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Promoting service brands via theInternetIris Vilnai-Yavetza & Sigal Tiffereta
a Department of Business Administration, Ruppin AcademicCenter, Emek Hefer, IsraelPublished online: 24 Nov 2011.
To cite this article: Iris Vilnai-Yavetz & Sigal Tifferet (2013) Promoting service brands via theInternet, The Service Industries Journal, 33:15-16, 1544-1563, DOI: 10.1080/02642069.2011.636423
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Promoting service brands via the Internet
Iris Vilnai-Yavetz∗ and Sigal Tifferet
Department of Business Administration, Ruppin Academic Center, Emek Hefer, Israel
(Received 19 May 2011; final version received 25 October 2011)
This paper suggests a new typology of web design strategies in the academic context,in terms of perceived service quality. A survey of the web pages of 500 high-ranking universities illustrates how academic service brands use different designstrategies to communicate their intangible qualities. Differences found between thepages suggest that the design strategy of each university can be described as a pointon a continuum, where at one end is a ‘service-oriented’ design strategy and at theother a ‘practice-oriented’ design strategy. Cross-cultural differences were evident inthe use of color and image categories. Research and managerial implications arediscussed.
Keywords: intangibility; perceived risk; service brand; university web page; web pagedesign
Introduction
Marketing professionals are confronted with the problem of how to communicate the
intangible qualities of services (Mittal, 1999, 2002). This problem is intensified in the
virtual realm of marketing through the Internet (Koernig, 2003). One suggested way to
deal with this problem is by enhancing the tangibility of services in advertisements
(Koernig, 2003). In the current study we examine how service brands of different
quality use different design strategies for communicating the intangible qualities of
their service. Specifically, we studied the web pages of 500 of the world’s top-ranked uni-
versities, as rated by the Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU) (ARWU,
2007).
We start with a review of the literature on service intangibility and perceived risk in the
context of services branding, and the design of Internet web pages in general and univer-
sity web pages in particular. We continue with a description of our methodology and
research findings, and conclude with a discussion of the results and some managerial
and research implications.
Literature review
Intangibility as an impediment to advertising services on the web
The servicescape – the set of tangible, physical cues that represent an organization to its
clients (Bitner, 1992) – has been shown to strongly influence customer behavior and sat-
isfaction (Wirtz & Bateson, 1999). The design of the virtual site that customers encounter
in an e-service setting can be labeled the ‘virtual servicescape’ (Vilnai-Yavetz & Rafaeli,
# 2013 Taylor & Francis
∗Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
The Service Industries Journal, 2013
Vol. 33, Nos. 15–16, 1544–1563, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02642069.2011.636423
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2006), e-servicescape (Hopkins, Grove, Raymond, & Laforge, 2009) or ‘e-scape’
(Koernig, 2003), and is also likely to influence customers’ feelings toward, perceptions
of, and inclinations to do business with an organization (Gao, 2005; Hall & Hanna,
2004; Hopkins et al., 2009). The servicescape (real or virtual) is perhaps especially impor-
tant for service firms, which involve interaction with customers and property but do not
result in a transfer of ownership or possession of physical objects, and so are inherently
characterized by intangibility (McDonald, de Chernatony, & Harris, 2001). The intangibil-
ity of services increases the uncertainty and perceived risk associated with a transaction, as
customers have no obvious means of verifying the value of what they are intending to pur-
chase (Laroche, Bergeron, & Goutaland, 2001; Laroche, McDougall, Bergeron, & Yang,
2004; Laroche, Yang, McDougall, & Bergeron, 2005; Mittal, 1999, 2002). This uncer-
tainty and perceived risk are even higher in the online environment, where not all the
senses can operate (Eggert, 2006; Laroche et al., 2005).
Increased competition in various service industries has led many companies to con-
clude that building a strong brand can help overcome the problems raised by the intangible
nature of services and give firms a competitive advantage (McDonald et al., 2001). Brand-
ing decreases perceived risk as it provides the branded product or service with known
characteristics and a strong identity (de Chernatony, Keynes, & Relay, 1998; Hem, de
Chernatony, & Iversen, 2003). Managing brands is thought to be similar in offline and
online environments, with the necessary adjustments (de Chernatony, 2001).
Researchers suggest that tangible cues such as pictures, physical symbols, or facts and
informational items can increase the perceived tangibility of services in virtual environ-
ments (Koernig, 2003) and help in creating a strong brand. Mittal (1999), for instance,
suggested seven strategies to deal with various aspects of service intangibility; these
include using images of tangible aspects of the service delivery process. Koernig (2003)
studied the effectiveness of four strategies identified by Berry and Clark (1986): ‘physical
representation’ (the use of cues such as colors, logos, or symbols to represent the values or
qualities associated with the service); ‘association’ (associating the service with some
known person, place or thing); ‘visualization’ (the use of pictures, films, etc. to provide
a mental picture of the service experience), and ‘documentation’ (providing facts and
figures). These communication strategies were found to be effective in increasing the tan-
gibility of services and in maximizing consumer attitudes and behavior (Koernig, 2003).
Stafford (1996) noted that the association and physical representation strategies of Koernig
(2003) are visually oriented, and are similar in that they link physical elements to the
service. Scott (1994), in contrast, argues that images are not a reflection of reality, but
symbols that communicate qualities and messages. She refers to images as a form of
visual rhetoric.
