PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
Adam Barger, Beverly Becker, Michelle Boyd, Kirstin Byrd, & Elizabeth Hobson
EPPL 604
General Outline for Presentation
Definition:
a. The science of mind and behavior
b. The study of the mind and behavior in relation to a particular field of knowledge or activity.
Behaviorism Cognitive Psychology Social Psychology Industrial-Organizational
Psychology
Objectives
At the conclusion of the presentation, participants will be able to …
identify and describe three types of psychology.
recognize four relevant theories in psychology.
apply at least one theory to a relevant educational problem.
Stimulus Response
Little to no value given to thought
processes
Significant value
given to behavior
and actions
John B. Watson
Desired to study only what was observable (behaviors).
Emotions and behaviors learned in the same way as skills or tasks.
Influenced by earlier experiments in classical conditioning. (Pavlov)
B.F. Skinner
Built on ideas of Watson; theories came to be known as hyper-behaviorism
Advocated using observable behavior to study all aspects of human thought and action
Profound effect on education and learning theory
Focused on reinforcement
Behaviorism in Education
Passive learning Rote learning Positive reinforcement
A change in behavior indicates learning
Research Examples
Miranda (2009) Using behaviorist
educational strategies to foster success in community college classes
DeMartino (1999) Instructional
design models and learning models for education (including non k-12) draw upon behaviorist theories (as well as constructivist and cognitive)
Conclusions
Varying views on whether behaviorism opposes cognitive psychology and constructivism.
Some researchers and practitioners see resurgence of behaviorist strategies in education.
Studies examining behaviors often account for the basic stimulus/response pattern
Defining Cognitive Psychology
Ulric Neisser’s 1967 definition: “Cognitive psychology refers to all processes by which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used.”
Often referred to as: human information processing Cognitive psychology has had major influences on:
Educational psychology Social psychology Applied psychology
Reed, S. K. (2010). Cognition: Theories and Applications. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
The Roots of Cognitive Psychology
Has roots in philosophy and physiology, which both seek to understand the human mind.
Plato and Aristotle have affected modern thinking in psychology.
They disagreed on how to investigate ideas. Plato was a rationalist . “The route to knowledge is
through logical analysis.” Aristotle was an empiricist. “We acquire knowledge via
empirical evidence – experience and observation.”
By the 1970’s, it was a major field of psychology with a set of distinctive research method.
Sternberg, R. J. (2009). Cognitive Psychology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Goals of Research in Cognitive Psychology
Observe behavior to make inferences about underlying explanations of behavior (thought, language, meaning, and imagery)
Seek formal explanations to the nature and function of mental processes
Seek a more complex explanation than stimulus response (behaviorist)
Bruning, Schraw, Norby, and Ronning, 2004
Research Methods in Cognitive Psychology
Laboratory/controlled experiments Psychobiological research Self-reports Case studies Naturalistic observations Computer simulations and artificial
intelligence
Sternberg, R. J. (2009). Cognitive Psychology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Cognitive Psychology: Noam Chomsky
1960’s Our understanding of language is constrained
not so much by what we have heard, but rather, by an innate language acquisition device (LAD) that all humans possess. (Nature)
He emphasizes a more “rationalistic” technique He and other linguists demonstrated that
language acquisition was more a complex process than what behaviorism accounts for.
Sternberg, R. J. (2009). Cognitive Psychology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Cognitive Psychology: Herbert A. Simon
Professor of computer science and psychology at Carnegie-Mellon University.
1972: (Pioneer with Allen Newell) Proposed a detailed models of human thinking and problem solving from the most basic levels to the most complex. Constructed and tested computer models that
simulated human thought. Major advocate of thinking-aloud protocols as a
means of studying cognitive processing.Sternberg, R. J. (2009). Cognitive Psychology. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth.
