Personality Types Personality Testing Achievement Motivation
Theories of Arousal Arousal and Performance Unit 1- Personality,
Arousal and Anxiety
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Contents Personality Types Trait Theory Interactionalist Theory
Hollanders Model Trait V Interactionalist Eysencks Model Narrow
Band Theory Social Learning Personality Testing Observations,
Questionnaires and Survey Profile of Mood States (POMS) Encouraging
NACH behaviour Achievement Motivation Characteristics of NACH and
NAF Encouraging NACH behaviour Arousal Cognitive and Somatic
Arousal Drive Theory Inverted U Hypothesis Optimal Arousal
Catastrophe Theory Peak Flow experience Zone of Optimal
Functioning
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Trait theory Trait theory was based on 3 assumptions Tendency
to behave is stable and unchanging Tendency to behave is consistent
in all different situations Each person has a unique combination of
dispositions Criticism Doesnt explain why our behaviour may change
in different situations Social learning theory- learn by copying
others (significant others, friends etc.)
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Interactionalist theory Interactionalist theorists built on the
work by the Trait theorists They suggested that our behaviour
depends upon what traits we have inherited and how these are
influenced by our environment. So we can split personality up into
Traits (Internal)Environment (external) This suggests that our
behaviour should be predictable in certain environments However
Behaviour may be different as the environment changes
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Hollanders Model Psychological Core Typical responses Role
related behaviours Social environment Psychological Core Inner core
of beliefs, values and attitudes Fairly permanent, unlikely to
change Typical responses Responses to a situation show our core
Different core will lead to different responses Role-related
behaviour Shows our actual responses to a certain situation Most
changeable aspect of personality Behaviour will vary depending on
How we feel? The situation we are in?
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Trait V Interactionalist Interactionalist Trait How we behave
depends on both our inner core and the environment which we are put
it. We inherit traits that define our personality, greater emphasis
is place on the inner core. Key difference- Emphasis placed upon
the effect the environment has on your chosen behaviour
Federer?
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Eysencks Model Personality lies on two continua Extroversion
------- Introversion Stability ------- Neurosis ExtrovertIntrovert
Like social situations Outgoing Likes an audience Become bored
easily. (RAS) Reticular activated system- not easily stimulated
Dislikes Social situations Reserved Dislikes an audience Easily
over aroused StableNeurotic Reliable Consistent Calm Unpredictable
Restless Volatile
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Narrow Band Theory Based on Trait theory as it suggests
personality is innate Type AType B High stress/arousal levelsLow
stress/arousal levels CompetitiveNot concerned with competition
Lacks tolerancePatient Needs to be in control of taskDoesnt need to
be in control of task Fast workerWorks slowly
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Social Learning Interactionalist approach as it suggests
personality is not innate but learned form our experiences
Behaviour changes according to situation Therefore cannot be
predicted Significant others Parents, peers, coaches, teachers and
role models in media Socialisation Accepting and conforming to the
norms Reinforcement If appropriate behaviour is praised more likely
to repeat Also works with seeing others praised
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Personality testing 3 main
formatsInterviewsObservationsQuestionnaires Tests lack Reliability
(results may not be consistent) May change their behaviour if the
know they are being watched May be inhibited by wearing a Heart
rate monitor Performers may not give truthful answers Interpreting
behaviour during observations is largely subjective Tests also lack
Validity (Results may not give any useful information) How people
act playing sport may not be how they are day-to-day Little
evidence to support idea of sporting personality
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Profile of Mood States (POMS) Some research has illustrated a
difference between more and less successful sportsman Based on mood
states and ability to cope rather than personality traits Measures
the following Tension, Depression, Anger, Vigour, Fatigue,
Confusion Iceberg Profile Successful athletes tend to score Higher
on anger and vigour Lower on tension, depression, fatigue and
confusion Can also show when overtraining is happening in elite
performers- reduced Vigour Chicken and egg scenario? Elite become
Iceberg or Iceberg become Elite?
