Overview of Climate Change Impact and Adaptation in Nepal’s Himalayas
HCI / CAHC / Overview of Climate Change: Impact and Adaptation in Nepal Himalayas / 2015
Written and Edited by:
Ang Rita Sherpa, Deep Prakash Ayadi, and Palzom Pradhan
Contributors:
Nawraj Sapkota
Laxmi Joshi
Kumar Lamichanne
Manish Man Singh Basnet
Kushal Gurung
Reviewers:
Rijan Bhakta Kayastha
Photo credits:
HCI
Copyright@
Climate Alliance of Himalayan Communities (CAHC)
HCI / CAHC / Overview of Climate Change: Impact and Adaptation in Nepal Himalayas / 2015
Annapurna Conservation Area ACA
Climate Smart Celebrity Trek CSCT
Climate Smart Living CSL
Combined Adaptation Capability Index CACI
Community Based Approach CBA
District Development Committee DDC
Gaurishankar Conservation Area GCA
General Circulation Model GCM
Glacier Lake Outburst Flood GLOF
Global Hunger Index GHI
Greater Himalayan Trail GHT
Greenhouse Gases GHGs
Himalayan Climate Initiative HCI
Human Development Index HDI
Improve Cooking Stove ICS
Initial National Communication INC
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IPCC
Integrated Pest Management IPM
Khaptad National Park KNP
Kanchenjunga Conservation Area KCA
Langtang National Park LNP
Least Developed Countries LDC
Limi Valley Trekking Route LVTR
Local Adaptation Plan of Action LAPA
Low Carbon Development LCD
Makalu-Barun National Park MBNP
NationallyAppropriate Mitigation Action NAMA
National Adaptation Programme of Action NAPA
Non Timber Forest Product NTFP
Sagarmatha National Park SNP
Slope Agriculture Land Technique SALT
Sustainable Development and Mountain Tourism SDMT
Shey-Phoksundo National Park SNP
Tinjure Milke Jaljale TMJ
United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change UNFCCC
Acronyms
HCI / CAHC / Overview of Climate Change: Impact and Adaptation in Nepal Himalayas / 2015
2. METHODOLOGY
2.1 RATIONALE OF RESEARCH 17
2.2 FRAMEWORK:
IPCC CLIMATE CHANGE VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT FRAMEWORK 18
2.3 SITE SELECTION RATIONALE 19
2.4 CLIMATE DATA ANALYSIS (SHOULD WE ADD NEW ADDITIONAL DATA?) 20
2.5 RESEARCH TOOLS 21
2.5.1 HOUSEHOLD SURVEY (HS)
2.5.3 KEY INFORMANT INTERVIEW (KII)
2.5.4 FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION (FGD)
2.6 DATA COLLECTIONS 22
2.6.1 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY DATA COLLECTION
2.6.2 SECONDARY DATA COLLECTIONS
2.6.3 DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION
2.6.4 REPORT WRITING & DISSEMINATION
Table of Contents
1. BACKGROUND
1.1 CLIMATE CHANGE IN THE HIMALAYAS 07
1.2 GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE: SCIENCE, IMPACTS, POLICIES 08
1.3 CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION & MITIGATION:
NEPAL’S ROLE AS LDC AND HIGH RISK COUNTRY 10
1.4 ADAPTATION AND DEVELOPMENT NEEDS OF MOUNTAIN COMMUNITIES 12
1.5 GREAT HIMALAYAN TRAIL (GHT): FRONTLINE OF THE CLIMATE BATTLE 14
1.5.1 THE GREAT HIMALAYAN TRAIL
1.5.2 GHT: THE FRONTLINE
1.6 OBJECTIVES 16
HCI / CAHC / Overview of Climate Change: Impact and Adaptation in Nepal Himalayas / 2015
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 3.1 BAGLUNG 24
3.2 BAJHANG DISTRICT 29
3.3 BAJURA DISTRICT 32
3.4 DHADING DISTRICT 36
3.5 DOLAKHA DISTRICT 40
3.6 DOLPA DISTRICT 44
3.7 DOTI DISTRICT 48
3.8 GORKHA DISTRICT 52
3.9 HUMLA DISTRICT 56
3.10 JUMLA DISTRICT 60
3.11 KASKI DISTRICT 64
3.12 LAMJUNG DISTRICT 68
3.13 MUGU DISTRICT 72
3.14 MUSTANG DISTRICT 76
3.15 MYAGDI DISTRICT 80
3.16 NUWAKOT DISTRICT 84
3.17 SANKHUWASABHA DISTRICT 88
3.18 SINDHUPALCHOWK DISTRICT 92
3.19 SOLUKHUMBU DISTRICT 96
3.20 TAPLEJUNG DISTRICT 102
4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
4.1 CONCLUSION 107
4.2 RECOMMENDATIONS 109
REFERENCE 112
APPENDIX 1 116
APPENDIX 2 121
6 HCI / CAHC / Overview of Climate Change: Impact and Adaptation in Nepal Himalayas / 2015
The Himalayas are a region of global significance. It is considered one of the 34 global hotspots
for biodiversity, providing essential ecosystem services and ensuring the well-being of 750 million
people living in the Himalayas. As the third largest concentration of ice after North and South
poles, it houses 15000 glaciers that feed Asia’s eight largest rivers and sustain the lives of 1.4
billion people inhabiting their river basins (Chaudhary, 2011).
However, the Himalayas have been experiencing climate change at a rapid rate, resulting in
severe consequences to mountain communities and beyond. Scientific findings indicate that
continents warm faster than oceans and higher altitudes warm faster than lower ones (IPCC,
2007). As a Himalayan country that contains 8 of the 14 highest mountain peaks in the world,
Nepal is experiencing temperature changes that add much more pronounced. The annual mean
temperature has been increasing in Nepal’s Himalayas by 0.06°C between 1977 and 2000 and
these increases are more pronounced at higher altitudes. Rates of temperature increase have
also changed over time. The last 50 years have seen a higher rate of warming than the last 100
years. Consequently, this has lead to the rapid melting of glaciers, increment of glacial lakes and
extreme climate events such as flash flooding, heavy rainfall, prolong droughts, heat waves and
cold streams.
For thousands of years mountain communities have maintained a close relationship with the
environment, depending on ecosystem services for their agrarian livelihood. This relationship
combined with limited economic development compromises their adaptive capacity, making
them particularly vulnerable to a changing climate (Chaudhary, 2012). While mountain inhabitants
have survived for hundreds of years in Nepal’s mountains by adapting to changing conditions and
trends, the unprecedented rate and severity of climate change in recent years necessitates much
more rapid adaptation than the local communities have historically achieved.
In the coming days, as Nepal attempts to address climate change and its impacts through various
adaptation strategies, plans and programs, it will benefit from the indigenous knowledge of
mountain communities—the key stakeholders of climate change in the Himalayas. Accordingly,
this study presents the indigenous people’s observations and perception about climate change
and the adaptation practices being adopted by the local inhabitants in response to the growing
impacts of changing conditions.
This research, conducted in 20 districts from east to west Nepal, presents results based on a large
number of respondents that demonstrated sophisticated knowledge of climate change and its
consequences. They listed changes in the overall climate, onset and duration of different seasons,
overall snow and water sources when asked about their observation of changes in climate. They
cited declining agricultural productivity, increasing pests, changes in biodiversity and human
health issues while talking about the effect of climate change. Their coping strategies included
increased rainwater harvesting and grey water practices, use of energy efficient technologies,
creation of seed banks and migration to places with adequate water sources. Based on these
findings, the study offers points of consideration that will be helpful in formulating adaptation and
resilience-building strategies and policies.
1.1
background
Climate Change is considered to be a critical global challenge facing humankind and local
communities living in mountainous regions. The continents have warmed faster than the oceans
and higher latitudes have warmed faster than lower ones. The mountains are particularly more
vulnerable than the plains contributing mostly to the rise in air temperatures leading to rapid
melting of glaciers and increment of glacial lakes and unpredictable weather. Rates of temperature
increase have also changed over time. The last 50 years have seen a higher rate of warming than
the last 100 years.
Despite the fact that these changes intensely impact mountain people and their communities,
they are very rarely considered in public discourse on climate change. Likewise, the socioeconomic
aspects of climate change are still in its infancy in mountain regions where there is limited
understanding of climate change, climate change impacts, community vulnerabilities, and
adaptation opportunities.
Many mountain communities are struggling through different adaptation measures as an attempt
to reduce the risk of climate change vulnerability. In response to the climate change and their
impact in the mountain region and means to mitigate the climate change impact, the Climate
Alliance of Himalayan Communities (CAHC) conducted a research in 20 districts of mountain
regions from Kanchenjunga in the east to Api in Humla in the west with objectives of providing
people living in remote areas with a voice in the current dialogue surrounding high mountain
climate risks with traditional field based methods and increasing global awareness.
