of, 231-234 rational design of new types, 193-
194 revival of interest in, 37-38 search for, 38-40
Antibiotics (Cont.) selection of, 117-127
Index
soil bacteria production of, 39-40, 42,189,219
substitution of targets insensitive to,92-94
underuse of, 234-236 Antibodie~ 24-25, 219 Antimicrobials, synthetic, 48-49, 100 APUA: see Alliance for the Prudent
Use of Antibiotics Aquaculture, 157, 168-174 Aristotle, 58 Arsenic,33 Aspirin, 191 Atkins, Samuel, 62 Aureomycin: see Chlortetracycline Azithromycin, 119 Azlocillin, 118 Aztreonam, 118
Bacampicillin, 118 Bacillus brevis, 40
. Bacillus larme, 166-167 Bacitracin, 47, 119, 155 Bacteria, 13-30; see also Bacterial flora
aerobic, 22, 84 agriculture and, 158-161 anaerobic, 22, 84, 123, 180 blue-pus, 32 defensins and, 190 disease and, 23-27 earlyexperiments on, 31-33 gene exchange in: see Gene
exchange Gram-negative: see Gram-negative
bacteria Gram-positive: see Gram-positive
.. bacteria in livestock, 143-144, 145-1SO mating of, 78, 80 multiplication.of, 18 mutations in: see Mutations
Index
Bacteria (Cont.) nonpathogenie, 23, 34, 84 nutrients needed by; 18, 20-22, 25-
26 oll eating, 22 pathogenie, 23, 25, 84, 158 plasmids of: see Plasmids resistance genes in: see Resistance
genes in soll: see Soll bacteria toxins produced by; 18, 26, 218
Bacterial blight, 159 Bacterial flora, 212-213, 215-218, 227;
see also Intestinal flora; Skin flora Bacterial spots, 159, 161 Bacteriophages: see Phages Bambermycins, 155 Baquero, Fernando, 187 Bardelay; Gilles, 207-208 Benethamine penicillin, 118 Benzylpenicillin, 118 Black leg, 159 Bladder infections, 122; see also
Urinary tract infections Blood-borne infections, 6, 74,122,184 Blue mold, 159 Blue-pus bacteria, 32 Bolls, 20 Boneinfections, 74, 88, 180, 207 Bone marrow suppression, 45, 110 Bordete//a, 191 Barre/ia bergendorfii, 28 Botulism, 22 Bouchard, Charles, 32 Broad-spectrum antibiotics, 44-48,
117,218 Brotsu, Giuseppe, 46 Burkholder, Paul, 44, 45
Campy/obacter, 122, 242 Cancer, 42, 117, 205, 231
bacterial flora and, 216-217 multiple-drug resistance in, 101-102
Candida,27 Candida a/bicans, 28 Capreomycin, 119 Carbenicillin, 118 Catfish industry; 169-173 Cefaclor, 118 Cefadroxil, 118 Cefazolin, 118 Cefamandole,118 Cefixime, 118 Cefmetazole, 118 Cefoperazone,118 Cefotaxime,118 Cefotetan, 118 Cefoxitin, 47, 118 Cefsulodin, 118 Ceftazidime, 118 Ceftizoxime, 118 Ceftriaxone,118 Cefuroxime, 118
269
Centers for Disease Control, 98, 133, 151-152, 238
Cephalexin, 47, 118 Cephaloridine, 46 Cephalosporin resistance, 91, 195, 197
community-acquired, 133 multiple-drug resistance and, 110-
111 resistance genes and, 89
Cephalosporinases, 48, 89, 91, 197 Cephalosporins, 46-48, 118, 244; see
also Cephalosporin resistance; specific types
Cephalothin, 46, 118 Cephamycins, 47 Cephapirin, 118 eephradine, 118 Chain, Ernst, 40 Chemotherapy; 33, 165 Chloramphenicol, 47, 118
accessibility of, 226 in agriculture, 160 discovery of, 44-45
270
Chloramphenicol (Cont.) indications for, 124 for livestock, 154 misuse of, 108, 110 for pets, 180 resistance to, 72, 92, 97, 189
