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2012
INDIAN INSTITUTE OFTECHNOLOGY
Greenhouse Gases
A
GROUP NAME: -
1) RUSHIL NAGDA
2) HARSH ANURAG
3) RISHIKA SINHA
4) KAPIL GAUTAM
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INTRODUCTIONGreenhouse Gases
The greenhouse effect
The greenhouse effect is a key component of the climate system
Human activity, the main cause of rising atmospheric concentrations o
greenhouse gases
Currently, human activity is responsible for about 30 Gt/year of
CO2-equivalent emissions some from agriculture, livestock, and
deforestation, but most from the combustion of fossil fuels. The
planets capacity to absorb those emissions appears limited to about
half of the total quantity, absorbed mainly by the oceans. Although the
surplus emissions account for a mere 2% of the exchanges that take
place between atmosphere, oceans and plants, the gases build up in
the atmosphere, where they may remain for several decades and in
some cases, even centuries.
The Earths surface absorbs approximately 50% of the radiant energy
emitted by the Sun, then reflects that energy in the form of heat
infrared radiation a portion of which is absorbed by the clouds and
certain atmospheric gases. Together, clouds and gases act as a lid
that re-emits the thermal energy back toward the Earth, heating the
lower atmosphere. Although it involves a mere 1% of atmospheric
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gases (by mass), this process (known as the greenhouse effect)
ensures that the temperature at the Earths surface is held relatively
stable at a level necessary to the presence of water in the liquid state:
15C (rather than -18C). Keeping it in balance is therefore vital. In
terms of quantity, water vapor is the most prevalent greenhouse gas
(GHG) and is responsible for nearly 60% of the greenhouse effect.
Other gases present in the atmosphere in trace quantities play an
important role because of the intensity of their greenhouse effect. This
is especially true of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous
oxide (N2O), but ozone (O3) and man-made gases such as fluorinated
hydrocarbons (CFC, HFC) also play a part. The greater the gass
tendency to absorb infrared radiation and the longer its residence time
in the atmosphere, the more it contributes to the greenhouse effect.
For example, the global warming potential of methane is twenty-one
times greater than that of carbon dioxide
.
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Human activity, the main cause of rising atmospheric
concentrations of greenhouse gases
Currently, human activity is responsible for about 30 Gt/year of CO 2-
equivalent emissions some from agriculture, livestock, and
deforestation, but most from the combustion of fossil fuels. The
planets capacity to absorb those emissions appears limited to about
half of the total quantity, absorbed mainly by the oceans. Although the
surplus emissions account for a mere 2% of the exchanges that take
place between atmosphere, oceans and plants, the gases build up in
the atmosphere, where they may remain for several decades and in
some cases, even centuries.
Emissions from human activity are very probably the cause of
observable manifestations of climate change, and have the potential to
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create long-term climate disruption1. Due to worldwide economic
growth, particularly in newly industrialized countries, greenhouse gas
emissions could rise by nearly 50% by 2030. Estimates indicate that
the emissions from developing countries, primarily China and India,
will soon exceed those of Europe and North America. It is therefore
imperative to find ways to unbundled economic growth from
greenhouse gas emissions, in both developing and OECD countries.
But revamping our energy infrastructure will take several decades
which means now is the time to act.
Climate change
Atmospheric concentrations of GHG are rising steadily
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Observations show that the atmospheric concentration of CO2 has
risen from an average 280 ppm (parts per million) over the last
century to 380 ppm in 2006 (in other words, 380 molecules of CO2 for
every million molecules of air), and continues to rise by 1 to 3 ppm per
year. For many scientists, the fact that such a rate of increase is
unparalleled in the last 650,000 years no longer leaves any room for
doubt as to the essentially man-made causes of the increase.
Meanwhile, records show that the average global temperature has
risen by about 0.8C since 1850.
Of course, the Earth has undergone climate change of much greater
magnitude at other times in its history, but such changes always
occurred over a longer time span. Indeed, for the past 12,000 years,
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the Earths climate has been remarkably stable, a factor that helped
human societies to emerge and flourish. The rate and accelerating
pace of current changes thus appear to be without precedent.
CLIMATE CHANGE AND ITS POTENTIAL IMPACTS
There is broad consensus within the scientific community that human
activity is changing the Earths climate through increasing
concentrations of greenhouse gases primarily carbon dioxide (CO2),
methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
in the atmosphere.