1 Climate Change in the Himalayas
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1.2
Climate Change is considered to be a critical global challenge and recent events have demonstrated
the world’s growing vulnerability to climate change. The Himalayas in Nepal are geologically young
and fragile and pose a threat to nearly two billion people that live in its shadows.
Despite the attraction that Mount Everest, the tallest peak in the world, has drawn to the region,
very little has been known until recently, about the crucial issues surrounding glacial melt.
The glaciers in the Himalaya cover and an area of 33,050 square kilometers that represents 28.8
percent of glaciers in Central Asia and 4.8 percent of glaciers and ice-caps in the world. Nepal is
comprised of about 3,252 glaciers and 2,323 glacial lakes, which are the fresh water resources
for more than 1.3 billion population across South Asia. As such, the Himalayas are known as the
Water Tower of Asia. The “Water Tower of Asia” provides around 8.6 million cubic meters of water
annually feeding most of Asia’s great rivers (Dyurgerov and Maier, 1997).
But the rapid rate of warming is challenging the existence of such glaciers due to the rapid
melting. The most extreme projection on glacier recession is that with a 2oC temperature rise by
2050, about 35 percent of Himalayan glacier will disappear (IPCC 2007). (New report of 2014 - 15)
The latest assessment by the UNEP and World Meteorological Organization (WMO)-supported
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), released in late 2014, concluded that climate
change is already affecting many communities, with far greater impacts to come.
Numerous scientists and researchers have stated that if the Himalayan glaciers continue to
melt at current rates, this will not only affect the hydrological regime but also reduces the water
supply for hundreds of millions of people in South and South Asia. Likewise, the United Nations
Environment Program (UNEP) had warned five years ago that 20 big lakes in the country are at
risk of floods from glacial lake bursts, which could trigger huge loss of life and property. As a result
the risk of GLOF is increasing (Bates et al. 2008). Past records on GLOF events show evidence of
15 GLOF events in Nepal including major GLOF events of Nare (1977), Nagma Pokhari (1980),
Dig Tsho (1985), Chhubung (1991), and Tam Pokhari (Mool 2001a,b). The satellite imagery record
shows that five glacial lake out bursts occurred in Nepal from 1977-1998.
Recent GLOFs in the Khumbu occurred in 1977 near Pangboche and in 1985 in the Bhote Koshi
valley. The 1985 Langmoche flood in the Bhote Koshi valley was the most destructive GLOF in the
Khumbu’s recorded history, destroying bridges, a hydropower station, drinking water systems,
agricultural land, houses, and killing five people and losses worth millions of rupees.
Global Climate Change: Science, Impacts, Policies
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“I found out that the greatest threat to mountain communities was Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOF). Vulnerable mountain communities, like my
own Sherpa community, face the threat of being washed off the mountain slopes. Frail moraine holds back huge lakes formed by melting mountain
glaciers” (Dawa Steven Sherpa, 2014).
Since mid 1970s to 2000, the average temperature recorded at 20 stations of the Himalayan
region shows an increase in temperature by 1oC with more warming on higher elevation (Hasnain
2000). Shrestha et al 2012 stated that the annual temperature is increasing progressively with
higher increment rate in High Himalayan region since 1962. Warming of 0.6°C per year has been
documented between 1977 and 1994. According to Baidya et al 2008, temperature rise in Nepal
is widespread, days and nights are becoming warmer and cool days and nights are becoming less
frequent. Similarly, the variations in monsoon rainfall, intense rainfall events, longer droughts,
rapid snow and ice melting from glaciers, expansion of glacier lakes have also been observed
widely.
Continuation of warming and changing climate in the Himalayas will affect Nepal in various
aspects of development including disasters, hydropower, irrigation and water resources, tourism,
and many more which further could place additional burdens on the development activities and
livelihoods of mountain communities.
Climate change is expected to continue and have severe impacts not just in the distant future
but also in the near future, hence, it’s imperative to take action in order to prevent our future
generations from dangerous climate change and its associated risk.
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1.3
Climate change adaptation is a global issue that can only be addressed locally. It is essential that
efforts be made to empower government to address climate change and provide them with the
necessary tools to enhance their capacity. It has the potential to affect every part of the globe
while the effects are severe on developing nations because of poor adaptive capability. Climate
change is expected to disproportionately affect developing countries particularly Least Developed
Countries (LDC) like Nepal.
The relative contribution of Nepal in climate change is negligible. Nepal comprises only 0.4 percent
of the world’s population and is responsible for only about 0.025 percent of GHG emissions
annually (NAPA\MOE, 2010). However, Nepal is listed as one of the 100 countries most affected by
climate change in the world (GON, 2011). In this regards climate change has emerged as an issue
of profound injustice, as it is the people who have contributed least to creating the problem, who
are being disproportionately affected by the impacts.
Moreover, impacts of climate change will not be equitable as the IPCC 2001 reports concluded:
Being one of the poorest countries in the world, people in Nepal are more vulnerable to the
negative impacts of climate change. Most of the Nepal’s poor living in rural areas are deprived
of resources and information to cope with and mitigate the impact of extreme events associated
with climate change. The situation is even worse when poverty is compounded by population
pressure, land degradation, food insecurity, and deforestation.
Climate change is already hitting every corner of the nation including Nepal, an immediate
adaptation measures are necessary to fight against climate change. An adaptation is very
essential because the effects of climate change can already be experienced in the Himalayan
as well as other parts of country. However, poor countries like Nepal, the people are adapting
to climate change knowingly or unknowingly in different parts of the country as the impacts of
climate change is affecting their day to day life due to lack of knowledge and resources to cope
with the changing of climate.
Hence, in order to improve the ability of local communities to cope with ongoing and future
climate change, it is essential to improve our understanding of the risk they are dealing with
(Heltberg et al. 2009). There is an urgency of formulating effective local adaptation strategy along
with thematic vulnerability assessment to minimize the potential impacts of climate change on
livelihood mostly on rural areas of Nepal’s Himalayas.
Being a non-annex I country on Kyoto Protocol; Nepal does not have any binding obligations
to mitigate GHG emissions; however, it has moral and ethical responsibility to join hands with
international community to combat climate change problems. It is well known that Nepal has
been striving for extensive social and economic development and it is the prime need of the
Climate Change Adaptation & Mitigation: Nepal’s Role as LDC and High Risk Country
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nation. Being a LDC party to the UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol, Nepal has developed National
Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) in September 2010. Being one of the last countries to
develop its NAPA, it has been able to learn lessons from NAPA processes in other countries.
The NAPA also aims to ensure that national adaptation planning support adaptation by local
communities, particularly the climate-vulnerable poor. by preparation of National Climate Change
Mitigation Strategy.
Although GHG emissions are growing due to increasing use of fossil fuel, various energy efficient
technologies should be promoted in residential, commercial, industrial and transport sector in
order to mitigate GHG emission. Besides this CDM – one of the instruments of Kyoto Protocol is
attractive supplementary option to promote adaptation and mitigation simultaneously.
Similar adaptation plan like NAPA, the Bali Action Plan had addressed National Appropriate
Mitigation Action (NAMA) is another mitigation strategy that has been discussed. The NAMA
framework will be supported and enabled by developed countries in technology transfer, financing
and capacity building.
In 2011 the Government of Nepal developed and approved another effective and most suitable
adaptation plan such as Local Adaptation Plan of Action (LAPA) that would strengthen mountain
community understanding of climate change, local assets, vulnerabilities, prospective solutions
and adaptation strategies, funding mechanisms and priority action plans.
There is no doubt that adaptation should be the top priority of Nepal since the country is
becoming more vulnerable to climate change, meanwhile country can benefit from carbon
mitigation programs through carbon financing and other market based mitigation options. The
carbon mitigation strategy, part of national low carbon strategy is already in place which guides
Nepal government to identify the potential carbon mitigation for carbon trading and national level
mitigation with financial support from developed (Annex I) countries.
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1.4 Adaptation and Development needs of Mountain CommunitiesNepal’s Himalaya is highly vulnerable to climate change for two main reasons: Firstly, the impacts
of climate change are relatively high in the mountains with high number of extreme climatic
events resulting in loss of life and properties. Secondly, poverty, resource crisis, poor literacy
rate, increasing population and inadequate awareness are the main drivers, which put additional
burden in formulation and implementation of adaptation measures.