Chloromycetin: see Chloramphenicol Chloroquine resistance, 101 Chlortetracyc1ine, 46-47, 120
for livestock, 138-139 Cholera, 15, 32, 97, 113-114 Chromosomal mutations, 73, 95, 1()()-
101,103 Chromosomes, 21, 68, 74, 80, 82,191-
192; see also Chromosomal mutations
Ciprofloxacin, 119, 125 resistance to, 88, 100
Oarithromycin, 119 Oavulanic acid, 118 C1indamycin, 47, 119 Clostridium botulinum, 22 Clostridium difficile, 218 Cocoanut Grove fire, 1-6, 41, 127 Colds: see Common cold Colistin, 119 Common cold, 29, 106, 211-213, 232 Community resistance, 130-136, 220-
221,245 Conjugation, 78 Costs
of antibiotic development, 197-198 of antibiotic resistance, 238-240 of antibiotics, 124-125 of hospitalization, 129
Cotrimoxazole, 48 Cyc1oserine, 119
Datta, Naomi, 77 Day care centers, 10-11, 214-215 DDT, 101 Defensins, 190 Demec1ocyc1ine, 118
I
Index
Developing world, problems in, 240-241 Diarrhea, 14, 23, 74, 150, 179, 235,
245; see also Dysentery antibiotic selection for, 122 in aquaculture, 168, 172 chloramphenicol for, 45 in developing world, 240 diet and, 132 pre-modern treatment of, 56 as side effect, 213, 218 sulfamethoxazole for, 93-94 traveler's, 26
Dic1oxacillin, 118 Diet, 219
for cancer patients, 216-217 urinary tract infections and, 131-132
Digitalis, 61 Dihydrostreptomycin, 180 Diphtheria, 33 Diplococci, 121 DNA, 21, 191
gene exchange and, 80, 82-83 in livestock bacteria, 143 of phages, 82-83 of plasmids, 68, 71 transposons on, 80, 82 viral, 27
DNA:DNA hybridization, 83-85 DNA gyrase, 188 Domagk, Gerhard, 37-38 Doxycyc1ine, 47, 118 Drug entry, decrease of, 90-91 Dubos, Rene J., 39-40, 42 Duggar, Benjamin, 45, 138 Dusting of crops, 161-162 Dysentery, 74, 98, 241; see also
Diarrhea
Ear infections, 10, 20, 88, 133, 205, 230,245
Ebers, George Moritz, 56 Edwardsiella, 171 Ehrlich, Paul, 6, 33
Index
Elderly persons, 126-127 Emmerich, Rudolf, 31-33 Enterobacter, 89 Enterobacteriaceae, 160 Enterococci, 20
gene exchange in, 80-81, 84-86, 186
Enterococcus faecalis, 20; see also Enterococci
Enviromental factors, 94-95 Enzymes, 22, 26-27, 73, 194-195
alteration in antibiotic target by, 92 cephillosporin-degrading: see
Cephalosporinases inactivation of antibiotic by, 91-92 penicillin-degrading: see
Penicillinases Erwinia, 160-161 Erwinia amylovora, 160-161, 163 Erythemum subitum, 30 Erythromycin, 47, 119; see also
Erythromycin resistance in agriculture, 160 for pets, 177-179
Erythromycin resistance, 91-92 community-acquired, 134-135 in livestock, 147 multiple-drug resistance and, 98,
100 in pets, 179
Escherichia coli, 17, 20-22, 48, 77, 114, 199,244
in agriculture, 160, 164-165 antibiotic misuse and, 228-230 diet and, 132 gene exchange in, 82, 86-87 in livestock, 145-146, 148-150, 242 multiple-drug resistance in, 72, 88,
99-101,110-111,189 in pets, 175, 179 plasmids of, 69 resistance genes and, 75 transferable resistance in, 73-74, 94
Ethambutol, 119 Ethionamide, 119 Exorcisms, 62 Extrachromosomal genes, 73
F factors, 73 FACT: see Food Animal Concems
1h1st FDA: see Food and Drug
Administration Fever,118 Fire blight, 161-162 Fish: see Aquaculture
271
Fleming, Alexander, 5, 7, 34-37, 40-41,90