Main concepts
Schema are mental frameworks for information (Simon)
Levels of processing: memory is a by-product of processing type: Encoding and retrieval
Constructive memory: created by learners as they confront new situations
Social influences: motivation, self awareness
Bruning, Schraw, Norby, and Ronning, 2004
Themes for education
Learning is constructive Mental frameworks organize memory: schema,
concepts, scripts Extended practice is needed to develop cognitive
skills Metacognition: self reflective and directed
learners Motivation and beliefs are important Social interaction is fundamental
Bruning, Schraw, Norby, and Ronning, 2004
Useful Theories in EducationCognitive Load
Theory: Learning is constrained by limited processing capacity
George Miller (1956): Magic Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two about what makes it from short to long term memory
More Theories
Bandura’s Social Cognitive Learning Theory (1997):
Learning is the result of interacting variables: personal, behavioral, and environmental. Example: Self-efficacy, outcome expectancy
Attribution Theory: how individuals explain events in their lives and why they respond differently
Self Regulated Learning Theory:
ability to control all aspects of one’s learning from advance planning to performance evaluation (Pintrich, 2000; Schunk & Zimmerman, 1994; Winne, 1995).
Social Cognition
Based on Lev Vygotsky’s Mind in Society (1978): Zone of Proximal Development. Children are apprenctices in thinking. Information processing alone does not account for cognitive development.
Definitions
According to Allport (1985), social psychology is a discipline that uses scientific methods to understand and explain how the thoughts, feelings and behaviors of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of other human beings.
An Intersection
Social Psychology lies at the intersection of Psychology and Sociology
Psychology- social psychologists are trained in the rigorous experimental methods of psychology
Sociology- social psychologists share a sociological focus on the behavior of the groups, interactions and exchanges, as well as the individual/group in the larger context of social structures and processes.
Intersection cont’d
Psychological Social Psychology A more positivist approach Concrete• Sociological Social Psychology
• A more constructivist approach, looks at societal constructions like family, parenthood etc., within a specific time frame or historical dimension
• Sees institutions like family or parenthood as constantly changing, therefore it has a more fluid approach to methodology
Topics Covered by Social Psychology
Group behavior Social perception Leadership Nonverbal behavior Conformity Aggression Prejudice How social influences, perception, and
interaction are vital to understanding social behavior
History
Norman Triplett 1898 Perception, cognition, attitudes, small
groups During WWII- persuasion, propaganda, US
military After WWII- gender and racial discrimination During the 1960s- cognitive dissonance,
bystander effect, aggression During the 1970s- debate on ethics, culture
Since the 1980s
Ethical standards now regulate research There is greater pluralism Multiculturalism has emerged as a
perspective Attribution, social cognition, and self-
concepts have been the focus of research in recent years
Examples of Social Psychological Theories
Attribution theory Cognitive dissonance Drive theory Evolutionary Psychology Social Learning Schemata theory Self-Perception theory Social Exchange theory System justification theory Triangular theory of Love
Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Phenomena
Intrapersonal topics include: attitudes, persuasion, social cognition, self-concept, and cognitive dissonance
Interpersonal topics include: social influence, group dynamics, social relations, and interpersonal attraction
Methodology
Experimental- controlled Correlational Observational On the sociological side of social
psychology researchers also use qualitative methods
Famous Social Psychological Experiments
Asch’s experiments on conformity in small groups
Festinger’s cognitive dissonance experiment
Milgram’s study on obeying authority using feigned electric shock
Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment on child aggression
Zimbardo’s Stanford prison experiment
Topics Addressed by Social Psychology
Social Cognition Attitudes Aggression/Violence Prosocial Behavior Bystander Effect Prejudice/Discrimination Self and Social Identity Group Behavior
Perspectives in Social Psychology Sociocultural- importance of social norms
and culture Evolutionary- social behaviors developed
through genetics and inheritance Social Learning- importance of unique
experiences in family, school, community, etc.
Social-Cognitive- information processing model of social behavior, how we notice, interpret, and judge the behavior of others
View of Social Psychology
Dr. C. George Boeree (1999). Retrieved from http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/socpsy.html
Activity
http://college.cengage.com/psychology/brehm/social_psychology/5e/students/netlabs.html - Psychology Today-The Cultural Context
What is Industrial – Organizational (I-O) Psychology?
Industrial-organizational (I-O) psychology is the scientific study of the workplace. Rigor and methods of psychology are applied to issues of critical relevance to business such as …
Critical Issues in the Workplace
Selection Training
Coaching Assessment
Performance Talent management
Work-life balance Organizational development
Major Ways I/O Psychology is Used
1. Personnel psychology2. Training3. Motivation and leadership4. Engineering psychology
W. Scott H. Munsterburg
Belief Emotion, sympathy, and sentiment are all factors that increase consumer suggestibility
In order to increase job efficiency, worker productivity, and satisfaction, organizations need to hire people for positions that fit their emotional and mental abilities.
