PSY 369: Psycholinguistics
Conversation & Dialog: Language Production and
Comprehension in conjoined action
Announcements Homework 8 (Due April 29) – Article summary: Griffin & Bock
(2000) – using eye-movements to investigate language production processes
“Yes” even with the reduced number of homeworks (11->8), I still plan to drop the lowest grade in this category (so your top 7 homework grades are what will count).
Exam 3 Extra extra credit opportunity: Up to 30 points added to your exam score 2 additional journal summaries (due April 29th)
Taft and Hambly (1986) – 15 pts Perfetti et al (1987) – 15 pts
Conversational interaction ABBOTT: Super Duper computer store. Can I help you? COSTELLO: Thanks. I'm setting up an office in my den, and I'm thinking about buying a
computer. ABBOTT: Mac? COSTELLO: No, the name is Lou. ABBOTT: Your computer? COSTELLO: I don't own a computer. I want to buy one. ABBOTT: Mac? COSTELLO: I told you, my name is Lou. ABBOTT: What about Windows? COSTELLO: Why? Will it get stuffy in here? ABBOTT: Do you want a computer with windows? COSTELLO: I don't know. What will I see when I look in the windows? ABBOTT: Wallpaper. COSTELLO: Never mind the windows. I need a computer and software. ABBOTT: Software for windows? COSTELLO: No. On the computer! I need something I can use to write proposals, track
expenses and run my business. What have you got? ABBOTT: Office.
Conversational interaction COSTELLO: Yeah, for my office. Can you recommend anything? ABBOTT: I just did. COSTELLO: You just did what? ABBOTT: Recommend something. COSTELLO: You recommended something? ABBOTT: Yes. COSTELLO: For my office? ABBOTT: Yes. COSTELLO: OK, what did you recommend for my office? ABBOTT: Office. COSTELLO: Yes, for my office! ABBOTT: I recommend office with windows. COSTELLO: I already have an office and it has windows!OK, lets just say, I'm sitting at
my computer and I want to type a proposal. What do I need? ABBOTT: Word. COSTELLO: What word? ABBOTT: Word in Office. COSTELLO: The only word in office is office. ABBOTT: The Word in Office for Windows.
Conversational interaction COSTELLO: Which word in office for windows? ABBOTT: The Word you get when you click the blue "W.” COSTELLO: I'm going to click your blue "w" if you don't start with some straight
answers. OK, forget that. Can I watch movies on the Internet? ABBOTT: Yes, you want Real One. COSTELLO: Maybe a real one, maybe a cartoon. What I watch is none of your
business. Just tell me what I need! ABBOTT: Real One. COSTELLO: If it’s a long movie I also want to see reel 2, 3 and 4. Can I watch them? ABBOTT: Of course. COSTELLO: Great, with what? ABBOTT: Real One. COSTELLO; OK, I'm at my computer and I want to watch a movie. What do I do? ABBOTT: You click the blue "1.” COSTELLO: I click the blue one what? ABBOTT: The blue "1.” COSTELLO: Is that different from the blue "W"? ABBOTT: The blue 1 is Real One and the blue W is Word. COSTELLO: What word?
Conversational interaction ABBOTT: The Word in Office for Windows. COSTELLO: But there are three words in "office for windows"! ABBOTT: No, just one. But it’s the most popular Word in the world. COSTELLO: It is? ABBOTT: Yes, but to be fair, there aren't many other Words left. It pretty much wiped out
all the other Words. COSTELLO: And that word is real one? ABBOTT: Real One has nothing to do with Word. Real One isn't even Part of Office. COSTELLO: Stop! Don't start that again. What about financial bookkeeping you have
anything I can track my money with? ABBOTT: Money. COSTELLO: That's right. What do you have? ABBOTT: Money. COSTELLO: I need money to track my money? ABBOTT: It comes bundled with your computer. COSTELLO: What's bundled to my computer? ABBOTT: Money.