In Nepal, as in any other least developed country, climate change issue is a priority only to the
extent that it is reflected in the national development objectives in relation to protection of the
environment and sustainable development. Therefore, unless the context of climate change is
integrated and linked to the national development goals, priority cannot be attached to it, and
hence, programs related to climate change will not attract adequate attention.
Thus, it is necessary to link climate change issues to Nepal’s long-term development goals focusing
on issues like poverty reduction, economic growth and employment, increased self-reliance,
promotion of rural development, and preserving the environment.
Adaptation to climate change can be achieved by either stand-alone adaptation policies or the
integration of adaptation measure into existing development activities. No doubt, the immediate
need of mountain people is development. Development activities will create new opportunities in
terms of social economic development.
In this context, development policy addressing the need of mountain people should be on top
priority. Hence, integration of climate change issues and adaptation needs of the mountain
community with the development goal is the smart way to enhance climate resilience and
sustainable development. Climate change risks must be considered systematically in development
planning at all levels to build adaptation measures. Effective Mountain oriented adaptation plans
and programs must address the specific development needs of mountain region and should be
able to respond to challenges resulting from climate change.
In addition, issues of gender inequalities should come forward in the adaptation plan because
women are more vulnerable than men. It is therefore critical to develop a mechanism where
women and members of other socially excluded groups can participate equally in initiatives to
address the climate change challenges.
Considering all these emerging issues of climate change adaptation and development needs,
tourism has been identified by UNEP as one of the ten economic sectors best able to contribute
to the transition to a sustainable and inclusive green economy. Now a day, tourism is one of the
largest and fastest growing economic sectors in the world. It contributes to 9 percent of the global
GDP, accounts for one in 11 jobs worldwide, and 6 percent of global exports. By 2030, UNWTO
forecasts that there will be 1.8 billion international tourism arrivals annually (UNEP 2014).
13HCI / CAHC / Overview of Climate Change: Impact and Adaptation in Nepal Himalayas / 2015
Mountain tourism integrated in development process with a pro-poor and equitable approach
has great potential for poverty reduction (DFID 1999). Mountain tourism can yield high levels
of employment and income generation for the poor that ultimately lifts the economic status of
mountain people and enhance the adaptive capacity.
In this regards, tourism can be considered as one of the promising adaptation strategies,
generating socio-economic resources for adaptation process and building the strengths on climate
resilience. Thus, sustainable tourism is a way to achieve environment friendly development along
with climate change adaptation.
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1.5 Great Himalayan Trail (GHT): Frontline of the Climate Battle1.5.1 The Great Himalayan Trail
The GHT is one of the longest and highest walking trails in the world. The Great Himalayan Trail
is considered the “trekking holy grail”—the longest, highest, and hardest (in place) alpine trail in
the world.
GHT traverses the full length of the Greater Himalayan Range, all 2,400 kilometers. Nepal’s
GHT has 10 sections comprising a network of upper and lower routes, each offering something
different—adventure and exploration, authentic cultural experiences, or simply spectacular
Himalayan nature.
GHT Trails are being promoted as eco-tourism trails because the trail is largely untouched by
development and construction. The trail mostly crosses the Himalayan country Nepal from East
to West ranging from Taplejung district in East to Humla and Darchula in the West. The trail
passes through incredible landscapes, remote high altitude plateaus, green valleys and culturally
rich villages. GHT continues beyond the administrative boundary of Nepal viz. Tibet, India and
Myanmar in East and Tibet, India and Pakistan in the West.
GHT within Nepal is a combination of ten treks with the trek duration of 2-3 weeks each. The most
attractive GHT sections are Rara & Jumla, Manaslu & Ganesh, Everest & Rolwaling and Makalu
& Barun etc. Categorically, trekkers can choose two components via upper GHT and lower GHT.
By trekking along the GHT one can contribute to local development of rural communities. In return
people can get incredible views of mountains, discover ancient cultures and meet interesting
people along the way.
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1.5.2 GHT: The Frontline
Three Years Plan (2010-2013) of the country emphasized tourism sector as one of the prime
sectors to achieve employment centric, poverty alleviation oriented, sustainable and broad-
based economic growth. The tourism industry of Nepal is currently concentrated in sight seeing
(Kathmandu Valley, Chitwan and Pokhara, Lumbini) and trekking in three common destinations
(Annapurna, Sagarmatha and Langtang in lesser extent).
Of the 587,842 tourists that visited Nepal in 2013, approximately 25 percent of tourists trek or
travelled to these three small geographical areas (NTB 2013). The GHT holds capacity of spreading
these benefits more equally over the country and establishing new tourist destinations. It is
believed that the GHT will help to attract more tourists in the less explored Himalayan region as
well as encourage them to explore new destinations as well.
There is no doubt that the mountainous region of Nepal holds incredible landscapes providing
scenic beauty and is rich in cultural diversity too. The higher Himalayan region of Nepal is a
major destination for trekkers and mountaineers. Hence, tourism is the major source of income
for mountain people with various socio-economic opportunities and associated benefits.
Nevertheless, majority of these mountain people live in poverty.
Realizing these underlying issues, the concept of promoting tourism along with socio-economic
development of mountain communities has been implemented under the GHT modality.
Promotion of sustainable tourism in wild and remote parts of the country will attract trekkers and
more than 1.8 million people living in the mountain communities can be benefited from it.
The immediate needs of poor people in the mountains are socio-economic development, poverty
alleviation along with environmental protection. Tourism-based climate change adaptation can be
a turning point for poor people to enhance their socio-economic status.
In summary, GHT has highlighted the possibility of tourism in different mountainous districts of
Nepal, which has not been explored. Promoting the GHT in such rural and remote area will be an
ingenious means of achieving the multifaceted goals of sustainable tourism development, and
climate change adaptation and mitigation.
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1.6 ObjectivesThe general objective of this research is to improve our understanding of local people’s experience
of climate variability and response made to overcome impacts of climate change. Similarly, it aims
to document information on the climate change coping mechanisms of indigenous communities
and provide recommendations based on it.
Specifically, this research attempts to:
• To understand the indigenous community’s perceptions towards climate variability
• To understand the impact of climate change in local people’s day to day life
• To document how local people are adapting to changing climate to maintain their livelihoods
and to identify the local priority for adaptation plans in a community
• Proposed recommendations for community based adaptation to climate change based on the
research findings
methodology2 Rationale of Research2.1 Himalayan region is always challenged with its inherent specificities connected with inaccessibility
and fragility. Inaccessibility of the Himalayas has always caused it to remain detached from the
nation’s development activities and geological and ecological fragility has hindered with the
mainstay of economy i.e. agriculture. In context of changing global environment and even rapid
climatic changes observed in the Himalayas, the product of these specificities has hampered the
Himalayan economy and ultimately amplified the vulnerability of the Himalayan communities
to climate change. The climate vulnerability of the Himalayan community is an unequivocal fact
supported by various scientific evidences. It is however important to assess the level of knowledge
of the Himalayan communities on the vulnerability issues related to climate change. Introduction
of proper adaptive measures are essential to reduce the potential risk of climate change in the
Himalayan region; more precisely, the adaptive measures coherent with the local diversity and
resource availability are of more importance. Development of sustainable tourism as a commodity
to fortify the livelihood of the Himalayan community can be a driving factor for strengthening
economy and simultaneously increasing the adaptive capacity. Nepal’s Himalayas are already
attractive tourist destinations and modest efforts in place can identify new destinations and
promote the existing ones at national and international level. One of the destinations that could
contribute to the sustainable tourism is the “Great Himalayan Trail (GHT)”. The geographical
alignment of GHT intersects a number of mountainous and hilly districts of Nepal and promotion
of sustainable tourism in this alignment can be instrumental to enhance the adaptive capacity to
climate change of the pro-poor Himalayan community.
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2.2 Framework: IPCC Climate Change Vulnerability Assessment FrameworkThe climate change vulnerability assessment framework was adopted for the purpose of the
research. The Third Assessment Report (TAR) of 2001 provided further information relevant to the
development of the UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol.
The framework uses the TAR definition of vulnerability as “the degree to which a system is
susceptible to or unable to cope with the adverse effects of climate change, including climate
variability and extremes”.