Famous Literary Works
The Theory and Practice of Advertising
Psychology and Industrial Efficiency On the Witness Stand
Key Contributions to I-O Psychology
Advertising (selection)
Personnel selection (advertising, legal situations)
Historical Figures in I-O Psychology
What Theories are Referenced in I-O Psychology ?
Needs Theory (Atkinson & McClelland) – motivation is driven by the strength of intrinsic needs: achievement, affiliation, autonomy, and dominance
Expectancy Theory (Vroom) – motivation is a combination of perceived attractiveness of future outcomes and the likelihood that one’s actions will lead to the outcome
Note: List is illustrative, not exhaustive.
Equity Theory (Adams) – how individuals compare their ratio of inputs and outcomes relative to the same ratio comparison of others and hence make predictions about how people will react to overrewarded or underrewarded situations
Note: List is illustrative, not exhaustive.
What Theories are Referenced in I-O Psychology ?
Current Topics in I-O Psychology1. Organizations of the future: Changes and
challenges (including work force changes, changes in organizational characteristics,culture, climate, and organizational productivity)
2. Training system issues3. Organizational culture4. Work teams and their effectiveness5. Work motivation theory and practice
6. Developing the competitive organization: interventions and strategies
7. Designing systems for resolving disputes in organizations
8. The challenge of new work place technology
9. Power and leadership in organizations10. Developing managerial talent through
simulation
Current Topics in I-O Psychology
11. Women and minorities in management12. Entrepreneurship and intrapreneurship13. Human resource planning14. Work in the family and employing organization15. Work site stress management interventions16. Employee fitness and wellness programs17. Health issues at work18. Organizational and group contexts of behavior19. The person-situation debate20. The impact of macro-level theory
Current Topics in I-O Psychology
“Office Space” - WWYDWhat Would You Do?
If you were an industrial – organizational psychologist . . .
What might be some questions you would ask?
Do you think any of the theories we discussed relative to I-O psychology could be applied to this situation? If so, identify the theory and explain your rationale. If not, what type of theory / concept might you look for to answer the questions you posed?
Psychology is a Snowflake
Psychology appears to be simple on the surface, but in reality is a complex construct that encompasses various types of psychology, using various methodology to answer a myriad of questions.
Note: Types of psychology listed are illustrative, not exhaustive.
Social Psycholo
gy Cognitive Psycholo
gy
Behavioral
Psychology
I/O Psycholog
y
References Allport, G. W. (1985). The historical background of social psychology. In G, Lindzey & E. Aronson
(Eds.), The Handbook of Social Psychology. New York: McGraw Hill Ash, S. E. (1955). Opinions and social pressure. Scientific American, 31-35 Bandura, A., Ross, D. & Ross, S. A. (1961). Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive
models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63, 575-582. Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press Hanley, C., Banks, W.C. & Zimbardo, P.G. (1973). Interpersonal dynamics in a simulated prison.
International Journal of Criminology and Penology, 1, 69-97. Katzell, R.A. & Austin, J.T. (1992). From then to now: The development of industrial-organizational
psychology in the United States. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77(6), 803-835. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.77.6.803
Lewin, K. (1951). Field theory in social science: Selected theoretical papers. D. Cartwright (Ed.). New York: Harper & Row.
Milgram, S. (1975). Obedience to authority. Harper and Bros. O’Neil, B.S. & Mone, M.A. (1998). Investigating equity sensitivity as a moderator of relations between self-
efficacy and workplace attitudes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83(5), 805-816. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.83.5.805
Reed, S. K. (2010). Cognition: Theories and Applications. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Sternberg, R. J. (2009). Cognitive Psychology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Triplett, N. (1898). The dynamics of persuasion. New York: Lawrence Eribaum Associates. Geiger,
M.A. & Cooper, E.A. (1995). Predicting academic performance: The impact of expectancy and needs theory. Journal of Experimental Education, (63)3, 251-262.
http://faculty.frostburg.edu/mbradley/psyography/