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Achievement Motivation Competitiveness is a key factor for
distinguishing sport from recreation It has been suggested that in
demanding situations performers exhibit either A Need to Achieve
(NACH) Or A Need to avoid Failure (NAF) This displays the level of
competitiveness shown by an individual
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Characteristics of NACH and NAF NACH CharacteristicNAF
Characteristics Shows approach behaviourShows avoidance behaviour
Seeks out challenges Avoids challenge- prefers very easy or very
hard tasks (guaranteed success or failure) Is concerned with
standards Avoids situations where success is unknown and could be
evaluated Enjoys being evaluatedPerforms worse while being
evaluated Not afraid to failTends to be preoccupied with failure
Attributes performance to internal factorsAttributes performance to
external factors High task persistenceLacks task persistence Values
feedback form othersDoesnt value feedback
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Encouraging NACH behaviour Avoidance behaviour arises due to
Lack of self confidence High anxiety Learned helplessness
Attributing failure internally To generate NACH Approach behaviour
Ensure success by setting achievable process goals Steadily
increase complexity of task Raise confidence by giving positive
re-inforcement Highlight successful role-models with comparable
characteristics Attribute internally for success- Ability or
Effort
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Cognitive and Somatic arousal Cognitive arousalSomatic arousal
Increased focus and concentration Heightened awareness of cues in
environment Narrowing of attention Decreased reaction time (To a
point) However if over arousal occurs it can lead to:- Anxiety and
apprehension Tension Negative self-talk Difficulties sleeping
Inability to concentrate Increased heart rate Increased breathing
rate Sweating Headache Cold, clammy hands Dry mouth Dazed look in
eyes Feeling on nausea Increased muscle tension Butterflies in
stomach Constant need to urinate Defined as a state of heightened
psychological activity As a performer you will have experienced
various levels of arousal and recognise both the physical (Somatic)
and mental (Cognitive) signs.
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Drive Theory (Hull, 1943) Proposed a linear relationship
between arousal and performance As arousal increases so will
quality of performance Higher levels of arousal would intensify the
dominant response For Elite performers this is likely to be correct
response For beginners likely to be incorrect response Spence and
Spence (1968) adapted it using an equation:- Performance = Habit
strength x drive Now considered an inadequate explanation When
arousal reaches a high enough point performance will not improve
Ronaldo
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Inverted U Hypothesis (Yerkes and Dodson, 1908) Suggests that
performance will increase with arousal to an optimum point. However
if you go beyond that point then performance will decrease From
observations this seems to fit very well, however, it is too
simplistic Does it apply equally to the different phases of
learning? Does it apply to all sports performance in the same
way?
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Optimal Arousal Phase of Learning Beginners find it more
difficult to cope with arousal Less habitual (Similar to Drive
theory) Need to give more attention to the skill itself and arousal
levels may take concentration away Rely heavily on environmental
cues, may miss what is unexpected Performance Arousal Cognitive
Associative Autonomous Performance Arousal Fine/ Complex Gross/
Simple Nature of the Skill Can vary according to the skill being
performed Gross skills benefit from higher levels of arousal then
fine skills Shot Putt compared to Archery Varies within a sport
dependant upon role Rugby forwards compared to backs Lion's team
talk
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Catastrophe theory Based upon Inverted U theory but differs in
what happens during over arousal Inverted U suggests gradual
decline Catastrophe theory suggests much faster and more dramatic
decline More of a model than a theory as it attempts to predict
human behaviour rather than explain it Performance Arousal A B C D
A- Performer reaches Optimum level of arousal High cognitive
anxiety but low Somatic arousal B- Performer has sudden reduction
in performance High cognitive and High Somatic arousal C- Possible
that performance will continue to deteriorate D- Performer
gradually regains control as arousal levels decrease The worst over
ever?
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Peak Flow Experience Positive Psychological state, achieved by
performers when The level of challenge matches their skill They
have a clear goal They have correct attentional style They have a
positive attitude They have control of their arousals levels To
reach the Zone performers should be given a realistic yet
challenging Challenge High Challenge Low Skill Level Low Skill
Level High Anxiety Apathy Boredom PEAK FLOW
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Zone of Optimal Functioning (ZOF) In the Zone Out of Zone In
the Zone Out of Zone In the Zone Performer A- Low ZOF Performer B-
Moderate ZOF Performer C- High ZOF Level of Arousal The Zone (ZOF)
is a mental state which performers experience when everything is
perfect Characteristics of the ZOF Performing at optimal arousal
Feeling completely calm Fully concentrating on the task Feeling
completely confident (Success inevitable) Performing smoothly and
efficiently Performers will often have limited memory of event-
Autopilot