Perceived quality in service firms’ web pages has two aspects: service quality and web
page quality. One approach to measuring the perceived quality of service provided by the
firm builds on the SERVQUAL model (Parasuraman, Zeithaml, & Berry, 1985) and its
adaptation for electronic contexts – the E-S-QUAL model (Parasuraman, Zeithaml, &
Malhotra, 2005) – as a core concept (e.g. Bauer, Falk, & Hammerschmidt, 2006). This
approach refers to five elements of general service quality (reliability, assurance, respon-
siveness, empathy, and tangibility) and to additional aspects adapted for service firms’ web
pages (e.g. ease of navigation, site esthetics, personalization, etc.). Another approach to
measuring perceived service quality suggests a variety of new categories for e-service
(e.g. Janda, Trocchia, & Gwinner, 2002). With regard to the perceived quality of the
web page itself, Loiacono, Watson, and Goodhue (2002, 2007) presented a 12-dimension
model – the WebQual – to assess the perceived impact of web pages. The WebQual
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includes, among others, dimensions such as trust, response time, ease of understanding,
visual appeal, innovativeness, emotional appeal, and consistent image. These approaches
to measuring service quality and to assessing the perceived impact of web pages support
the role of images in both aspects of perceived quality in service firms’ web pages. That is,
the presence of images, abstract decorations, photos, and symbols enhances the perceived
quality of both the web page and of the service itself. The current study relies on both per-
spectives – the E-S-QUAL (Parasuraman et al., 2005) and the WebQual (Loiacono et al.,
2007) – in understanding the importance of various aspects of web page design and
operation.
In short, research suggests that service firms may benefit from enhancing their virtual
servicescapes through the use of images, symbols, and other features that can be associated
with the brand, help it to project desired values (McDonald et al., 2001), and lend it a clear
identity (Mittal, 2002). The current study considers this proposition in relation to the
design of web pages for a particular type of service firm – namely, colleges and
universities.
The promotion of universities via their web pages
Technological developments have created new channels for both sales and services
(Browne, Durrett, & Wetherbe, 2004; Thompson, 2002). Via the Internet, an organization
can disseminate information about its range of services and broaden its pool of potential
clients (Rust & Kannan, 2002; Zinkhan, 2002). Since the Internet web page is the initial
contact point – and at times the only contact point – between the customer and the
company, customers’ perceptions of the company are likely to be derived from their per-
ceptions of the web page. It is therefore important to understand how the design of e-com-
merce and e-service systems affects customer reactions (Gao, 2005; Mummalaneni, 2005;
Rust & Kannan, 2002).
The importance of the Internet in college and university selection has been well estab-
lished (Poock, 2006). Universities deal with a young, literate, and innovative audience,
accustomed to using Internet services (Mechitov, Moshkovich, Underwood, & Taylor,
2001). Thus, the Internet has become a common means of providing information and mar-
keting services to prospective students (Poock, 2006).
Universities have a strong incentive to differentiate themselves from their competitors
and to enhance their academic profile through branding. First, choosing a university is a
major decision: tuition and fees may be high; students expect to study for a number of
years; and the choice may have long-term consequences. These factors make academic
services ‘high involvement’ services (Antil, 1984), for which candidates put effort into
gathering information and alternatives in order to maximize their gains and minimize
their costs.
Second, the academic context is unique in that both the client and the organization
engage in a selection process. Universities aim to position themselves higher in the rank-
ings so that they have the option of selecting the best candidates, thereby strengthening
their brand even further. In this regard, branding is designed not only to attract prospective
students, but also to raise the university’s profile for future employers, who are indirect
consumers of higher education services (Nicolescu, 2009).
The credence qualities of a product or service are those qualities that cannot be eval-
uated by the average user in the course of normal use (Darby & Karni, 1973). This means
that customers have to trust the seller or service provider. Shostack (1977) identified edu-
cation as the most intangible of services; such high intangibility is also reflected in its
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high-credence character. That is, most prospective students are unqualified to judge the
quality of the university, the curriculum, and the faculty (Gremler & McCollough,
2002). Due to the high-credence nature of universities, the consumer’s evaluation of
quality may be directly influenced by the presence of visual cues such as the design of
the university web page.
Meeting the challenge of service intangibility in the academic context
Each university seeks to brand itself so as to create a desired image. However, since there
is a high degree of uniformity in the services provided by different universities and col-
leges, branding the university as a unique service provider is challenging (Nicolescu,
2009). Ali-Choudhury, Bennett, and Savani (2009) suggest that universities position them-
selves by means of promises, realities and symbols. Promises refer to what the prospective
student is likely to gain from selecting that university; this category can include the aca-
demic prestige of the university, the social networks on campus, or the job opportunities
that will be open to graduates. Realities involve hard facts; they can take the form of data
on acceptance rates, drop-out rates, and degree options. Symbols can take the form of a
logo, color palate and other visual cues designed to represent the values and qualities of
the university. As can be learned from the literature on services advertising (Hill, Blodgett,
Baer, & Wakefield, 2004; Mortimer, 2008), using images in the design of university web
pages may help them communicate a desired impression and increase purchase intentions
among prospective students.
Empirical evidence regarding the effectiveness of using images in web pages is mixed.
Some research suggests that including photographs in web pages can enhance customers’
trust and purchase intentions, for example in the hospitality industry (Jeong & Choi, 2004)
and in e-banking (Steinbrueck, Schaumburg, Duda, & Krueger, 2002). However, there is
also evidence that using photographs can be perceived as manipulative, and can decrease
trust if not employed with care (Riegelsberger & Sasse, 2002).
In the academic context, several studies have found that images are typically included
in university and departmental web pages, though it is unclear whether and when these
images are effective. For instance, Poock and Lefond (2001) found that images were
regarded as a useful means of conveying environmental information (e.g. about a univer-
sity campus), though only half the students in their sample rated images as important.
Schultz (2009) surveyed the web pages of 50 information systems departments, and
compared the types of information presented, inclusion of multimedia content and
social tools, and the number and categories of images used. Her findings suggest that
images appear in almost every departmental web page, and include mainly people
and to a lesser extent buildings and hardware. As her sample was minimal, however,
the generalizability of her results is limited.