Thus Vulnerability is a function of the character, magnitude, and rate of climate variation to which
a system is exposed (collectively defined as exposure), its sensitivity, and its adaptive capacity, or:
Vulnerability = f (exposure, sensitivity, adaptive capacity)
Where,
Exposure as defined by IPCC is “the nature and degree to which a system is exposed to significant
climatic variations”
Sensitivity as defined by IPCC is “the degree to which a system is affected either adversely or
beneficially, by climate-related stimuli”
Adaptive Capacity as defined by IPCC is “the ability of a system to adjust to climate change
(including climate variability and extremes) to moderate the potential damage from it, to take
advantage of its opportunities, or to cope with its consequences”
The above-mentioned IPCC Vulnerability Index was followed in the study (IPCC 2001). Vulnerability
assessment seeks to determine the risk of specific adverse outcomes for particular group or the
unit of concern (geographical area, communities, natural ecosystem or specific sectors) in the
face of a variety of climate related stresses and identifies a range of factors that may reduce
response capacity and adaptation to the climatic stressors. The assessment of most vulnerable
area and vulnerable communities was identified on the basis of vulnerability assessment as well
as vulnerability mapping conducted by NAPA. In addition, the indigenous response adopted to
address climate change impacts was identified from questionnaire survey as well as interviews/
focus group discussions.
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2.3 Site Selection RationaleA number of factors were considered for the selection of a particular site for research. The
following are the few but crucial factors considered while selecting study site for research:
• Position of the study site with reference to the alignment of GHT.
• Potential for tourism development in the site considered under study.
• NAPA Vulnerability index of the district under consideration.
• Discretion of the experts involved in the team for the selection of a particular site.
Table 2.3: Priority ranking of climate change impacts for Nepal
Resource/ Ranking Certainty of
impact
Timing of
Impact
(Urgency)
Severity of
Impact
Importance of
resources
Water resources and
hydropower
High High High High
Agriculture Medium-Low Medium-Low Medium High
Human Health Low Medium Uncertain High
Ecosystem/Biodiversity Low Uncertain Uncertain Medium-High
Source: Agrawala et al., 2003
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2.4 Climate Data AnalysisFor the climatic trend analysis, monthly rainfall and maximum and minimum temperature data
were obtained from the Department of Hydrology and Meteorology (DHM). In total 21 different
meteorological stations were selected for 20 districts.
Among 21 stations, four stations don’t have the temperature data, thus analysis was carried
out only for rainfall. The total monthly rainfall, maximum, minimum and average temperatures
were collected. Based upon the monthly data, the annual average rainfall and temperature were
computed by using MS Excel and respective inter-annual long climatic trends were constructed.
The time scale selected for trend analysis is not consistent with all the stations because for some
stations data are not available for particular year and the station establishment year differs from
station to station. The detail of all climate stations is given below:
Table 2.4: List of climate stations with station type, established year and analysis period
SN Station Name Index
No
Type of Station District Estd
Year
Analysis Period Rainfall
Temperature
1 Baglung 605 Climatology Baglung 1980-2009
2 Pipalkot 201 Precipitation Bajhang 1981-2010 -
3 Bajura 204 Precipitation Bajura 1976 1976-2011 -
4 Arughat D.
Bazar
1002 Precipitation Dhading 1971 1972-2008 1984-2010
5 Jiri 1103 Agro Climatology Dolkha 1961 1980-2010 1980-2010
6 Dunai 312 Climatology Dolpa 1958 1981-2010 1979-2007
7 Silgadi, Doti 203 Climatology Doti 1973 1978-2010 1980-2010
8 Larke Samdo 806 Precipitation Gorkha 1978 1980-2010 -
9 Simikot 311 Climatology Humla 1976 1978-2006 1989-2005
10 Jumla 303 Synoptic Jumla 1956 1980-2010 1981-2010
11 Pokhara
Airport
804 Aeronatical Kaski 1965 1980-2010 1981-2010
12 Khudi Bazar 802 Climatology Lamjung 1971 1981-2010 1981-2010
13 Rara 307 Climatology Mugu 1970 1971-2006 1988-2006
14 Jomsom 601 Climatology Mustang 1972 1957-2010 1981-2010
15 Nuwakot 1004 Climatology Nuwakot 1971 1984-2009 1972-2009
16 Chainpur 1303 Climatology Sankhuwasabha 1947 1947-2009 1987-2009
17 Chautara 1009 Precipitation Sindhupalchok 1947 1978-2008 -
18 Bahrabise 1027 Climatology Sindhupalchok 1965 1980-2010 -
19 Dingboche Solukhumbu 1987-2008 1987-2008
20 Taplejung 1405 Synoptic Taplejung 1978 1981-2010 1981-2010
Source: DHM, 2012
21HCI / CAHC / Overview of Climate Change: Impact and Adaptation in Nepal Himalayas / 2015
Research Tools2.5.1 Household Survey (HS)
Household survey was conducted by administering the households a set of questionnaire prepared
for the purpose. The household survey questionnaire, amongst others, sought information
on respondent’s perception over climate change linked with changes in relation to the existing
environment and specific changes noticed by them in areas of water resource, agriculture,
environmental sanitation, human settlements, and infrastructure.
The survey also tried to extract the primary information regarding the climate extremities (drought,
GLOFs, landslides, floods etc) and the significance allocated to them by the survey respondents.
Information regarding the local coping strategy adopted by the households was also sought
through the questionnaire.
In order to have proper representation of the population and accounting for time and resources,
varying number of samples were collected from the study site under consideration. Table 2.3
depicts the number of samples considered for the study for varying number of households located
in the study site under consideration:
Table 2.5.1: Household number vs. sample size
2.5
HH Number Sample Size (percent)
Less than or equal to 30 40-50
30-60 30-35
60-100 15-20
More than 100 10-15
2.5.3 Key Informant Interview (KII)
Interview with the key informants of the study site were conducted to extract the information
on changes in key parameters associated with climate change. The key informants were interviewed
based on pre-designed format for KII. The KII formats were separately developed for identified key
informants representing agriculture sector, animal science sector, health sector and social sector.
While the information for agriculture, animal science and health was extracted from the concerned
employees of the Government of Nepal representing the institution at local level, however, information
on the climate change impact on livelihood was extracted from the concerned VDC personnel.
2.5.4 Focus group discussion (FGD)
A Focus Group Discussion (FGD) was conducted at each site encompassed by this study. FGD was
included as a part of the study to have a holistic perspective of the residents of the study area on
various matters related to weather and climate dynamics, productivity, forest and bio diversity,
energy, human and animal health, and the public infrastructure. The FGD also sought information
on the capacity of the local institutions to address the adaptation issues related to climate change.
22 HCI / CAHC / Overview of Climate Change: Impact and Adaptation in Nepal Himalayas / 2015
2.6.1 Primary and Secondary Data Collection
Field visit for primary data collection for the research was conducted in four different phases. The
rounds of field visit started from the eastern part of the country and proceeded towards west.
2.6.2 Secondary Data Collections
The first field round of field visit started on February 2012. The different rounds of field visit
conducted for primary data collection the coverage of districts thereof is presented in table 2.4.
Table 2.6.2: Details of field visit for primary data collection
2.6 Data Collections
2.6.3 Data analysis and presentation
Most of the data collected during the research was qualitative in nature. The quantitative data (like
meteorological data) extracted during the research were compiled and assessed appropriately
using MS excel.
Relevant trends in the climatic events and episodes of the climate extremities were determined
through this approach. The qualitative information collected during the research was used to
logically interpret the people’s perception over climate change, indications of the changing climate,
indigenous adaptive measures adopted for the perceived impacts and the level of vulnerability of
the localities encompassed by the research. The quantitative data was used to substantiate the
qualitative information collected during the survey.
2.6.4 Report writing & dissemination
Once all the data and information were available and checked, the same was used for the
preparation of the report. A professional researcher conducted report writing with experience in
environmental conservation and climate change. A peer review panel checked the quality of draft
report in order to avoid any inconsistencies in any part of the report. After the completion of peer
review process by the panel, the report was prepared for dissemination.
Field Visit Start Date District Covered
First phase Feb-March, 2012 Taplejung, Sankhuwasabha, Dolakha, Sindhupalchowk and
Nuwakot
Second phase April-May, 2012 Kaski, Solukhumbu, Gorkha, Mustang and Baglung
Third phase May, 2012 Lamjung, Myagdi, Doti, Dolpa, and Jumla
Fourth phase June-July, 2012 Humla, Bajura, Bajhang, Mugu and Dhading
results and discussion3
HCI / CAHC / Overview of Climate Change: Impact and Adaptation in Nepal Himalayas / 2015 23HCI / CAHC / Overview of Climate Change: Impact and Adaptation in Nepal Himalayas / 2015 23HCI / CAHC / Overview of Climate Change: Impact and Adaptation in Nepal Himalayas / 2015
24 HCI / CAHC / Overview of Climate Change: Impact and Adaptation in Nepal Himalayas / 2015
25HCI / CAHC / Overview of Climate Change: Impact and Adaptation in Nepal Himalayas / 2015
Baglung District is located in the Dhaulagiri
zone of western Nepal. It consists of mountains
and hilly areas. Climate change in this remote
hilly area has been a growing issue in recent
decades by affecting the livelihood of local
population. The climatic trend of past three
decades shows interesting results.