Conversational interaction COSTELLO: Money comes with my computer? ABBOTT: Yes. No extra charge. COSTELLO: I get a bundle of money with my computer? How much? ABBOTT: One copy. COSTELLO: Isn't it illegal to copy money? ABBOTT: Microsoft gave us a license to copy money. COSTELLO: They can give you a license to copy money? ABBOTT: Why not? THEY OWN IT!
(LATER) COSTELLO: How do I turn my computer off?? ABBOTT: Click on "START".
Conversational interaction“the horse raced past
the barn”
Conversation is more than just two side-by-side monologues.
“the kids swam across the river”
Conversational interaction“The horse raced past
the barn”
Conversation is a specialized form of social interaction, with rules and organization.
“Really? Why would it do that?”
Conversation Fillmore (1981)
“The language of face-to-face conversation is the basic and primary use of language”
(pg. 152)
So all instances of language usage can (should) be compared to conversation
What is the impact of the presence or absence of different features of face-to-face conversation?
Conversation Herb Clark (1996)
Face-to-face conversation - the basic setting Features
Co-presence Visibility Audibility
Instantaneity
Evanescence Recordlessness Simultaneity
Extemporaneity Self-determination Self-expression
Immediacy Medium Control
Other settings may lack some of these features e.g., telephone conversations take away co-presence and
visibility, which may change language use
Conversation Herb Clark (1996)
Joint action Autonomous actions
Things that you do by yourself Participatory actions
Individual acts only done as parts of joint actions People acting in coordination with one another
Doing the tango Driving a car with a pedestrian crossing the street
The participants don’t always do similar things
Conversation Herb Clark (1996)
Speaking and listening Traditionally treated as autonomous actions
Contributing to the tradition of studying language comprehension and production separately
Clark proposed that they should be treated as participatory actions
Conversation Herb Clark (1996)
Speaking and listening Component actions in production and
comprehension come in pairs
Speaking Listening A vocalizes sounds for B
A formalizes utterances for B
A means something for B
B attends to A’s vocalizations
B identifies A’s utterances
B understands A’s meaning
The actions of one participant depend on the actions of the other
Conversation Herb Clark (1996)
Arena’s of language use - places where people do things with language
Meaning and understanding Establishing Common Ground
Identifying participants Layers Conversation is structured
Meaning and understanding Common ground
Common ground is necessary to coordinate speaker’s meaning with listener’s understanding
Knowledge, beliefs and suppositions that the participants believe that they share
Members of cultural communities Shared experiences
This includes shared languages, shared lexicons, etc. What has taken place already in the conversation
Lack of successful communication was due to lack of common ground Starting around 1:20
EavesdropperAll listeners
Identifying participants Conversation often takes place in situations that
involve various types of participants and non-participants
BystanderSide
participantsAll participants
Speaker Addressee
EavesdropperAll listeners
Identifying participants
BystanderSide
participantsAll participants
Speaker Addressee
Humor came in part because we (eavesdroppers) share common ground that Lou and Bud didn’t)
Layers Conversations may have several layers
Layer 1 The primary conversation
Layer 2 A commentary about Layer 1
Each layer needs to be coherent (within the layer) as well as be connected to other layers in a relevant way
Layer 2: “I'm going to click your blue "w" if you don't start with some straight
answers. OK, forget that.”