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Greenhouse gases are a key element of the earths atmosphere
because they trap energy from the sun, creating a natural
greenhouse effect, as seen above in Figure 1 Without this effect,
temperatures would be much lower than they are now, and life as
known today would not be possible. This natural balance o
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, however, is being disturbed by
human activities such as industrial processes, fossil fuel combustion,
and changes in land useactions that release large amounts of certain
greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. This increase in greenhouse
gas concentration traps additional energy in the lower atmosphere,
thus warming it beyond its normal temperature.
Industrial activity has contributed to a 30 percent increase in the
global CO2 level since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution
through the combustion of fossil fuels for energy. Other anthropogenic
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contributions of greenhouse gases include the clearing of forests for
development
decomposition
and
of
agriculture,
solid
methane
and
production
the
from the
ofwaste, manufacturing
chlorofluorocarbons. The term global climate change refers to the
destabilizing impact on climate and weather patterns that result from
continuous addition of these gases, the resultant increase in heat
energy in the earths atmosphere, and the associated changes that
follow.
Even small changes in the average temperatures can be accompanied
by an increase in severe weather events such as storms and droughts,
ecosystem change, loss of animal and plant species, stresses to
human health, and alterations in regional agricultural productivity.
Figures 2 and 3 illustrate the correlation between increased
atmospheric CO2 concentrations and global average temperature since
1860.
Although climate change is a global issue, the effects of rapidly rising
temperatures will be felt in every local community. Average
temperatures in New York State are projected to increase by between
2F and 8F by 2100, with the largest increases in the coastal regions
such as New York City.4 Average precipitation is also expected to rise
by 10 to 20 percent, with extreme wet and snowy days becoming
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more frequent.5 Intense weather trends will be felt on the opposite
end of the temperature spectrum, as the occurrence of summer days
with temperatures above 90F are expected to multiply from 14 days
in 1997-1998 to 40-89 days by the 2080s.6 Climate change will impact
human health, coastal areas, water supplies, agriculture, ecosystems,
demand for energy, and infrastructure. The potential impacts of
climate change to New York City are summarized as follows:
Public Health and Air Quality
Higher temperatures and increased frequency of heat waves may
increase the number of heat-related deaths and the incidence o
heat-related illnesses, particularly among the elderly and poor.
Higher temperatures may expand the habitat and infectivity of
disease-carrying insects (mosquitoes and ticks), increasing the
risk to humans.
As a heavily populated urban area, New York City is particularly
vulnerable to the effects of ground-level ozone, a major
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precursor to smog. Ozone is produced when higher temperatures
and strong sunlight react with hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides
(NOx), worsening air pollution and potentially exacerbating
respiratory illnesses such as asthma.
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Even as it pursues the growth of its activities,
Total is determined to contribute to the global
drive to combat climate change. The Group
situates its efforts for the long term within the
spirit of the Kyoto Protocol and will pursue
actions already undertaken to meet its
voluntary goals for controlling its greenhouse
gas emissions.
Total made a commitment to control its GHG emissions and has taken
numerous initiatives to bring it closer to this goal. These initiatives
focus on four objectives:
Improving the reliability of emissions data in terms of inventory,
reporting and external verification;
Controlling the GHG emissions generated by Group facilities;
Enhancing the energy efficiency of Total products and processes
through:- programs to improve energy efficiency3 in the various
branches of the Group, - actions offering broad scope for
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improvement, such as stepping up the efforts of the Exploration &
Production branch to reduce the flaring4 of associated gases at all
operated sites by 50% by 2012; - products that emit less greenhouse
gas over their life cycle (new motor fuels such as Excellium, energy-
efficient lubricants and engineered materials) and innovative services
to curb energy consumption (e.g., the Solutions Eco-Dclic
energy-saving offering by Totalgaz);
Preparing the future of energy (see opposite). Total is also involved in
the efforts of the international scientific community to gain better
understanding of climate change phenomena. In particular, the Group
is backing the expedition to the North Pole by the Total Pole Airship to
be led by Jean-Louis Etienne in spring 2008. The measurements of the
Arctic ice pack to be taken during the mission will provide a new
benchmark, to be used in future assessments of the climate impact of
human activities.
European carbon market
The first phase of the system applies to 39 of the Groups industrial
sites. In organizational terms, each branch has one or more industrial
counters that coordinate the operational aspects related to the
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obligations of each entity and assess their options in the event of
emissions surpluses or shortfalls compared to allocated quotas. A
trading entity at Group level acts as an expert with respect to the
trading system, while a coordination committee optimizes the
management of the system as a whole.