Florey, Howard, 5, 40-41 Flu, 29, 208, 212 Fluoroquinolones, 49 Fogarty International Center, 243-245,
252 Food and Drug Administration (FDA),
143, 157, 169, 197, 241-242 Center for Veterinary Medicfue, 156
Food Animal Concems 1h1st (FACT), 155-156
Fosfomycin, 119 Foulbrood diseases, 166-167 Frederick 11, 60 Freudenreich, E. de, 32 Frogs, skin of, 190 Fungi, 27, 189, 190
Galen, 58-61, 64 Gelatinlagar plates, 15-16, 18, 32, 34-
35, 37, 39, 83, 122-123, 165 Gene cloning, 83 Gene exchange, 78-83, 186, 230
in agriculture, 160 conjugation in, 78 in livestock, 144 in nature, 83-87 in pets, 175 transformation in, 83
272
Genes, 73-74; see also Chromosomes; Gene exchange; Resistance genes
Gentamicin, 43, 47, 119, 191 indications for, 124 resistance to, 111 side effects of, 218
Germ theory of disease, 14, 29 Giardia, 122 Golden staph: see Sflqilylococcus aureus Gonococci, 20, 132, 187, 209; see also
Neisseri4 gonorrhoetle Gonorrhea, 11, 29, 87, 132-133, 199,
209,245 Gram, Hans Christian, 19 Gramicidin, 40, 42-43, 47 Gram-negative bacteria, 19-20, 44,
48-49,89,233 in agricu1ture, 160 in aquaculture, 168, 171 gene exchange in, 84
Gram-positive bacteria, 19-20, 44, 48-49
in agriculture, 160 gene exchange in, 81, 84-85 gramicidin and, 40
Gram stain, 19-20, 121 Growth promotion
in livestock, 137-143, 153-155, 157, 241-242
in minor species, 174
HAI: see Health Action International Hausfater, Glenn, 77 Headaches, 213 Health Action International (HAl),
238 Hearing defects, 43, 218 Heart murmurs, 127 Heatley, Norman, 5 Heavy metals, 91, 246 Heck1er, Margaret, 241 ß-Hemolytic streptococci, 134-135 Hemophilus, 48, 128
Index
Hemophilus in/luenzae, 10-11, 20,23, 244-245
community-acquired resistance of, 133-134
gene exchange in, 82, 86-87 Henson, lim, 134 Hepatitis, 29 HHV-6,30 High-level resistance, 187-188 Hippocrates, 58 mv-I: see Human immune deficiency
virus-l Honeybees, 157, 166-168 Honeymoon cystitis, 131 Hospital infections, 89, 184, 206 Human immune deficiency virus-l
(HIV-l), 30; see also Acquired immune deficiency syndrome
Humors, 57-58, 61
Imipenem, 118 Imminent Hazard petition, 241 The Impact of Antibiotics on Medicine
and Society, 226-227 Impetigo, 118 Individual, the, 205-221
accessibility of antibiotics and, 208-214
bacterial flora and, 215-217 changing patterns of antibiotic use
in,214-215 efforts against antibiotic resistance
by, 219-221 side effects and, 217-219
Industry, role of, 236-238 Infants, 126, 229-230 Insects, 101, 189-190; see also
Honeybees International Association of
Pharmaceutical Companies, 237 International Organization of
Consumer Unions (IOCU), 238 Intestinal flora, 18-19, 22, 26, 94, 192
Index
Intestinal flora (Cont.) agriculture and, 161-162, 164-165 in livestock, 141-142, 143-144, 147 multiple-drug resistance and, 99 plasmids in, 77 urinary tract infections and, 130-
132 Intestinal infections, 88 Intravenous drug users, 97 Intravenous therapy, 7-8, 209 IOCU: see International Organization
of Consumer Unions Isoniazid, 88, 119
Joubert, Jules Fraru;ois, 31 Jukes, Thomas, 138
Kalahari bushmen, 75, 77 Kanamycin, 43, 47, 119, 124, 179, 191
resistance to, 91 Kidney damage, 43, 218 Kidney infections, 122; see also