Vilnai-Yavetz and Tifferet (2009), in an experimental study, explored the impact on
customer reactions of images in an academic web page. Participants evaluated academic
web pages showing images of lecturers, students, university buildings, or abstract decora-
tions, and pages showing no images at all. In general, the presence of images was associ-
ated with feelings of pleasantness, perceptions of attractiveness, and perceptions of service
quality. Interestingly, images of buildings had a stronger impact with regard to those vari-
ables in comparison to images of people.
In view of the existing literature, the current study has three goals. First, the study aims
to describe and characterize a large sample of academic web pages, drawn from a broadly
accepted list of the world’s 500 top universities. Second, we aim to examine the use of
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images in this large sample of academic web pages in light of the findings of Vilnai-Yavetz
and Tifferet (2009). Finally, we propose to explore whether universities ranked at the
very highest level – the top 100 universities in the top 500 list – differ from lower-
ranked universities in terms of the design strategies they employ in the design of their
web pages.
Methodology
We adopted a survey method, following Xi, Zhuang, Huang, She, and Zhang (2007), who
surveyed and analyzed 74 Chinese corporate web pages; Callahan (2006), who surveyed
160 academic web pages from eight countries; and Schultz (2009), who surveyed 50
departmental web pages. Based on their methodology, we analyzed the home pages of
the websites (the first page of each site) as sample pages representing the content of the
websites as a whole. We based our choice of the home page as the most important page
in the website on Lindgaard, Fernandes, Dudek, and Brownet’s (2006) findings showing
that attitudes toward websites are created within the first 50 ms. This emphasizes the
importance of the home page as the first page users typically see when clicking on a
link and browsing into the site. All other decisions (how long to stay on this page,
where to continue from there, etc.) are the consequences of this impression formation
process, which takes place within a very short period.
Research sample
In the study we assessed the web pages of the world’s top 500 universities, as rated by the
ARWU in 2007 (ARWU, 2007). ARWU is published by the Center for World-Class Uni-
versities and the Institute of Higher Education at Shanghai Jiao Tong University, China.
Since 2003, ARWU has been presenting the world’s top 500 universities annually based
on the following six indicators: number of alumni who have won Nobel prizes or Fields
medals; number of faculty who have won Nobel prizes in physics, chemistry, medicine,
or economics or Fields medals in mathematics; number of highly cited researchers in
the life sciences, medicine, physical sciences, engineering and social sciences; number
of articles published in the leading journals Nature and Science over the previous 5
years; the number of articles indexed in the Science Citation Index during the previous
year; and per capita academic performance with respect to the size of the university
(ARWU, 2011). The ARWU is regarded as one of the three most influential international
university rankings, along with the QS World University Rankings and the Times Higher
Education World University Rankings (Zirulnick, 2010).
Research variables
University rank
University rank was measured as the individual rank of each university listed in the
ARWU (2007) top 500. In addition, we separated out the universities at the top and
bottom of the ranking into two groups: the first 100 and the last 100 (i.e. those ranked
1–100 and those ranked 401–500), according to their total scores based on the criteria
described above. Although all 500 universities are clearly highly ranked in absolute
terms, for the sake of statistical comparison we labeled the top 100 universities as
‘Excellent’ and the universities ranked 401–500 as ‘Good’.
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Web page characteristics
The survey assessed 53 variables, adapted from Sandvig and Bajwa (2004) and Callahan
(2006). These covered, among others, design elements (number and type of images – e.g.
students, buildings; color schemes), technologies used (e.g. flash, video), functional fea-
tures (e.g. search engines, RSS (Really Simple Syndication)), and information services
(e.g. news, weather). The full list of items is presented in the Appendix. In addition, geo-
graphical location (country and continent) was coded for each university.
Coding process
Seven teams of two judges appraised the web pages in 2009, using PC computers and an
Internet browser. The browsers were Explorer 7.0 (or the equivalent) or later, allowing
review of all advanced technological features. The 14 judges included four IT pro-
fessionals, two industrial designers, four business managers who operate their own
firms’ web pages, and four graduate students in business administration.
Five of the seven teams were each assigned 100 consecutive web pages for review.
Every web page was appraised by both team members such that each judge rated all the
variables independently, then the two conferred in order to reach agreement before
coding. Two additional teams each independently appraised 20 web pages out of every
100, resulting in the reexamination of 200 of the 500 web pages.
Reliability
Three procedures were followed in order to ensure reliability. (1) Every web page was
appraised by two team members, who discussed the data and reached agreement before
coding, as suggested by Krippendorff (1980, p. 72). (2) Two hundred randomly selected
pages (40 pages out of every 100) were independently appraised by two teams of
judges. Inter-judge reliability was substantial for most of the variables (Cohen’s k
range: 0.550–0.865). Variables with low Cohen’s k (,0.55) were removed from the ana-
lyses. These included presence of main menu and sub-menu; number of options in each
menu; and presence of movement (animated images and video clips). (3) Finally,
before starting the full coding process, all seven teams were asked to code all variables
for 10 identical university web pages. A research group meeting then took place in
which the judges discussed their coding strategies and problematic variables, and
suggested solutions for a standard coding. This process improved the reliability and val-
idity of the coding process.
Data analysis
Quantitative content analysis was used to analyze the sample of 500 web pages in order to
reveal relationships between the variables studied. This methodology is well accepted (see
for example Hinduja & Patchin, 2008) and can yield valid and valuable information
(Rourke & Anderson, 2004). The current analysis was based on objective–quantitative
measurements (see the section on web page characteristics) that allow quantitative
testing for relationships between the research variables ‘web pages design’, ‘university
rank’, and ‘geographical location’.
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Findings
Characterization of the web page design of the top 500 universities
In order to characterize the web pages of the top 500 universities, we first assessed the
general trends in the full sample. The survey showed that images were widely used,
with 96% of the web pages presenting at least one photograph or image. Almost all of
the web pages displayed the university logo (90%), usually in a square shape (93%)
located at the top of the page (76%). The university’s name appeared on each web page
eight times on average, perhaps due to a search optimization strategy (Sedigh &
Roudaki, 2003). Most of the pages had a search option (93%) and university news
reports (87%). The background colors were primarily neutral (82%) and light (81%).