Conversations are purposive and unplanned Typically you can’t plan exactly what you’re going to say
because it depends on another participant Conversations look planned only in retrospect
Conversations have a fairly stable structure
Structure of a conversation
Opening the conversation Identifying participants Taking turns Negotiating topics Closing conversations
Joe: (places a phone call) Kevin: Miss Pink’s office - hello Joe: hello, is Miss Pink in Kevin: well, she’s in, but she’s
engaged at the moment, who is it? Joe: Oh it’s Professors Worth’s
secretary, from Pan-American college Kevin: m, Joe: Could you give her a message
“for me” Kevin: “certainly” Joe: u’m Professor Worth said that, if
Miss Pink runs into difficulties, .. On Monday afternoon, .. With the standing subcommittee, .. Over the item on Miss Panoff, …
Structure of a conversation Kevin: Miss Panoff? Joe: Yes, that Professor Worth would
be with Mr Miles all afternoon, .. So she only had to go round and collect him if she needed him, …
Kevin: ah, … thank you very much indeed,
Joe: right Kevin: Panoff, right “you” are Joe: right Kevin: I’ll tell her, Joe: thank you Kevin: bye bye Joe: bye
Joe: (places a phone call) Kevin: Miss Pink’s office - hello Joe: hello, is Miss Pink in Kevin: well, she’s in, but she’s
engaged at the moment, who is it? Joe: Oh it’s Professors Worth’s
secretary, from Pan-American college Kevin: m, Joe: Could you give her a message
“for me” Kevin: “certainly” Joe: u’m Professor Worth said that, if
Miss Pink runs into difficulties, .. On Monday afternoon, .. With the standing subcommittee, .. Over the item on Miss Panoff, …
Structure of a conversation Kevin: Miss Panoff? Joe: Yes, that Professor Worth would
be with Mr Miles all afternoon, .. So she only had to go round and collect him if she needed him, …
Kevin: ah, … thank you very much indeed,
Joe: right Kevin: Panoff, right “you” are Joe: right Kevin: I’ll tell her, Joe: thank you Kevin: bye bye Joe: bye
Opening the conversation
Joe: (places a phone call) Kevin: Miss Pink’s office - hello Joe: hello, is Miss Pink in Kevin: well, she’s in, but she’s
engaged at the moment, who is it? Joe: Oh it’s Professors Worth’s
secretary, from Pan-American college Kevin: m, Joe: Could you give her a message
“for me” Kevin: “certainly” Joe: u’m Professor Worth said that, if
Miss Pink runs into difficulties, .. On Monday afternoon, .. With the standing subcommittee, .. Over the item on Miss Panoff, …
Structure of a conversation Kevin: Miss Panoff? Joe: Yes, that Professor Worth would
be with Mr Miles all afternoon, .. So she only had to go round and collect him if she needed him, …
Kevin: ah, … thank you very much indeed,
Joe: right Kevin: Panoff, right “you” are Joe: right Kevin: I’ll tell her, Joe: thank you Kevin: bye bye Joe: bye
Exchanging information
Joe: (places a phone call) Kevin: Miss Pink’s office - hello Joe: hello, is Miss Pink in Kevin: well, she’s in, but she’s
engaged at the moment, who is it? Joe: Oh it’s Professors Worth’s
secretary, from Pan-American college Kevin: m, Joe: Could you give her a message
“for me” Kevin: “certainly” Joe: u’m Professor Worth said that, if
Miss Pink runs into difficulties, .. On Monday afternoon, .. With the standing subcommittee, .. Over the item on Miss Panoff, …
Structure of a conversation Kevin: Miss Panoff? Joe: Yes, that Professor Worth would
be with Mr Miles all afternoon, .. So she only had to go round and collect him if she needed him, …
Kevin: ah, … thank you very much indeed,
Joe: right Kevin: Panoff, right “you” are Joe: right Kevin: I’ll tell her, Joe: thank you Kevin: bye bye Joe: byeExchanging a message
Joe: (places a phone call) Kevin: Miss Pink’s office - hello Joe: hello, is Miss Pink in Kevin: well, she’s in, but she’s
engaged at the moment, who is it? Joe: Oh it’s Professors Worth’s
secretary, from Pan-American college Kevin: m, Joe: Could you give her a message
“for me” Kevin: “certainly” Joe: u’m Professor Worth said that, if
Miss Pink runs into difficulties, .. On Monday afternoon, .. With the standing subcommittee, .. Over the item on Miss Panoff, …
Structure of a conversation Kevin: Miss Panoff? Joe: Yes, that Professor Worth would
be with Mr Miles all afternoon, .. So she only had to go round and collect him if she needed him, …
Kevin: ah, … thank you very much indeed,
Joe: right Kevin: Panoff, right “you” are Joe: right Kevin: I’ll tell her, Joe: thank you Kevin: bye bye Joe: byeClosing the conversation
Opening conversations Need to pick who starts
Turn taking is typically not decided upon in advance Potentially a lot of ways to open, but we typically restrict
our openings to a few ways Address another Request information Offer information Use a stereotyped expression or topic
Opening conversations
Has to resolve: The entry time
Is now the time to converse? The participants
Who is talking to whom? Their roles
What is level of participation in the conversation? The official business
What is the conversation about?