Urinary tract infections Klebsiella, 165, 195 Koch, Robert, 15, 18, 32, 38-39, 122 Kupersztoch, Jacob, %
ß-Lactam, 194, 196 ß-Lactamase, 88, 95, 118, 194, 196-197 Lactobacillus, 131-132 Lederberg, Joshua, 73 Leeches,58 Legionella, 25 Legionnaire's Disease, 25 Leprosy, 49 Lethai yellowing, 162 Leukemia, 45, 94, 110-112, 165 Lincomycin, 119 Lincosamides, 119 Listeria, 242 Livestock, 137-156
growth promotion in, 137-143, 153-155, 157, 241-242
Livestock (Cont.) human bacterial exchange with,
145-150
273
human disease spread by, 150-156 Lobar pneumonia, 20, 82, 121, 128 Loew, Frank, 155 Loew, Oscar, 33 Low-Ievel resistance, 187-188, 230 Lyme disease, 28 Lymph nodes, 25 Lysis, 34-35, 36, 37 Lysozyme, 23, 34, 40
Macrolides, 94, 119 Magainins, 190 Malaria parasite, 101 MarshalI, Bonnie, 148 Mating types, 80 Medical Lobby for Appropriate
Marketing, Inc., 238 Meningitis, 10-11, 20, 43, 128, 133,
245 Meningococci, 20, 187 Merck and Company, 4, 42 Mercury, 246 Methacycline, 118 Methenamine, 119 Methicillin, 47, 117, 118, 193
discovery of, 50 resistance to, 50, 88-89
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), 201-202
Metronidazole, 119, 180 Mezlocillin, 118 Military use of penicillin, 5, 41 Minocycline, 47, 118 Minor species, 157, 174 Molds, 219 Monensin, 155 Monobactams, 118 Mosquitos, 101 MRSA: see Methicillin-resistant
Staphylococcus aureus
274
Mucous membranes, 23-24, 26 Multiple-drug resistance, 88-89, 95-
99, 125, 184, 186-187, 200-202, 207, 225, 245
in agriculture, 163-165 antibiotic misuse and, 97, 110-112,
131 antibiotic underuse and, 235 in aquaculture, 173 in developing world, 240-241 gene exchange and, 85 in livestock, 141, 145-147, 150-153 in non-bacterial organisms, 101-102 in pets, 175 resistance genes and, 76, 96, 101,
112,189 single antibiotic use and, 99-101,
147, 188-189 transferable resistance and, 72-74
Mummies, 29, 31 Murray, Barbara, 84 Mutations, 7, 43, 49, 88-89, 190-191,
194-196 alteration in antibiotic target by, 92 antibiotic misuse and, 66 chromosomal, 73, 95, 100-101, 103 low-Ievel resistance in, 187-188 multiple-drug resistance and, 100,
189 in resistance genes, 88 transferable resistance and, 73
Mycobacterium tuberculosis, 25,43 Mycoplasma, 159-160, 162 Mycoplasm4 pneunumiae, 159
Nafcillin, 118 Nalidixic acid, 49, 119, 179-180, 186-
187,194 Narrow-spectrum antibiotics, 117 National Academy of Sciences'
Institute of Medicine, 241 National Resources Defense Council, 156 Nause~, 213
Index
Neisseria gonorrhoeae, 11, 20, 87, 209; see also Gonococci
Neisseria meningitidis, 20 Neomycin, 43, 47, 119, 174, 178 Nest eggs, 156 Netilmicin, 119 Nitrofurantoin, 119 Nonpathogenic bacteria, 23, 34, 84 Non-transferable resistances, 87-89 Norfloxacin, 88, 100, 119 Nova (television program), 185-186 Novobiocin, 119
O'Brien, Thomas, 80 Ofloxacin, 88, 119 Oil-eating bacteria, 22 Oral administration, 7-8, 49 Organ transplants, 206 Ormetoprim, 168, 172 Otitis media, 20 Over-the-counter antibiotics, 107-109,
176, 208, 226, 232 Over-the-counter drugs, 61-64; see
also Over-the-counter antibiotics Oxacillin, 118 Oxolinic acid, 119 Oxytetracycline, 47, 118