Popular image categories were images of students, buildings and gardens (see Figure 1).
Comparison of the web page design of excellent and good universities
Image categories
Next, we conducted a comparison between Excellent and Good universities in order to
identify differences in their design strategies. A t-test on 14 image categories comparing
Excellent universities (ranked 1–100) and Good universities (ranked 401–500) showed
that the 100 labeled Excellent presented more images of students interacting with other
students in comparison to the 100 labeled Good (95% CI [20.69, 20.20], d ¼ 0.52 (Thal-
heimer & Cook, 2002; see Table 1). The Excellent universities also showed more abstract
or purely decorative images, in comparison to the Good universities, which showed none
whatsoever (95% CI [20.23, 20.05], d ¼ 16.00). In addition, the web pages of Excellent
universities presented more images overall in comparison to the Good universities (95%
CI [22.04, 20.52], d ¼ 0.47).
We next attempted to identify differences in the image categories chosen by Excellent
and Good universities, by measuring the ratio of each image category to all images shown
on a web page. As only the Excellent universities showed abstract or purely decorative
Figure 1. Percentage of web pages showing images, by category.
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images, these clearly occurred in a higher proportion in comparison to the Good univer-
sities (95% CI [20.08, 20.02], d ¼ 4.26). In contrast, the pages of Good universities
had higher proportions of gardens and exteriors in comparison to the Excellent universities
(95% CI [0.09, 0.25], d ¼ 0.59; 95% CI [0.03, 0.23], d ¼ 0.39 respectively; see Table 1).
Technological features
In comparison to the Good universities, the Excellent universities had more innovative
web pages from a technological perspective. Search options, news and updates, glossaries,
feedback options and weather data were all more frequently used in the web pages of the
Excellent universities than in those of the Good universities (see Table 1).
Graphics
While in most web pages the background color was neutral, the web pages of the Excellent
universities were more likely than those of the Good universities to implement a bolder
color scheme, using more cold and warm colors. Similarly, while most web pages used
a light background color, the pages of the Excellent universities were more likely than
those of the Good ones to employ a darker background (see Table 1).
Table 1. Design variables in excellent and good university web pages.
Gooduniversities M (SD)
Excellentuniversities M (SD) df t p
ImagesNumber of imagesStudent interactions 0.38 (0.62) 0.83 (1.06) 159 23.62 0.001Abstract decorations 0 0.45 (0.04) 99 23.11 0.002Images – total 2.83 (2.36) 4.11 (3.04) 186 23.32 0.001Percentage of imagesAbstract decorations 0 0.48 (0.16) 98 22.95 0.004Gardens 0.25 (0.36) 0.08 (0.19) 137 4.03 0.001Exteriors 0.30 (0.39) 0.17 (0.27) 163 2.67 0.008
Good universities % Excellent universities % df x2 p
Technological featuresSearch 47 92 1 9.09 0.003News 46 81 1 9.37 0.002Glossary 38 54 1 4.60 0.030Feedback 31 54 1 6.64 0.010Weather 21 52 1 4.75 0.029
GraphicsColor
Warm 1 6Cold 5 20Neutral 94 74 2 14.73 0.001
LightnessDark 5 18Light 91 76Medium 4 6 2 8.92 0.012
Note: Due to multiple comparisons, an alpha of 0.01 was used for all comparisons of image categories.
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Advertisements
Next, we conducted a simple correlation between the number of advertisements on the web
page and the university’s rank. Note that in the ARWU rankings, rank is continuous for the
top 100 universities, but the other 400 are categorized into groups of 50 or 100. Therefore,
in such cases every university received the median score of the category. World rank was
negatively correlated with the number of advertisements promoting the university (r(472)
¼ 20.12, p ¼ 0.009) and the number of advertisements promoting commercial firms
(r(472) ¼ 20.16, p ¼ 0.001). That is, higher ranking universities (i.e. universities
ranked at the top) had more advertisements on their web pages.
Geographical confound
In general, university rank was related to the geographical location of the university F(2,
467) ¼ 14.24, p , 0.001. North American universities had the highest rankings (M ¼
211, SD ¼ 152), followed by European (M ¼ 264, SD ¼ 140) and Asian universities
(M ¼ 309, SD ¼ 130). The Excellent universities included 58 universities from North
America, 33 from Europe, 7 from Asia and 2 others. The Good universities were more
diverse, with 26 from North America, 35 from Europe, 30 from Asia and 8 others. In
order to see whether the geographical differences were at the base of the differences docu-
mented between the Excellent and Good universities, we re-ran the analyses only on the
American sub-sample. All of the reported trends in the international sample were apparent
in the American sub-sample as well, implying that the differences between Excellent and
Good universities in their design strategies were not a result of a geographical confounding
variable.
Regional differences
In addition to the general trends, geographical location was associated with differences in
the type and number of images exhibited in the web page. There was a significant effect of
location (continent) on the number of images of female lecturers F(2, 466) ¼ 6.07, p ¼
0.002, exteriors F(2, 466) ¼ 3.92, p ¼ 0.02, interiors F(2, 466) ¼ 4.01, p ¼ 0.02, equip-
ment F(2, 466) ¼ 4.76, p ¼ 0.009, sport activities F(2, 466) ¼ 4.99, p ¼ 0.007, and on
the overall number of images F(2, 466) ¼ 3.81, p ¼ 0.02. Bonferroni post-hoc compari-
sons revealed that North American universities exhibit more images of female lecturers
than European and Asian ones and fewer images of exteriors and interiors in comparison
to European universities. European universities exhibit more images of equipment than
North American and Asian ones, while North American universities show more images
of sports activities than European universities. Overall, Asian universities exhibited
fewer images than North American or European universities. Some of these differences
may be attributed to the regional differences in ranking. However, some of the regional
differences were not found between excellent and good universities. These include differ-
ences in image categories such as female lecturers, interiors, equipment, and sports (see
Table 2).