The data from Baglung climate station shows
a decreasing trend (5.47 mm per year) for
annual rainfall over a 28 year period (1980-
2010). Temperature data from 1980 to 2009
shows decreasing trend for monthly maximum
and increasing trend for mean minimum
temperature.
According to the NAPA vulnerability assessment,
the combined vulnerability index for Baglung
is moderate. However, it is highly vulnerable
for landslide hazard. Similarly, the ecological
sensitivity towards climate change is also high.
Likewise the combined adaptation index is also
moderate for Baglung. The adaptation capability
is high in terms of technology; however, the
socio-economic and infrastructure adaptation
capability is moderate.
3.1.1 Local Profile
3.1 Baglung
Dagatundada VDC
N
Baglung is a major tourist destination in Nepal
due to the nearby tourist attractions like
Dhaulagiri, Annapurna, Dolpo and Dhorpatan.
The major tourist attractions at Baglung are
majestic views of the Himalayas along with the
waterfalls, forests, terraced fields, caves and
deep gorges which are abundantly exposed to
the visitors.
The present study was conducted in Daga
village of Daga tundada VDC. The majority of
populations in Daga village are Magar, Dalits and
Brahmin. Agriculture and livestock farming are
the main occupation here.
Firewood is the prime source of energy for
cooking and space heating; however, people
have access to micro-hydro electricity. Only one
third of the population have access of piped
water system and rest of the population have
to rely on nearby water sources.
26 HCI / CAHC / Overview of Climate Change: Impact and Adaptation in Nepal Himalayas / 2015
3.1.2 People’s Perception on Climate Change
Majority of respondents have experienced much warmer climate than the past. Despite of this,
people think that current climate is far better than past. This is because in the past there used to
be much colder climate throughout the year and freezing temperatures during winter.
Due to warmer climate people have observed a slight increase in rainfall, unusually short
monsoon in some years. As for example during 2011, there was no rainfall during monsoon as
well as in winter. There has been temporal shifting of rainfall with large inter-annual variability.
Events of prolonged dry season followed by rain have been occurring, indicating an erratic pattern
of rainfall in Daga village. In addition, strong wind events are occurring frequently. Hailstorm is
another growing climatic hazard in Daga village. The impacts of hailstorm are so catastrophic that
it has potential to destroy the roofs and agricultural fields. Similarly, the occurrence of foggy days
is also increasing and it’s getting much denser than the past. People have experienced four to five
days with continuous thick layer of fog in recent years.
Agriculture: The major crop in village is paddy. In recent days, the typical rice variety called light
red (Dhaiya) rice (dhan) is not being cultivated because of remarkable decline in production since
last ten years. Because of the significant decrease in agriculture productivity, people of Daga
village are now depending more on remittance as most of the local people are employed in Indian
and Nepalese Army. Agriculture has been the major source of income in the study area; however,
because of less production people are bound to change their traditional occupation.
Water resource: According to the Dagatunda VDC office, about 22 drinking water sources have
already disappeared in Dagatunda VDC; out of those four belong to Daga village. Natural drinking
water sources like Arakhok and Dhairkhok are drying up affecting the livelihood of the local
people. The water availability for both household and agricultural use is even worse during the
dry season and drought year. Declining water availability in the river system is also visible in Daga
village. In addition, people believe that construction of road in recent years have added greater
pressure on water sources.
Forest and biodiversity: Some tree species in the nearby forest is now disappearing. For example
fodder tree like Dudhelo is getting scarce. Similarly, nutritious plants for livestock such as Tojha
and Hutuk are also becoming rare.
Energy: The main source of energy for lighting homes is the micro-hydro providing electricity for
two nearby villages. In recent years due to the decreasing river flow, the electricity generation has
been declined and people are now facing two to three houses power cut daily.
Human and animal health: New unidentified diseases are occurring more frequently. In 2011,
one of the villagers died from such unidentified diseases. People suspect it was meningitides,
however it has not been confirmed. About 50 to 60 percent of the human health cases are related
with viral fever, typhoid, and chickenpox.
On the other hand, number of cases with skin disease like Leukoderma Fungal infection, nasal
allergy etc is also increasing. According to the local villagers, occurrence of fever in livestock is
common in the locality. Prevalence of beetle in goat and buffalo is another emerging problem.
People have experienced an unidentified disease (Padke in local language) in livestock. Once the
livestock suffer from this disease then use of medicine have no effect at all. People believed that
occurrence of such new diseases may be due to the invasion of new plant species in forest and
agricultural lands.
3.1.3 Coping Mechanism
In agriculture sector, people are using bio-fertilizer to enhance the soil fertility. Similarly to cope
with changing climate people are using selected crop varieties for current weather condition
depending upon local experiences. Forest conservation is one of the major achievements in
Daga village as the community forestry programme has been implemented recently. As a result
some bird species can now be seen returning to their natural habitat. To cope with increasing
temperatures people are discarding the use of warm clothes, threatening the disappearance of
traditional sheep fur clothing.
27HCI / CAHC / Overview of Climate Change: Impact and Adaptation in Nepal Himalayas / 2015
3.1.4 Recommendations
1. Irrigation project with reservoir facility should be developed to supply adequate water in
agricultural field. Another major issue related with agriculture sector is disappearing local crop
varieties. To conserve the local crop diversity, seed bank, local gene bank, seed conservation is
essential. Use of bio-fertilizer, adoption of crop rotation and multiple cropping techniques will
help to minimize the effect of pests.
2. Daga village is facing water scarcity; hence, water conservation practices are essential. It terms
of infrastructure development, community water supply system should be constructed to
supply water through community or household tap system. Construction of reservoir could
be another possible solution to collect water during monsoon season and using it during dry
season.
3. Health and sanitation facility is another immediate need of the people in Daga village. As new
unknown diseases are occurring, diagnosis and proper treatment facility should be provided
in order to control potential catastrophe in future.
4. Though community forestry in Daga village is a step towards biodiversity conservation,
people are not being able to benefit from forest products. Hence, forest based enterprises
development will create new opportunities of income generation to the local people.
5. Firewood is the dominant energy source in Daga village. To promote alternative and climate
friendly energy sources investment in biogas, improved cooking stoves, solar energy is
important.
6. Awareness about climate change and its impacts as well as locally available adaptation
measures should be carried out to enhance people’s knowledge on climate change and
associated impacts.
28 HCI / CAHC / Overview of Climate Change: Impact and Adaptation in Nepal Himalayas / 2015
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3.2 Bajhang District3.2.1 Location Profile
Bajhang District is located in the northern part of far-western Nepal encompassing great views
of mountains like Saipal, Yoga, Nappa, Urai, and Vyas. It is the place of beautiful lakes including
Surma Sarobar, Khaptad Tal, Lokunda Daha and Nilakhanti Kunda. Another major attraction of
Bajhang is the Khaptad National Park. Though Bajhang comprises natural as well as religious
sites for tourism, the tourism potential is yet to be explored and promoted. In recent decades,
Bajhang is witnessing the pronounced impacts of changing climate. Climatic data analysis of
Pipalkot stations in Bajhang shows that the average annual rainfall is decreasing (2.47 mm/year)
over the 30 years from 1981-2010. Such changes in precipitation regime have great effects on
water resources and agriculture sector.
According to MoE/NAPA (2010) vulnerability assessment, vulnerability status of Bajhang is
moderate. In particular, Bajhang district is highly vulnerable to drought and landslide (MoE/
NAPA 2010). However, the adaptation capability for Bajhang is very low. The socio-economic
development of Bajhang is very poor which is also reflected by the low socio-economic adaptation
capability in NAPA document. Realizing the need of problem identification and possible solution
related with climate change, Syandi VDC of Bajhang district was selected for field survey. Syandi
VDC is one of the remote villages in Bajhang.
Agriculture is the prime occupation and livestock is an integral part of farming. Syandi village is the
site with immense natural as well as cultural diversity. There are possibilities to promote this small
village a tourist destination as a part of Khaptad National Park trekking route.
Syandi VDC
N
30 HCI / CAHC / Overview of Climate Change: Impact and Adaptation in Nepal Himalayas / 2015
3.2.3 People’s Perception on Climate Change
The local people in Syandi village have experienced increase in temperature over time. Monsoon
rainfall has been reduced significantly and the timing of rainfall and snowfall has shifted in
recent decades. Usually rainfall used to occur in June and July and snowfall during November and
December in past, but now snowfall is occurring four to five month earlier.