in agriculture, 158-159, 161-163 in aquaculture, 168 for honeybees, 166-168 for livestock, 145
Paper disc testing method, 124 Paracelsus, 61 Parasites, 30, 33, 101 Paromomycin, 119 Pasteur, Louis, 14, 31, 64-65 Pathogenic bacteria, 23, 25, 84, 158 Payne, Billy, 3 Pefloxacin, 119 Penicillin, 4-11, 40, 46-47, 117, 118,
193-194, 199, 207; see also Penicillin resistance
Index
Penicilin (Cant.) accessibility of, 211-213, 226 allergie reactions to, 126, 135, 218 changing patterns in use of, 214 Cocoanut Grove fire and, 5-6, 41,
127 cost of, 125, 238 development of, 40-42 discovery of, 34-37 for livestock, 139, 142, 148, 152,
154-155 military use of, 5, 41 for rninor species, 174 misuse of, 230 for pets, 175 in prophylaxis, 112, 127-128 side effects of, 217-218 streptomycin compared with, 43
Penicillinases, SO, 84-86, 91, 95, 117, 193,197
Penicillin G, 174 Penicillin resistance, 7, 8-12, 43, 191,
200, 205, 244-245 in agriculture, 160 community-acquired,132-135 decreased entry as cause of, 90 environmental factors in, 95 gene exchange and, 84-85, 87 inactivation in, 91 in livestock, 148, 152 low-Ievel, 187 methicillin synthesis in response to,
SO multiple-drug resistance and, 97-98 new types of, 195-197 plasmids and, 71-72 resistance genes and, 75 transferable resistance and, 72-73
Penicillium mold, 4, 37 Persistence of resistance, 245-246 Pesticide resistance, 101 Pets, 157, 174-181 Phages, 82-83
275
Pharmaceutical industry, 232, 239-240
historical overview of, 60-61 Phenoxymethylpenicillin, 118 Pheromone~ 80-81 Pilus,78 Piperacillin, 118 Placebo effect, 55 Plague, 25, 33 Plasma, 4 Plasmids, 68-71, 88, 92, 103, 195
emergence of resistance in, 71-72 gene exchange and, 78-80, 82-83,
85,87 inhibition of, 191-192 in livestock, 143-144, 147-148, 150 low-Ievel resistance and, 187 multiple-drug resistance and, 85,
95-97, 99-101, 111, 188-189 origins of, 76-78 resistance genes in, 70-71, 75, 194,
246,248 transferable resistance in: see
'fransferable resistance Pneumococci, 20, 191
antibiotic selection for, 121 gene exchange in, 82 low-level resistance in, 187 multiple-drug resistance in, 98 prophylaxis and, 128
Pneumonia, 6, 15, 20, 23, 133, 195, 207, 245
antibiotic misuse and, 230 chloramphenicol for, 45 in developing world, 240 lobar, 20, 82, 121, 128 multiple-drug resistance and, 98
Polymyxin B, 119 Potions,61 Prepaid health programs, 107, 252 Pritchard, William, 155 Procaine penicillin, 118 Prontosil, 37-38, 47-48
276
Prophylaxis, 115 antibiotic misuse in, 112-114 post-surgical, 116, 128-130
Proteus mirabilis , 199 PseudornonIls, 88 Pseudomonas aeruginDsa, 32, 117 Puromycin, 178 Pus,27 Pyocyanase, 32-33, 3~ 38 Pyrazinamide, 119
Quincy, lohn, 64 Quinolone resistance, 88, 92, 94, 194
low-level, 188 multiple-drug resistance and, 100
Quinolones,49, 119, 125; see also Quinolone resistance
synd1etic, 193-194
Rambling Rose veal, 156 Rashes, 213, 217-218 Red blood cells, 45 Resistance genes, 8, 11, 70-71, 77, 88-
89, 93, 103, 194-196, 223-224 in agriculture, 160, 165 exchange of: see Gene exchange inactivation of antibiotic and, 91 international response to, 248 in livestock: see Livestock multiple-drug resistance and, 76,