There were also regional differences in the use of color. European web pages were
more likely to use neutral colored backgrounds than were those from universities in
Asia or America (x2(6) ¼ 22.64, p ¼ 0.001). American web pages were more likely to
use warmer colors as the main color in the web page. Web pages from universities in
Asia showed a stronger tendency to use medium lightness in the background, while Amer-
ican pages tended to use darker backgrounds (x2(6) ¼ 39.28, p , 0.001).
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Slogans
Finally, we conducted an initial categorization of universities’ slogans. Of the 500 univer-
sity web pages, 67 (13%) presented a slogan. Content analysis revealed that the slogans
represented four major themes. The first theme emphasized research and discovery (e.g.
‘Driven to discover’, ‘The university to discover’, ‘A world of research’, ‘Advancing
and disseminating knowledge and understanding’, ‘Inventing the future of medicine’,
‘Design the future’). The second theme, similar to the first, emphasized innovation and
originality (e.g. ‘Where innovation starts’, ‘See differently’, ‘Inspiring innovation and dis-
covery’, ‘Unconventional wisdom’, ‘Original thinking’, ‘Imagination and Courage’,
‘Thinking without limits’, ‘Redefine the possible’). The third theme emphasized society
(e.g. ‘Advancing health worldwide’, ‘Science for the benefit of humanity’, ‘Serving
science and society’, ‘Dedicated to the service of the nation’). The fourth theme high-
lighted excellence and leadership (e.g. ‘Leading the way’, ‘What starts here changes the
world’, ‘University of excellence’, ‘A leading European university’, ‘Achieving inter-
national excellence’, ‘You’re in a great place’).
Discussion
Universities, being high-credence services, are faced with the challenge of building a
strong and trustworthy brand in order to differentiate themselves from their competitors,
who may offer a similar quality of educational services. The current study was designed to
shed light on the design strategies used by different groups of universities with the goal of
helping them achieve a competitive advantage. We analyzed the web pages of the world’s
top 500 universities, and compared the strategies used by Excellent and Good universities
to differentiate themselves by using different mixes of colors, images, and search options
in the design of their web pages. Our main findings will be elaborated next.
Most academic web pages present at least one image. This finding suggests that uni-
versities expect images to have a positive effect, in keeping with the findings of Vilnai-
Yavetz and Tifferet (2009) that images in academic web pages increase feelings of plea-
santness, perceptions of attractiveness, and perceptions of service quality. The use of
images is in accordance with the arguments of Steinbrueck et al. (2002, p. 1) that a
picture in a web page ‘says more than a thousand words’, and of Scott (1994, p. 1) that
‘images are a sophisticated form of visual rhetoric’. It also supports research in contexts
such as the hospitality industry. For instance, Jeong and Choi (2004) found a positive
effect of images on attitudes and buying intentions in hotel web pages, and Perdue
(2001) shows that the perceived quality of resorts presented online is the outcome of
Table 2. Number of images in university web pages by category and continent.
North America M (SD) Europe M (SD) Asia M (SD) F p
Number of imagesFemale lecturers 0.20 (0.41) 0.09 (0.28)a 0.08 (0.35)a 6.07 0.002Exteriors 0.59 (0.78)a 0.84 (1.10)b 0.82 (0.75)ab 3.92 0.020Interiors 0.19 (0.44)a 0.34 (0.60)b 0.33 (0.64)ab 4.01 0.020Equipment 0.24 (0.50)a 0.41 (0.76) 0.21 (0.57)a 4.76 0.009Sports activities 0.24 (0.50)a 0.11 (0.39)b 0.13 (0.41)ab 4.99 0.007Images – total 3.85 (2.85)a 3.89 (3.04)a 2.87 (2.76) 3.81 0.020
Note: Means with the same letter in their superscripts do not differ significantly from one another according to aBonferroni test with a 0.05 limit on familywise error rate.
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key factors including overall web page quality, visual attractiveness of the web page, the
information content of the web page, and resort images.
In contrast to the recommendation of Vilnai-Yavetz and Tifferet (2009), images of
buildings (exteriors or interiors) are used in general less than images of people (lecturers
and students) in the design of academic web pages. Perhaps this incongruence can be
understood in light of the differences between the two studies. Vilnai-Yavetz and Tifferet
(2009) studied consumer responses to fictive web pages of universities purporting to offer
courses in distance learning. In such situations, the perceived risk is high (Eggert, 2006),
producing in prospective clients a need to confirm that the organization exists in reality (de
Chernatony et al., 1998). Williams van Rooij and Lemp (2010), for example, report the
results of a content analysis of 43 web pages of e-learning programs. They found that uni-
versities promote e-learning programs in a manner that presents clearly and explicitly who
they are, what they are offering, and what target audience they are seeking to reach, but
they fail to employ marketing-oriented concepts such as a Unique Selling Proposition
or unique benefit promises. In contrast, the present study was conducted on the web
pages of the world’s 500 top-ranked universities. Such universities – which are already
well-known brands (Nicolescu, 2009) – do not need to assure their prospective clients
of their mere physical existence (Hem et al., 2003); instead, their focus is on communicat-
ing attributes such as quality. This is further illustrated by the types of images used on the
web pages of the 100 highest-ranked universities, in comparison to those ranked only
401–500. The most outstanding universities have less need to make prospective clients
aware of their existence; rather, they are interested in promoting their brand. These univer-
sities use a higher proportion of abstract, decorative, image-building images. The lesser-
ranked universities need to make prospective students aware that they are out there, and so
rely more on images of physical elements such as gardens and exteriors.