In addition, number of days with snowfall is decreasing. The problem is even worse during dry
season as the frequency of drought is increasing. People have experienced short-lived snowy
season because of the warmer winter. Because of increasing temperature, the occurrence of
animal diseases is increasing which has serious effect on livestock rearing. On the other hand,
increasing prevalence of mosquitoes and flies are causing human diseases. Based on the field
research water resources, agriculture and food security, human and animal health sectors are
highly affected by climate change.
Water resources: Due to less precipitation especially during dry season, natural springs in
Syandi village are drying up. Water wells are the main source of water for domestic use, in recent
years because of seasonal drought and less monsoon rainfall, water level in wells are decreasing
significantly. Because of this, people have to stay in long queue to collect water from community
tap. The impacts are also visible in river system of the locality. Rivers are drying up as the water
level is sinking year by year.
Agriculture: Agriculture is the main income source in Syandi. People believed that the agricultural
productivity has been declining. The deficiency of monsoon rainfall and its temporal variation
has affected the agriculture sector widely. Some example includes early ripening of crops and
whitening of wheat.
According to villagers maize production has decreased remarkably in last decade. Farmers used
to harvest 300 kg of maize per Ropani of land some 10 years back, now it has reduced by 50
percent. Additional problem associated with decreasing productivity is the prevalence of pests.
Changing rainfall pattern also have noticeable impacts on livestock population. With decreasing
rainfall in monsoon season, pastureland in Syandi village is decreasing hence; availability of
fodder is getting low.
Human health: As the temperature has been increased in recent years, due to warmer climate
prevalence of mosquitoes and flies are also increasing. Consequently, number of cases with
dysentery and diarrhea in Syandi village is growing.
In addition, new diseases have been experienced in recent years including Vertibo, Impito and
Soreosis, and number of people visiting the health post for skin problem is getting common.
3.2.4 Coping Mechanism
To avoid the effects of pest in the farmland, people of Syandi are now using chemical pesticides. In
order to increase the productivity, chemical fertilizers are being used intensively. To supplement
the crop water demand as the monsoon rainfall is decreasing, irrigation water canal has been
constructed. Realizing the temporal shifting of monsoon rainfall, people of Syandi have shifted
the timing of paddy plantation by one month. In addition, they are also using new varieties of
seed provided by agriculture office unfortunately the improvement in productivity is insignificant.
3.2.5 Recommendations
1. As livestock is the important part of the Syandi People, there is high possibility of biogas
plant on household level. In addition, the existing use of clean energy like micro-hydro and
solar energy should be encouraged to mitigate carbon emissions and traditional firewood
consumption should be replaced with new clean energy technologies.
2. Sustainable tourism promotion can be attractive solution to bring development activities in
the locality, which in turn provides new opportunities of socio-economic development. The
immediate needs of the people in Syandi are water conservation and management practices.
Rainwater harvesting and construction of artificial ponds to collect the rainwater during
monsoon season should be done. Proper sanitation facilities should be on priority because it
is related with the human health of people in Syandi village.
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33HCI / CAHC / Overview of Climate Change: Impact and Adaptation in Nepal Himalayas / 2015
3.3 Bajura District3.3.1 Location Profile
Bajura District, a part of Seti zone, is the one of the districts on Far-western development region
of Nepal with a low human development index (UNDP 2004). It is considered as one of the remote
and underdeveloped districts of Nepal having high poverty and low human empowerment
index (UNDP 2004). Because of low socio-economic condition, Bajura district is vulnerable to the
impacts of changing climate. Decreasing rainfall trend in past three decades is affecting the rain-
fed agriculture system in Bajura. Data from Bajura rainfall stations shows decreasing trend in
annual rainfall with a rate of 18.25 mm/year over the 36 years from 1976-2011. The inter-annual
variation of rainfall is even pronounced over the same period.
The combined climate change vulnerability index for Bajura is moderate; however, it is highly
vulnerable for drought and moderately vulnerable for landslide. In addition, ecologically Bajura
is highly sensitive towards climate change (GoN/NAPA 2010). The climate change adaptation
capability for Bajura is very low due to the poor socio-economic condition and lack of infrastructure
development (GoN/NAPA 2004).
Basurya village of Bahrabise VDC was selected for this research. It is located in the southwestern
part of Bajura district. Agriculture is the main occupation in Basurya village.
The major crops include Maize, Potato, Rice, Wheat and Millet. Most of the agriculture practices
in Basurya are rain-fed and only 1percent of total agriculture land has irrigation facility (field visit
2012). The food security level of Basurya village is very poor. Majority of the population don’t
enough food to fulfill their annual food demand hence, food security is the biggest threat to the
community. Firewood is the main source of energy for cooking and space heating. People have
access to solar electricity for lighting.
Barhabise VDC
N
34 HCI / CAHC / Overview of Climate Change: Impact and Adaptation in Nepal Himalayas / 2015
3.3.2 People’s Perception on Climate Change
About 35 percent of the respondents have basic understanding of climate change and associated
impacts. Most of the respondents have not experienced any significant changes in local climate
system.
However, they have experienced warmer summer and colder winter as compared to the past
climate. In recent years, drought events are increasing and the nearby water sources are drying up.
The problem of water availability for domestic as well as agricultural use is the main problem in
Basurya village, which is further worsened by the addition pressure of climate change. Some of
the observed impacts in different sectors include:
Agriculture: Prolonged drought (up to 8 months) is the main growing threat related with climate
change. The agriculture practice in Basurya village is mainly rain-fed hence; any shortfall in rainfall
will bring remarkable effect on food production. Because of decreasing food production, the food
security level of Basurya village is declining year by year. Most of the respondents reported that
the food they grow annually is not sufficient to fulfill their annual food demand. They said that it
is only sufficient for seven months and rest of the five months they have to buy from the market.
Furthermore, various new diseases both in crop and livestock have been reported in the locality
putting extra pressure on productivity. According to the local farmer, livestock disease is growing
as a new challenge to the village. Just four to five month earlier of field visit, 50 goats died because
of unknown disease.
Water resources: Basurya village is highly vulnerable to water scarcity. The drinking water is
mainly supplied through community tap system. In recent years, because of declining water
sources, drinking water availability is declining and the community taps are also drying up. The
problem is more pronounced during the year with drought.
Human health and sanitation: Prevalence of mosquitoes and flies are increasing in the village.
Sanitation facility in Basurya village is very poor which may be the prime reason for occurrence
of flies.
However, the prevalence of mosquitoes may be somehow linked with increasing temperature.
This has brought possibility of new diseases in the vicinity however; people have not experienced
such cases with health impacts.
3.3.4 Recommendations
1. Infrastructure development is the prime need of the local community in Basurya village.
Construction of irrigation system, proper water supply system for drinking water should be on
top priority.
2. Agriculture sector being largely affected by water scarcity should be emphasized for climate
change adaptation program. To increase the agriculture productivity in changing climate
drought resistant suitable varieties could be one way to cope with it.
3. Water conservation awareness programs are essential to aware people about wise and
sustainable use of water resources. To control new diseases in plants, crop rotation practices,
multiple cropping systems are some environment friendly options. In case of livestock
diseases, access to veterinary facility is essential to monitor and diagnosed new diseases and
provide appropriate treatments.
4. Awareness on climate change, its impacts and adaptation (and/or mitigation) measures should
be conducted to enhance the general understanding of local people.
5. Awareness on sanitation is also important as the prevalence of mosquitoes and flies are
increasing.
6. To address the issue of water scarcity, on a household level, rainwater harvesting can turn out
to be an economic way to collect the water in small reservoir to use in for both household and
agricultural purpose.
7. As mentioned above firewood is the major source of energy for cooking and space heating.
Promotion of improved cooking stoves can help to mitigate illness associated with indoor air
pollution by using firewood. In addition, use of alternative energy sources like biogas, micro-
hydro will help to protect the environment by reducing the firewood consumption from nearby
forest and it will also reduce the carbon emission.
3.3.3 Coping Mechanism
Due to limited infrastructure facilities, poverty, low social status, the adaptation capability is very
poor. From the field observation it was found that the coping mechanism in Basurya village is
not so impressive. As most of the people are unaware about the climate change impacts and
adaptation measures, people in Basurya village have very little understanding on how to cope
with changing climate. However, in order to fulfill the water demand in agricultural field, people
have constructed small tank to collect the wastewater from drinking water sources and have been
using it for irrigation purpose.