96, 101, 112, 189 origins of, 74-76 persistence oE, 245-246
Respiratory tract infections, 159, 187, 233
Reticuloendod1elial system, 24 R factors, 73-75; see also PIasmids Rheumatic ~ 128, 134 Ribosomes, 92 Rickettsia, 27, 44, 46 Rifampin, 88, 92, 119 RNA, viral, 27 Roberts, Marilyn, 84
Index
Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever, 44 Rolland, Rosalind, 77
Salicylates, 191 Salmon, 168 Salmonella, 23, 48, 187, 218-219
in agriculture, 160 antibiotic selection and, 122 in livestock, 142, 150-154, 241-242 prophylaxis against, 114 transferable resistance in, 74
Salmonella newport, 152 Salmonella typhi, 23 Salmonellosis, 145, 150-151, 154 Salmon industry, 173-174 Salvarsan, 33, 37 Scarlet fever, 85, 120, 134 Sedillot, Charles, 14 Self-medication
antibiotic myth and, 114-115 historical overview of, 61, 64, 66
Sepsis, 172 Septicemia, 20, 150, 180 Shigella, 194
in agriculture, 160 antibiotic selection and, 122 multiple-drug resistance in, 96-98,
240-241, 245 Shigella dysenteriae
antibiotic underuse and, 235 multiple drug resistance in, 73,
186-187, 235, 241 transferable resistance and, 72, 74
Side effects, 213, 217-219, 227, 237; see also specific side effects
Sinusitis, 120 Skin,23-25 Skin flora, 18-19, 22, 147, 192
agriculture and, 161-162, 164 multiple-drug resistance and, 100
Skin grafts, 5 Skin infections, 33, 40, 88, 120, 230 Skurray, Ron, 192
Index
Social Audit, 238 Soft rot, 159 Soll bacteria, 18, 31, 75, 165
antibiotics produced by; 39-40, 42, 189,219
Sparfloxacin, 119 Spectinomycin, 47, 119 Spirochetes, 27-28 Spleen, 25, 128 Staphylococci, 5, 10, 20, 50, 72, 88,
117, 186, 192 antibiotic misuse and, 230 gene exchange in, 80-81, 84-86 multiple-drug resistance in, 100, 241
Staphylococcus, 34, 40, 81 Staphylococcus aureus, 4-5, 20, 37, 199-
200 methicillin-resistant, 201-202 multiple drug resistance in, 88, 99,
125, 184, 200-202 Stokstad, Robert, 138 Strep throat, 85, 120, 134, 225 Streptococci, 20, 32, 38, 120
community-wide resistance in, 134-135
gene exchange in, 80 prophylaxis and, 128
Streptococcus, 4 Streptococcus pluton, 166 Streptococcus pneumtmiae, 20; see also
Pneumococci Streptococcus pyogenes, 134-135 Streptomyces aureofaciens, 46, 138-139 Streptomyces griseus, 42 Streptomyces venezuela, 44 Streptomycin, 47, 49-50, 117, 119; see
also Streptomycin resistance in agriculture, 158-159, 161-163 discovery of, 42-43 for honeybees, 167 indications for, 124 for minor species, 174 side effects of, 218
Streptomycin resistance, 43 in agriculture, 161-163 inactivation in, 91 in livestock, 145 transferable resistance and, 72
Streptothricin resistance, 147-148 Sulbactam, 118 Sulfacytine, 119 Sulfadiazine, 3-4, 119 Sulfadimethoxine, 171, 180 Sulfamerazine, 168 Sulfamethizole, 119 Sulfamethoxazole, 48, 119, 124-125;
277
see also Sulfamethoxazole resistance Sulfamethoxazole resistance, 195
antibiotic underuse and, 235 multiple-drug resistance and, 98 by substitution of targets
insensitive to, 93-94 Sulfapyridine, 119 Sulfasalazine, 119 Sulfathiazole, 167 Sulfisoxazole, 119 Sulfonamide resistance, 94