Need to pick who starts Turn taking is typically not decided upon in advance Potentially a lot of ways to open
Taking turns Typically conversations don’t involve two (or more)
people talking at the same time Individual styles of turn-taking vary widely Length of a turn is a fairly stable characteristic
within a given individual’s conversational interactions
Standard signals indicate a change in turn: a head nod, a glance, a questioning tone
Taking turns Typically conversations don’t involve two (or more)
people talking at the same time
These principles are ordered in terms of priority The first is the most important, and the last is the least
important Just try violating them in an actual conversation (but
debrief later!)
Three implicit rules (Sacks et al, 1974) Rule 1: Current speakers selects next speaker Rule 2: Self-selection: if rule 1 isn’t used, then next
speaker can select themselves Rule 3: current speaker may continue (or not)
Taking turns Typically conversations don’t involve two (or more)
people talking at the same time
Use of non-verbal cues Drop of pitch Drawl on final syllable Termination of hand signals Drop in loudness Completion of a grammatical clause Use of stereotyped phrase
“you know”
Negotiating topics Keep the discourse relevant to the topic (remember
Grice’s maxims) Coherence again
Earlier we looked at coherence within a speaker, now we consider it across multiple speakers
Must use statements to signal topic shifts
Closing conversations Closing statements
Must exit from the last topic, mutually agree to close the conversation, and coordinate the disengagement
Signal the end of conversation (or topic) “Okay”
Justifying why conversation should end “I gotta go”
Reference to potential future conversation “Later dude”
Dialog is the key Why so little research on dialog?
Most linguistic theories were developed to account for sentences in de-contextualized isolation
Dialog doesn’t fit the competence/performance distinction well
Hard to do experimentally Conversations are interactive and largely unplanned
Pickering and Garrod (2004) Proposed that processing theories of language
comprehension and production may be flawed because of a focus on monologues
Processing models of dialog Pickering and Garrod (2004)
Interactive alignment model Alignment of situation
models is central to successful dialogue
Alignment at other levels is achieved via priming
Alignment at one level can lead to alignment at another
Model assumes parity of representations for production and comprehension
Assumptions of the model
1. Alignment of situation models comes about via an automatic, resource-free priming mechanism
2. Representational parity between comprehension and production
3. Alignment at one level leads to alignment at other (interconnected) levels
4. There is no need for explicit perspective-taking in routine language processing
Assumptions of the model
1. Alignment of situation models comes about via an automatic, resource-free priming mechanism
Garrod & Anderson (1987) The maze game
Pairs played a co-operative computer game Move position markers through a maze of boxes
connected by paths
Each player can only see his/her own start, goal and current positions
Some paths blocked by gates (obstacles) which are opened by switches
Gates and switches distributed differently for each player
Players must help their partner to move to switch positions, to change the configuration of the maze
Assumptions of the model
1. Alignment of situation models comes about via an automatic, resource-free priming mechanism
Garrod & Anderson (1987) The maze game
1-----B: .... Tell me where you are?
2-----A: Ehm : Oh God (laughs)
3-----B: (laughs)
4-----A: Right : two along from the bottom one up:
5-----B: Two along from the bottom, which side?