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37HCI / CAHC / Overview of Climate Change: Impact and Adaptation in Nepal Himalayas / 2015
3.4 Dhading District3.4.1 Location Profile
Dhading District is located in the Bagmati zone of central Nepal comprised of mountainous and
hilly areas. Climate change in Dhading has significant impact on rain-fed agriculture making it
more vulnerable to weather variation (Paudel et al., 2011). The average annual rainfall data of
Arughat precipitation station from 1978 to 2008 shows decreasing trend (24.335 mm/year). In
addition there has been remarkable decrease in water availability in nearby river compared to
the past stressing further the agriculture production (Dhakal et al., 2010). On the other hand, the
temperature is increasing with a rate of 0.01oC (Sagun 2009).
Dhading is highly vulnerable for GLOF, drought, and landslide; however, the combined adaptation
capability is low (GoN/NAPA 2010). In particular, socio-economic and technological adaptation
capability is very low for this district (GoN/NAPA 2010).
The tourism potential of Dhading district is impressive. It is located at the lap of mountains with
beautiful rivers, forests and popular religious places. Trishuli River is one of the famous tourist
destinations for rafting.
From Dhading, panoramic mountain views of Ganesh and Ganga Jamuna Himal can be seen. It
also possesses attractive lakes like Bridaing Kunda, Ganesh Kunda and Ganga Jamuna waterfall. In
addition, in the upper part of the district, Buddhist culture can be experienced.
Being really close to the capital city, Dhading provides accessible tourist destination with immense
natural beauty, cultural diversity. Travelling through Dhading, one can combine scenic sightseeing,
jungle safari, and white water rafting and religious as well as cultural tour into a single trip. The
present research was carried out on Laitak village of Jogimara VDC. Laitak lies in the southwest
mid-hills of Dhading district. Majority of the population depend on agriculture for their livelihood.
Jogimara VDC
N
38 HCI / CAHC / Overview of Climate Change: Impact and Adaptation in Nepal Himalayas / 2015
Solar power and biogas are the main source of energy. Firewood is widely used energy source
for cooking and space heating. People have access to piped drinking water however people also
depend upon nearby natural water sources.
3.4.2 People’s Perception on Climate Change
Local people believe that in recent years the climatic pattern is changing over time. The trend of
precipitation, heating and cooling has changed significantly in last 15 to 20 years. Occurrence of
heavy storm is getting more severe than the past. In addition, hailstorm is getting more intensive.
As for example roofs of many houses and agricultural crops are being destroyed by hailstorm in
past few years. Water availability is becoming serious threat to the agriculture and livelihood of the
people in Laitak village. Agriculture, water resources, forest, biodiversity, and human and animal
health are the main sectors in which impacts of climate change has been reported.
Agriculture: The agriculture system in Laitak village is typical integrated rain-fed hill farming
and shifting cultivation type. It is well experienced by the local farmers that the crop production
has been decreased remarkably in recent years due to the decreasing rainfall, hailstorm, and
prevailing drought.
In particular, cereal production has been decreased by 50 percent affecting mostly the poor and
marginalized farmers. According to the farmers, rice production some 20 years back used to be
75 kg per Ropani (1 Ropani = 0.05 ha) of land, which has now decreased up to 25 kg per Ropani.
In addition, there is a considerable decrease in grain size of major food crops like maize and rice.
People are also seeing an occurrence of diseases like Berua in rice; Pahele and Sete in maize and
rice; Patera in rice and wheat; Dahuwa in potato; and Gabara in banana. As a result people who
used to work as a labor in agriculture field are migrating to other areas for labor works. The drying
of water resources has large effect on seasonal vegetable farming. Respondents of Laitak believe
that introduction of bird species like Kotera (small bird with narrow beak) is destroying the wheat
during its maturation period.
Water resources: In Laitak village the natural water sources are disappearing in recent years.
People used to irrigate their farmland from water sources like Japane Mul, Thado Khola, Pakthali
Mul, but now these water sources are drying up affecting the agriculture largely. Similarly the
drinking water sources like Char Barang, Litibang, Bujuli and Tarkepani have already disappeared.
Because of declining water sources people are now bound to walk to the nearby water source
Sarbarang (especially during dry season) to collect the water for household use.
The villagers have observed significant water level decline in Jogimara Khola during last ten years.
There used to be abundant river discharge till October in the past but now drying begins from
early August to September. Laitak village is now facing severe water scarcity and the situation is
even worse during dry season.
Forest and biodiversity: In recent years due to decreasing abundance of locally available plant
called Dioscorea spp. (Bhakyur/Githa), which is the daily food for local people. People of Laitak
are worried about future food availability. Moreover, the recent road construction activities are
affecting the nearby forest largely.
Species like Wendlendia excreta (Kaiyo) has already disappeared from the forest. Invasive plant species
like; Ageratinum conyozoides (Gandhe jhar) Lantera camera (Kade jhar), Eupatoriaum adenophotum
(Banmara) are adding extra pressure on the forest biodiversity and agricultural practices.
They are also thought to be responsible for the disappearing of many fodder trees in nearby
forest and farmlands. Flowering date of many plant species has been shifted. Delay flowering and
maturation in many vegetable crops like potato, pumpkin etc has been observed by the villagers.
Human and animal health: Many weather related human and animal diseases are threatening
the people’s livelihood. In case of human, occurrence of viral fever, cough, headache and skin
allergies are increasing.
The size of the newly born cattle like Buffalo, Goat are decreasing in size in recent years. Local
people have experienced changes in breeding behavior of livestock. The decreasing milk
production is another major concern of local people. They think that such changes possibly due
to the lack of fresh forage and fodder.
3.4.3 Coping Mechanism
To cope with declining crop varieties, people have established community seed bank in Jogimara
to donate and loan many traditional local varieties of seeds. People are using cattle manure and
grey water to increase soil fertility. Addressing the issue of water scarcity, local villagers are now
conserving water and using it wisely. Rainwater harvesting is a good example, which is now in
practice in Laitak village. Due to the unavailability of firewood, alternative sources of energy like
biogas, solar, and energy efficient technology like improved cooking stoves are now in practice.
3.4.4 Recommendations
1. For agriculture sector, strengthening of local seed conservation techniques is important.
Disease and drought resistant seed varieties should be promoted in order to enhance
agriculture production in changing climatic conditions.
2. Construction of irrigation canal and distribution network is needed as Laitak village is facing
severe water scarcity. Realizing the importance of water conservation, source conservation
should be emphasized. Community water storage tanks for different purposes like household,
agriculture; livestock should be constructed to store the water for dry season. Rainwater
harvesting techniques should be encouraged further.
3. Forest conservation should also be taking into consideration, as collecting firewood is a growing
problem. Although people are now using alternative energy, such practices are limited to few
families. Hence, it needs to be promoted with government subsidy to make affordable for these
rural people. Concept of community forestry can turn out to be an attractive solution. People can be
benefited from the forest products meanwhile they can conserve the forest on a sustainable way.
4. Laitak village is on the way to Hatiban a famous place for sunrise view. Many visitors reach there
but Laitak village is usually avoided. If the area is promoted as a place to explore indigenous
culture and tradition, it has immense potential to develop as a tourist destination.
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3.5 Dolakha District
3.5.1 Location Profile
Dolakha District lies in Janakpur Zone with Charikot the Headquarter of Dolakha. The district
covers an area of 2,191 square kilometers and has a population of 204,229. The elevation ranges
from 762 to 7,148 meters (Gaurishankar peak). In Nepal, Gaurishankar is considered as sacred
peak and so far people are not allowed to scale this peak. Two rivers border the region: the Sun
Koshi to the west and the Khimti to the east.
Dolakha is ranked as highly vulnerable district to climate change on NAPA’s “Climate Change
Vulnerability Mapping for Nepal” (GoN/NAPA 2010). GLOF is the biggest threat to the people in
Dolakha with very high vulnerability index. Tsho Rolpa Lake is among the 20 potentially dangerous
glacial lakes in Nepal (Mool 2001). Beside GLOF, Dolakha is also highly vulnerable for drought
and rainfall/temperature hazards. Data from Jiri agro-meteorological station shows increasing
trend for average annual maximum temperature while average annual minimum temperature
is decreasing (0.011oC/year) over the 30 years period (1981-2010). In case of rainfall, the average
annual rainfall is increasing (11mm/year) over the same period with inter-annual variability.
The overall changing climatic condition and threat of natural hazards indicates Dolakha district is
highly vulnerable to climate change; however, the adaptation capability is not so impressive. This
is because; the combined adaptation capability index for Dolakha is very low (GoN/NAPA 2010).
In particular, adaptation capability in terms of socio-economic development and infrastructure is
relatively low.
Jagat and Beding village were selected for the study in Dolakha. Both of the villages lie in the
Gaurishankar Conservation Area (GCA). Beding village is the main access point for the Tsho Rolpa
Glacier and Tasi Lapcha Pass trek. Beding village is located 9.6 km downstream of Tsho Rolpa
Glacier Lake along the banks of Rolwaling River.