in livestock, 145 multiple-drug resistance and, 97 by substitution of insensitive
targets, 92-94 transferable resistance and, 72-73
Sulfonamides, 3-4, 6, 38, 40, 47, 119, 207; see also specific types; Sulfonamide resistance
introduction of, 48-49 for pets, 176, 180
Sulfur drugs, 174, 178 Surgical infections, 184
prophylaxis for, 116, 128-130 Susceptibility testing, 123-125 Synthetic antirnicrobials, 48-49, 100 Synthetic quinolones, 193-194 Syphilis, 11, 28-29
Tatum, Edward, 73
278
Tears, 23, 34 TEM-1 gene, 196-197 TetM gene, 84, 92 Tetracycline resistance, 94, 190-191,
199, 244-245 in agriculture, 163 by alteration in target, 92 in aquaculture, 172 community-acquired, 133 decreased entry as cause of, 91 gene exchange and, 84 in livestock, 145, 148, 152 multiple-drug resistance and, 97-
100, 110, 189 in pets, 175 transferable resistance and, 72
Tetracyclines, 117, 118; see also specific types; Tetracycline resistance
accessibility of, 210, 212, 226 in agriculture, 160, 163 in aquaculture, 171-173 discovery of, 45-46 indications for, 124 for livestock, 139, 142-143, 145-148,
152, 154-155 for minor species, 174 for pets, 175-178, 180 pre-modem use of, 31 in prophylaxis, 112-114 side effects of, 218
Theobald, John, 63-64 Thienamycin, 118 Ticarcillin, 118, 194 Tobramycin, 43, 47, 119 Toxicity, 197, 205, 209, 218
of chloramphenicol, 45 of grarnicidin, 40 of neomycin, 43 of Salvarsan, 33, 37 of streptomycin, 43 of vancomycin, 184
Toxins, bacteria production of, 18, 26, 218
Index
Transferable resistance, 77, 94, 103, 186, 192-193
in agriculture, 163, 165, 166 discovery of, 72-74 in livestock, 143, 147 in new antibiotics, 196
Transformation, 83 Transposons, 80-83, 85-88, 192, 194
in agriculture, 166 in livestock, 143, 148 low-level resistance and, 187 multiple-drug resistance and, 95,
97, 99-101, 188-189 Travelers' diarrhea, 26 Treponema pallidum, 28 Trimethoprim, 48-49, 119, 125, 180; see
also Trimethoprim resistance Trimethoprim resistance, 195
antibiotic underuse and, 235 environmental factors in, 94 multiple-drug resistance and, 98 by substitution of insensitive
targets, 92-94 Trisulfapyrimidines, 119 Trypanosome parasites, 33 Tuberculosis, 15, 23, 25, 29, 88, 187
multiple-drug resistance and, 97-98,207
streptomycin for, 42-43, 218 Tularernia, 43, 191 Typhoid fever, 23, 25, 32-33, 45-46,
48,74,199 Typhus, 44
Ultraviolet light, 94 Urinary tract infections, 14-15, 20, 88,
148, 179-180, 207, 220, 244 intestinal flora and, 130-132 low-level resistance in, 187 multiple-drug resistance and, 99,
131,147 streptomycin for, 43 trimethoprim for, 48
Index
Vaccines, 128, 203, 221 Vancomycin, 47, 119, 184
resistance to, 186, 200 van Leeuwenhoeck, Anton, 13 Vealcattle, 154, 156 Vibrio cholerae, 97, 113-114 Vietnam war, 11, 133 Viruses, 27-30, 42, 71, 190, 208, 225-
226 Vitamin B12, 138 Vuillemin, Paul, 31
Waksman, Selman, 31, 39, 42 Warts, 29-30
Welch, Henry, 226 White blood cells, 24-25, 27, 45 Whittimore, Nathaniel, 62 Wild fire, 159
279
World Health Organization, 247-248, 252
Xanthomonas, 161
Yeast infections, 28, 210, 218 Yeasts,28 Yogurt,131 Young, Frank, 241