Our finding that images of people appear more than images of buildings in the design
of academic web pages is interesting in light of findings by Cyr, Head, Larios, and Pan
(2009) that users perceived a web page as more appealing and as having more social pres-
ence when the page showed human images with facial features, in comparison to human
images without facial features or no human images. However, their study involved e-com-
merce web pages, and the question remains whether facial features are important in the
design of web pages in the academic context, and if so, for what type of universities.
Returning to the differences between the web pages of our two subgroups, our findings
that the highest-ranked universities rely more on symbols such as logos, colors and other
visual cues are in accordance with suggestions by Nicolescu (2009) and Ali-Choudhury
et al. (2009) that such universities are impelled to put effort into branding themselves. Evi-
dence from the marketing literature suggests that such visual cues can be key to brand-
building. For instance, colors, which are remembered more readily than shapes, are the
first point of identification for a brand, and thus an easy cue to differentiate brands from
their competitors (Zaichkowsky, 2010). In adopting a color scheme of dark hues, which
is associated with authority and prestige (Madden, Hewett, & Roth, 2000), the excellent
universities follow Aslam’s (2006) and Singh’s (2006) recommendations to choose
colors that support their brand and communicate corporate position.
Design is a powerful strategic tool (Kotler & Rath, 1984). As such, the design strategy
of each university should fit its marketing strategy plan. Each university must determine
how to communicate its brand values to prospective students. Berry (2002) presented
five strategies for the relationship marketing of services. The ‘core-service’ strategy,
which attracts new customers through its need-meeting character and is directed toward
central rather than peripheral target market needs, can be considered as matching the
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expected service strategy of a good or average university. In contrast, the ‘service augmen-
tation’ strategy, which is characterized by ‘building extras into the service’, or the
‘relationship customization’ strategy, which involves tailoring the service to the situation
(Berry, 2002), are both more likely to reflect the strategies and values of top universities.
In discussing the use of color schemes, advanced technologies, and images in the
design of universities’ web pages, the question arises whether a university should try to
present itself as unique, or to communicate its resemblance to a specific group of univer-
sities, which share the same set of values, reputation, and service marketing strategy. Our
results show a significant resemblance between web pages of similarly ranked universities,
as well as significant differences between the web pages of top versus good universities.
This suggests that universities primarily choose to adapt their design strategies to their
general ranking category and to the matched services marketing strategy, and are less
likely to ‘cut through the clutter’ with a unique design that reflects a unique service mar-
keting strategy.
Bang, Raymond, Taylor, and Moon (2005) analyzed the content of advertisements in
the US and Korea in order to identify the SERVQUAL dimensions (Parasuraman et al.,
1985) conveyed by these ads and the role of culture in services advertising strategies. Fol-
lowing their content analysis methodology, we also quantitatively analyzed design
elements and interpreted them using measures of service quality. The results of this analy-
sis suggest that the design strategies of the surveyed universities can be described as points
on a continuum. At one end of the continuum is the ‘service-oriented’ design strategy,
aimed at reflecting service marketing strategies such as ‘service augmentation’ and
‘relationship customization’ (Berry, 2002). At the other end of the continuum, the ‘prac-
tice-oriented’ design strategy is aimed at reflecting services marketing strategies such as
the ‘core-service’ strategy.
Applying the SERVQUAL model (Parasuraman et al., 1985) to analyze these results,
we suggest that some universities – adopting the service-oriented design strategy – aim to
create a service atmosphere by focusing on their customers (students), on the esthetics of
the design elements used, and on the capacities of the technological platforms employed
(e.g. search engines). Elements of the SERVQUAL, we suggest, are reflected in the images
and design elements applied to universities’ web pages. For example, images showing lec-
turers and students and the interactions among them strengthen the university’s perceived
empathy; decorative imagery and academic symbols create a more tangible view of the
service; and the advanced technological features emphasize the university’s responsive-
ness. At the other end of the continuum, the practice-oriented design strategy implements
these parameters to a lesser extent, presenting practical web pages containing information
for prospective students but doing so with fewer images, fewer decorative additions, and
fewer search options.
It appears that the excellent and merely good universities are located at the two poles of
the continuum. The service-oriented design strategy characterizes a high proportion of the
excellent universities’ web pages, while the practice-oriented strategy characterizes a high
proportion of those of the merely good universities. Specifically, we found that in compari-
son to the good universities, excellent universities exhibit significantly more images of
interactions between students. Excellent universities also display more abstract and dec-
orative images, and use a bolder color scheme with darker and less neutral color
choices. Finally, excellent universities use more technological features such as search
options, news updates, glossaries, feedback options, and weather data. The merely good
universities’ web pages show a higher proportion of gardens and exterior images. They
emphasize tangible and physical aspects of the university, in contrast to student
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atmosphere or abstract academic symbols. Why this is so may be related to the degree to
which the quality of service at the different institutions is considered high-credence
(Gremler and McCollough, 2002). It may be assumed that merely good universities
have a weaker reputation, and thus must work harder to show their virtues and qualities.
Perhaps prospective students of those less well-known universities are in a situation of
uncertainty. They need to feel assured that the university they are considering is not a
small, insignificant institute with limited resources and facilities. These issues are of inter-
est to prospective students (Mansfield & Warwick, 2005). Prospective students of leading
universities, on the other hand, assume that these universities have excellent facilities.
Their dilemmas are which of these top universities suits them best; which university fits
their personal inclinations, skills and aspirations. They are looking for cues about the uni-
versity’s special added value and not about its basic services. Put differently, prospective
students of lower ranking universities may need to satisfy their need for security;
prospective students of top universities may need to satisfy their need for self-actualization
(Herzberg, 1966; Maslow, 1954). Therefore, showing building exteriors and gardens is a
good design strategy for good universities, while the more well-known leading universities
can afford to employ abstract symbols and decorations to convey their message of
uniqueness.