Participation in the definition of voluntary
agreements in France and the European Union
As a member of Aeres, an association of businesses working to reduce
the greenhouse effect, Totals Refining and Chemicals branches as well
as 34 other companies took part in the development of the French
system of voluntary commitments to curb GHG emissions. The
companies voluntary commitments are confined to installations in
France and target the six greenhouse gases covered by the Kyoto
Protocol for the period 2003-2007 (compared to the reference year,
1990).
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Clean Development Mechanism
The Groups projects in non-OECD countries incorporate the
Clean Development Mechanism.
Participation in future energy transitions
To prepare the longer-term energy future, Total is developing research
programs that focus on new industrial equipment and processes
characterized by lower emissions. It is also working to develop
renewable energies (essentially biomass energy and solar power) and
hydrogen/fuel-cell technology5. Finally, Total contributes actively to
the emergence of other new technologies such as CO2 capture and
geological storage6, particularly through its key role in developing a
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demonstration pilot for an integrated CO2 capture and storage
installation in the Lacq region (France).
The Kyoto mechanisms
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) and the ensuing Kyoto Protocol form the international legal
framework and first steps toward addressing the long-term problem of
climate change. The Protocol lays down greenhouse gas emissions
reduction targets for the period 2008-2012, applicable only to
industrialized countries, and sets out so-called flexibility mechanisms
for attaining those objectives, with rules for monitoring.
To meet those goals, the Protocol thus provides three mechanisms to
be implemented in addition to measures at the national level:
Emissions trading among signatory parties
Clean development mechanisms (CDM) between industrialized
Countries (so-called Annex 1 Parties) and non-Annex 1 Parties,
to promote the transfer of the most effective emissions reduction
technologies in line with sustainable development
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Joint implementation projects (JI) among Annex 1 Parties.
The first international carbon emissions market
The European Union Emission Trading Scheme, which creates a market
for the CO2 emissions quotas allocated to industrial sectors relevant to
the major emitters, has been in operation since January 1, 2005
(Directive 2003/87/EC). The Scheme helps the EU control its emissions
in order get a head start on its targets under the Kyoto Protocol for
2008-2012. The initial phase of implementation of the ETS thus covers
a three-year period from 2005 to 2007 and concerns only those CO2
emissions from a limited number of industrial sectors in EU-27,
representing a total of about 11,500 installations. Each Member State
issues an allowance to emit CO2 and allocates a certain number of
emissions quotas (EUAs) to individual industrial installations. Each
year, the operator of each installation must return the number of
quotas that corresponds to the reported and verified emissions from
his installation.
The allocated quantities of CO2 are capped and published in the
National Allocation Plans. Enterprises may choose to invest in
emissions-reduction technologies and actions, or purchase any missing
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quotas on the market, at market price. To ensure the reliability of the
system, the European Commission has adopted:
GHG emissions Monitoring, Reporting and Verification (MRV)
guidelines involving third-party verifications of the emissions
reported by each installation,
Rules for harmonized EU-wide implementation of the national
registries for recording the issuance, transfer and return of
quotas. A harmonization and an extension of the scope of
application are planned for the second period (2008-2012).
Kyoto Protocol Ratification status
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The significance of climate change
Today, the entire scientific community agrees that climate change,
particularly the rise in global temperatures observed since 1850, is
primarily related to human activity. Naturally, uncertainties remain,
and todays models, despite their increasing sophistication, have not
yet provided a full explanation for natural fluctuations over brief time
spans (from a decade to a century), or for the complex linkages
between cloud cover and aerosols.
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Similarly, it is still difficult to predict future climate changes because of
the extreme complexity, and insufficient understanding, of the
mechanisms of climate regulation (such as ocean absorption of CO2,
the impact of aerosols, etc.). However, the development of more
sophisticated models and more powerful computers, coupled with a
growing number of simulation studies, are shedding more light on the
range of possible scenarios and the impacts of climate phenomena on
a more regional scale.
Foreseeable consequences of global warming
The Earth could warm by as much as 1.1 to 6.4C by 2100, as sea
levels rise by 18 to 59 centimeters2. The rise in temperature is likely
to trigger more marked hydrological contrasts more acute droughts
and more severe flood events.
Ultimately, the very stability of the climate system could be
jeopardized. Climate changes manifest at the regional level would
have varying social and ecological consequences depending on the
geographical location and adaptive capacity of the region.
CONCLUSION
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