6-----A: The left : going from left to right in the second box.
7-----B: You're in the second box.
8-----A: One up :(1 sec.) I take it we've got identical mazes?
9-----B: Yeah well : right, starting from the left, you're one along:
10----A: Uh-huh:
11----B: and one up?
12----A: Yeah, and I'm trying to get to ...
Assumptions of the model
1. Alignment of situation models comes about via an automatic, resource-free priming mechanism
Garrod & Anderson (1987) The maze game
41----B: You are starting from the left, you're one along, one up? (2 sec.)
42----A: Two along : I'm not in the first box, I'm in the second box:
43----B: You're two along:
44----A: Two up (1 sec.) counting the : if you take : the first box as being one up :
45----B: (2 sec.) Uh-huh :
46----A: Well : I'm two along, two up: (1.5 sec.)
47----B: Two up ? :
48----A: Yeah (1 sec.) so I can move down one:
49----B: Yeah I see where you are:
Assumptions of the model
1. Alignment of situation models comes about via an automatic, resource-free priming mechanism
Garrod & Anderson (1987) The maze game
Path descriptions (36.8%) See the bottom right, go two along and two up
Co-ordinate descriptions (23.4%) I’m at C4
Line descriptions (22.5%) I’m one up on the diagonal from bottom left to
top right
Figural descriptions (17.3%) See the rectangle at the bottom right, I’m in the
top left corner of that
Assumptions of the model
1. Alignment of situation models comes about via an automatic, resource-free priming mechanism
Garrod & Anderson (1987) The maze game
Pairs converge on different ways of describing spatial locations
Entrainment on a particular conceptualization of the maze
But little explicit negotiation Entrainment increases over the course of a game
Description schemes as local ‘languages’ Rules for mapping particular expressions onto
interpretations with respect to a common discourse model
Once the meaning of a particular expression is fixed, players try to avoid an ambiguous use of that expression
Assumptions of the model
1. Alignment of situation models comes about via an automatic, resource-free priming mechanism
Garrod & Anderson (1987) The maze game
Entrainment emerges from a simple heuristic Formulate your output using the same rules of
interpretation as those needed to understand the most recent input
Representations used to comprehend an utterance are recycled during subsequent production
Leads to local consistency Helps to establish a mutually satisfactory description
scheme with least collaborative effort
Assumptions of the model
2. Representational parity between comprehension and production
Parity important for interactive alignment We don’t go around repeating other people’s utterances!
Comprehension-to-production priming (BPC, 2000) Priming from sentences which were only heard Suggests that representations shared across modalities
Equivalent to production-to-production effects? E.g. Bock (1986), syntactic priming in language production tasks
Assumptions of the model
3. Alignment at one level leads to alignment at other (interconnected) levels
Cleland & Pickering (2003) Semantic boost
Primes either pre (the red sheep) or post nominally (the sheep that is red) modified NPs
Same (sheep to sheep), semantically related (goat to sheep), unrelated (knife to sheep)
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
RED SHEEP RED GOAT RED KNIFE
Pro
port
ion "
red s
heep"
targ
et
resp
onse
s
The red XXX The XXX that's red
Bigger priming effect when the prime noun is semantically related to the noun in the target
Branigan, Pickering, & Cleland (2000)
Lexical boost similar effect with same verb
Assumptions of the model
4. There is no need for explicit perspective-taking in routine language processing
If communication is successful, interlocutors’ situation models come to overlap
Implicit common ground
Overlap may be small to begin with
But via alignment, it increases over the course of a conversation
What looks like audience design is simply a by-product of good alignment
Full common ground only consulted when there are sufficient processing resources available
Summary “People use language for doing things with
each other, and their use of language is itself a joint action.” Clark (1996, pg387) Conversation is structured
But, that structure depends on more than one individual Models of language use (production and
comprehension) need to be developed within this perspective
Interactive Alignment model is a new theory attempting to do just this