We speculate that by implementing a service-oriented design approach, the highest-
ranked universities improve the perceived quality of their service. This service-oriented
design approach may also be one of the factors that position these universities as the
best. For instance, with regard to the technological platforms in web pages, Sandvig
and Bajwa (2004) found that university students have a significant preference for using
browsing methods such as hyperlinks over search features and combined methods. They
are also more successful at finding information in this fashion. This finding stresses the
value of technological features in academic web pages, and especially emphasizes the
importance of search options to create a positive first impression for prospective students.
Universities who have more search options thus have a competitive advantage.
Another issue raised in this study is the potential for cross-cultural differences in aca-
demic web page design. As described above, American universities tend to exhibit more
images of female lecturers and more images of sports activities than European and Asian
universities. European universities’ web pages show more images of exteriors, interiors,
and equipment, and those of Asia show fewer images overall. The survey also revealed
regional differences in the use of color. For instance, web pages of American universities
are more likely than European or Asian pages to use warmer colors and darker hues.
Our results support previous work identifying cross-cultural differences in marketing
in general and in university web pages in particular. Callahan (2006), in a study of 160
academic web pages from eight countries, found differences with regard to elements
such as number and type of images, color, and languages, though her hypotheses relating
the findings to Hofstede’s (2001) dimensions of cultural differences were not confirmed.
Knight, Gunawardena, and Aydin (2009) showed that students from different countries
and cultures differently interpret the meaning of icons and images in university web
pages. Aslam (2006) discusses psychological and cultural factors that influence color per-
ceptions and interpretations. For example, he shows that black represents power and auth-
ority in the US and UK, but weakness in India. Similarly, Madden et al. (2000) found that
while blue, green, and white share similar meanings across countries, black and red are
interpreted differently in different cultures. Given that color evokes strong product and
service associations (Aslam, 2006), such findings are important as web designers and mar-
keters seek to take cross-cultural perspectives into account (Singh, 2006).
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Managerial implications
By learning from the habits of top universities, the current study supports the claim that
service-oriented design strategies can use visual cues and technological features to com-
municate service quality in an academic web page, where universities face the challenge
of positioning themselves against competitors who offer essentially equivalent services
(Nicolescu, 2009). In accordance with Ali-Choudhury et al. (2009), we found that univer-
sities appear to use symbols, logos, colors and other visual cues to differentiate them-
selves. We suggest that for leading universities more abstract and symbolic elements
are preferred, while less-known universities prefer more tangible images, such as build-
ings, gardens, and facilities. Both groups of universities seem to favor images of people
– lecturers, students, and interpersonal interactions – over images of buildings and facili-
ties. Previous research on this issue has produced mixed results. For example, Vilnai-
Yavetz and Tifferet (2009) found that images of buildings produced more positive reac-
tions than images of people in academic web pages, but Cyr et al. (2009) found that
human images created more positive responses than non-human images.
In an era of a strong competition in academic services (Nicolescu, 2009), it is only
reasonable to expect that any capable university will strategically use its design abilities
to cut through the clutter and attract the attention of prospective students. It is thus surpris-
ing to find a rather uniform approach to universities’ web page design. We found that top
universities tend to adopt a service-oriented design strategy, while the good universities
adopt a practice-oriented one. It is suggested that much as packaging helps a product
cut through the clutter and get itself noticed by the consumer (Louw and Kimber,
2007), so does the design of a web page for a service firm, a university in our context. Mar-
keting managers as well as designers should give more thought to the possibility of using
unique design strategies and applying elements such as colors and images in new and crea-
tive ways.
The findings of the current study confirm that, in accordance with the findings of
Sandvig and Bajwa (2004), the more advanced the technological features of an academic
web page, the higher-ranked a university is likely to be, and the stronger its brand.
However, it is unclear whether the more advanced features help build the university’s
image in such cases, or simply reflect the fact that such universities give priority to
such aspects of marketing, and so make use of advanced electronic marketing services
that can implement advanced technological features.
Regarding color schemes, the current study found differences in this regard between
universities ranked excellent and merely good. Specifically, leading universities are
more likely to use a bolder color scheme, in keeping with the recommendations of
Madden et al. (2000) regarding design features for leading brands. But our findings also
suggest that national or cross-cultural differences may influence the impact of particular
colors, a phenomenon also noted by Aslam (2006), Singh (2006), and Madden et al.
(2000). Further research is needed before it will be possible to assess the managerial
implications of particular color schemes for academic brand-building.
As noted earlier, the academic context is unique, since both the client and the organ-
ization engage in a selection process. In this, universities stand in contrast to most other
services, where almost all customers are welcomed. We suggest that the design of an aca-
demic web page may be aimed not only at attracting a specific segment of the market, but
also at discouraging applications from individuals who do not belong to the university’s
target audience. This is something that web designers should take into account as they con-
sider various images, symbols, and colors. In addition, the high-credence nature of
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universities (Gremler and McCollough, 2002) should be taken into account in planning
and designing university web pages in a manner that communicates information, trust-
worthiness and willingness to help.
Finally, another way to deal with the uniqueness of the academic context, where both
the client and the organization engage in a selection process, is by focusing on the clients
themselves. Customer engagement has become an increasingly important tool influen-
cing business success (Verhoef, Reinartz, & Krafft, 2010). As of now, customer engage-
ment practices primarily focus on including customers in the development of new
products and services (Hoyer, Chandy, Dorotic, Krafft, & Singh, 2010). However, cus-
tomer engagement can also take the form of involving customers in defining desired and
unique strategies for web page design. Hoyer et al. (2010) cite several motivations for
customers to engage in new product development, among them financial rewards, the
social benefits of recognition, and psychological rewards such as positive affect. Univer-
sities can use these motivators to encourage student engagement in designing web pages
and in planning long-term design strategies. This can be done by employing focus
groups, surveys, and even lab experiments similar to the one conducted by Vilnai-
Yaevtz and Tifferet (2009) for testing attitudes toward various design strategies,
design element preferences, and suggestions of creative new ideas. It is suggested that
such a strategic design effort can involve not only prospective students, but also
current students who are familiar with the university, and even faculty members who
share some perspectives with their students, but have different perspectives on other
topics. Such an initiative can encourage the adaptation of the web page design strategy
to the new generation of students – the millennials, Net-generation, or digital generation
(Buckingham & Willett, 2006) – who are technologically savvy, who adopt new tech-
nologies eagerly and who manage their social lives through social network sites such
as Facebook, cell phone texting, and instant message software. In this way, universities
may position themselves more effectively in relation to their competitors as well as their
prospective students.
Future research
The present study describes the characteristics of academic web pages created by interna-
tionally regarded universities, and highlights the differences between excellent and good
universities, especially with regard to graphic elements such as images, colors, and forms.
Future studies might extend this work by comparing excellent with very low-ranking uni-
versities, to see whether the trends observed here – such as more pictures of physical
structures in the web pages of the lower-ranked subgroup – continue as rankings fall.
Another area suggested by the current findings is university slogans. Using the
grounded theory approach (Strauss & Corbin, 1990), university slogans can be qualitat-
ively analyzed according to their content, symbolic associations, emotional tones,
unique selling propositions, and other marketing aspects. Categorization of university
slogans can assist in understanding cross-cultural branding and services branding in
general and academic branding in particular.
Cross-cultural differences offer additional fertile ground for further study. Callahan
(2006) compared 160 academic web pages, 20 each from eight countries, and analyzed
them according to Hofstede’s (2001) dimensions of cultural differences. Most of her
hypotheses were not supported, but their rationale is worth additional research. Looking
at a larger sample through a cross-cultural lens may add to the understanding of web
page design in various cultures. It is suggested that future surveys using our sample of
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top 500 universities’ web pages include an analysis of each relevant country according to
Hofstede’s dimensions and a comparison of web pages according to cultures.
Finally, rapid technological developments mean that new studies in the field of online
services marketing will always be needed. New features that should be studied, for
example, are social media options, such as links to Facebook, LinkedIn and Twitter.
Conclusions
The current study illustrates how service brands of different quality use different design
strategies for communicating the intangible qualities of academic services. It is suggested
that universities’ web page design strategies can be described as a continuum anchored by
a ‘service-oriented’ design strategy at one end, and a ‘practice-oriented’ design strategy at
the other. Cross-cultural differences were evident in the use of colors and in the implemen-
tation of image categories. Our study shows that designers of academic web pages should
be aware of various considerations, including cultural differences, the university status and
rank, and the page’s target audience, in decision making regarding the use of design
elements such as images, colors, and technological features.
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Appendix. List of survey variables
Name of variable Content/meaning of variable
Logo Number of times the logo appears permanently (not in a photo or a movingimage)
Logoloc Logo location in the web pageLogohead Logo appearance in the URL lineHebname Number of times the university’s name appears in the local languageEngname Number of times the university’s name appears in English (be it the local
language or not)Ad_rlvnt Number of ads promoting the universityAdirlvnt Number of ads promoting commercial firms (not related to the university)Movement Presence of any kind of movement (video, replacing photos, university news,
etc.)Video Presence of links to videotapesGarden Number of photos of natural landscape (gardens, plants, flowers, pond or pool,
etc.)StudentM Number of photos of male studentsStudentF Number of photos of female studentsLcturerM Number of photos of male lecturersLcturerF Number of photos of female lecturersLecStu Number of photos of lecturers interacting with studentsStuStu Number of photos of students interacting with other studentsStudent Total number of photos of students (total images of students in all settings)Celebs Number of photos of celebrities (the president of the US, a famous judge, a
Nobel prize winner, etc.)Decor Number of images with abstract or decorative elementsSymbol Number of abstract and non-abstract academic symbols (book, atom structure,
medal, etc.)Form The shape of the main image in the web page (square, circle, both, other)
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Exterior Number of photos of building exteriorsInterior Number of photos of building interiors (labs, classes, auditorium, libraries, etc.)Equipmnt Number of photos of equipment (lab equipment, computer, blackboard,
multimedia projector, etc.)Sport Number of photos showing sport activitiesPicmount The overall number of images presented in the web pagePIC_Flash Presence of automatically replaced imagesPIC_Click Presence of images replaced by clickingPIC_mouseover Presence of images replaced by pointing on them with the mousePIC_Refresh Presence of images replaced by using the REFRESH option (F5)Color_Bg Main background color (warm, cold, neutral)Hue_bg Main background lightness (dark, light, midrange)Color Most dominant color in the web page, in addition to the main background color
(warm, cold, neutral)Hue Most dominant hue in the web page, in addition to the main background hue
(dark, light, midrange)M_SumMenu Number of options (headings) in the main menuM_Sub_Menu The way sub-options appear in the main menu (pointing with the mouse, clicking
with the mouse, appearing all the time, no sub-options)S_SumMenu Number of options (headings) in the secondary menuS_Sub_Menu The way sub-options appear in the secondary menu (pointing with the mouse,
clicking with the mouse, appearing all the time, no sub-options)Search Presence of all types of search optionsNews Presence of university news and updatesGlossary_A-Z Presence of an A–Z glossaryQuickLink Presence of a quick link search optionLanguage Ability to switch interface languageFAQS Presence of a ‘Frequently Asked Questions’ optionRSS Presence of a RSS option (the option to be in contact with the university)Feedback Presence of an option to comment or offer feedback on the content, usability, and
design of the websiteDate The appearance of the last date of web page updateWeather Weather data in the university areaVoice Use of voice in the web pageSlogan Presence of a sloganSlogan_Text The content of the slogan (if exists)Scroll Is there a need to scroll the screen (up–down or right–left) to see all
information?Copyright Is there any copyright sign (TM, w, #?)
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