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In 1991 GLOF from Chubung adjacent to Tsho Rolpa alarmed local communities because of the
damage it caused downstream at Bedding village. Thus, Beding village is now considered as
highly vulnerable area for GLOF hazard. On the other hand Jagat village is situated at the bank of
Tamakoshi River.
It is also under risk of Tsho Ropla GLOF as reported by ICIMOD (2011). Despite the fact that both
of the villages are largely threatened by risk of GLOF, they are still popular trekking destinations
and have great potential of adventurous trekking.
Tibetan culture is the major socio-cultural attraction of Jagat and Beding. There are numerous
monasteries in these areas with religious and cultural importance. Tsho Rolpa Lake itself is the
major attraction of Rolwaling and both of the villages are on the way to Tsho Rolpa. Beding is
popular campsite for Tsho Rolpa and Tashi Lapcha pass trek.
3.5.2 People’s Perception on Climate Change
Agriculture and livestock: People of Jagat village have been experiencing gradual increase in
potato production because they are using fertilizers; whereas the production of wheat and maize
are decreasing since four to five years mainly due to frequent occurrence of diseases. As for
example Leaf roll (Beruwa) in wheat and Sindure in barley has become nuisance to the farmers
in Jagat village. The decreasing agriculture productivity is the common problem in Beding village
also. As a result, young generations are now involved in mountaineering business as a guide or
labor. According to the villagers, more than 50-60 percent households have already migrated to
Kathmandu for better opportunities and education.
Due to increasing frequency of landslide, which is possibly associated with intense rainfall events,
pastureland has been degraded. In addition, overgrazing in these landslide prone steep mountain
slopes is making these fragile areas more sensitive to landslides.
Water resources: The main water sources for piped drinking water system in Jagat villages are
Deulang Kulkoti and Gohibara spring; both of them are drying up. In case of Beding village people
don’t have any water supply system. For their daily water demand they depend on the nearby
Beding River. Villagers of Beding have experienced increasing frequency of short but intense
rainfalls rather than usual mild and continuous rainfall during the monsoon.
Forest and biodiversity: People of Jagat are maintaining the quality of forest through community
forestry program. However, an invasive species called Mikanai micrantha (Banmara) is dominating
the forest. According to the local people Artemisia vulgaris (Titepati) is now hard to find in the forest.
Similarly, Berberis aristat (Chutro) species is getting less abundant. In case of Beding village,
firewood is the main problem because of declining forested areas. Natural hazards like windstorm
affecting the forest largely in recent years adding burden to the livelihood of the mountain
communities. As for example windstorm of March 2011 destroyed many trees in the lower part of
the forest in Beding putting extra pressure on firewood availability.
3.5.3 Coping Mechanism
To avoid the seasonal water scarcity and grazing land degredation, people of Beding are migrating
in search of water and pasture land. During dry period (winter) people of Beding migrate to low
land Neymare village where they can get abundant water from Gaurishankar Khola.
While during monsoon season people migrate upland with their livestock to the Neymare village
where snow-fed Beding Khola is the prime source of water. People are controlling the growth of
invasive species by using it as a source of fodder for domesticated animals.
3.5.4 Recommendations
1. Drying water sources is the major problem of Jagat village. People have identified three
potential water sources near village. Hence, detail study on these newly identified water
sources and implementation of drinking water supply system will be helpful minimizing the
water deficiency of the local communities. Construction of central collection chamber for all
water sources is essential which can be used to store water for dry season.
2. Beding village has a micro-hydro plant with installed capacity of 22 kW. Since two years it is
not in operation because of much lower consumption (only 5 kW) than production. The micro-
hydro plant should put into operation once again.
3. To optimize the usage of energy generated people should be encouraged to use electricity for
cooking and space heating which in turn will reduce the firewood dependency.
4. As Beding village don’t have access of drinking water, they are forced to migrate seasonally in
search of water. Water supply project is their immediate need. Constructing a water storage
reservoir can collect water from Beding Khola, which can then distributed through pipe water
supply system.
5. Forest conservation practices are essential in Beding village as the forest area is decreasing.
Community forestry can be a good practice for forest conservation. Bioengineering techniques
should be applied to the landslide prone areas to reduce the risk of landslide. Plantation of
selective species as per livestock fodder requirement will be an intelligent concept to minimize
landslide and solve the problem of decreasing grazing lands.
6. As mentioned above both of the villages can be developed as Tamang Cultural Trek. Moreover,
both of the villages are on the way to Tsho Rolpa Trek, hence promotion of tourism in these
villages might attract trekkers to spend some time during their Tsho Rolpa Trek.
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3.6 Dolpa District3.6.1 Location Profile
Dolpa District lies in the Karnali Zone and borders China to the north. The headquarters is Dunai.
The district covers an area of 7,889 square kilometers and has a population of 29,545. The
elevation ranges from 1, 225 to 7,625 meters. Lake Phoksundo lies in this district at elevation
of 3,613m. The climate is alpine and temperatures are cool. Dolpa is considered as the largest
district of Nepal covering 5.36 percent of the country’s total area.
It is the least developed district of Nepal with poor literacy rate and high poverty (CBS 2007).
Climate change is adding extra pressure to the livelihood of this remote mountain location.
Meteorological data analysis of Dunai climate station indicates changing climatic pattern in Dolpa.
Temperature analysis over 19 year period reveals decreasing trend for mean monthly maximum
temperature; whereas, monthly minimum temperature steadily remains the same. There has
been gradual decreasing trend for average annual rainfall over the 30-year period (1981-2010)
with pronounced inter-annual variability. Dolpa district is highly vulnerable to climate change with
very high vulnerability index for drought, rainfall, temperature, and landslide.
Ecologically it is highly sensitive to changing climate (GoN/NAPA 2010). Because of low socio-
economic status and limited infrastructure, the climate change adaptation capability of Dolpa
district is very low (GoN/NAPA 2010).
Untouched by the outer world, the natural beauty and cultural diversity of Dolpa has been well
preserved. However, the wilderness beauty of Dolpa is yet to be explored. Dolpa serves high
mountains like Dhaulagiri, Churen, Kanjirowa and Mukut Himal. Nepal’s largest protected area
i.e. Shey-Phoksundo National Park(SPN) is the major tourist attraction in Dolpa. Other natural
attraction of Dolpa includes Shey Phoksundo Lake, hot water springs, waterfalls, caves, and
colorful rhododendron forests.
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Walking around Dolpa Trek one can have great opportunity to know about Buddhist and Tibetan
culture and observe oldest ancient Nepalese monasteries. The research was mainly focused on
the two villages namely Bhutingra village of Phada VDCs and Ringmo village of Shey Phoksundo.
Bhutingra lies on lower track of the Great Himalayan Trail. It possesses socio-cultural and
geographical uniqueness. People of Bhutingraare highly deprived from abundant water availability
and basic sanitations. Yarsa Gumba is the main source of income for local people. Ringmo village
lies on upper track of the GHT and encompasses extreme scenic beauty and rich biodiversity.
Shey-Phoksundo National Park and Shey-Phoksundo Lake are the major tourist destination in
western Nepal nearby the village.
3.6.2 People’s Perception on Climate Change
Both the villages have witnessed significant changes in existing system of agriculture, land use,
settlements, ecology, and livelihood of local people. People have experienced remarkable changes
in climatic pattern. Winter is getting warmer than the past in Bhutingra village. Windstorms are
now common and more frequent. There is a general increasing trend of monsoon rainfall in
Bhutingra village however decreasing trend in case of Ringmo village.
Both the villages have experienced prolonged drought in winter. According to villagers, there used
to be about three feet of snowfall some 10 year back, currently they get only six to seven inch of
snow in winter. In case of Ringmo village, snowfall durations are increasing. In the past there used
to be snowfall till March but now it stays till May.
Water resources: Bhutingra village is situated in the barren hill and suffering from the water
scarcity since the past. In recent years, the decreasing rainfall is adding extra stress to the
livelihood. People have to face severe water scarcity for four months in winter.
There are only four community taps for 65 households, which are not sufficient to meet their
demands. Furthermore, prolonged drought is another main water related issue in Bhutingra village.
Lack of safe and hygienic water and sanitation facility is making the situation of human health
even worse. In case of Ringmo, both the winter and monsoon rainfall has been decreased largely
affecting the water availability of the people. The water level in nearby rivers is decreasing.
Hence, water availability for drinking and irrigation purpose is now a biggest problem. Due to
declining water sources, water is supplied only for two hours a day through community tap
system; however, there used to be 24 hours water supply in the past.
Agriculture: Prolonged drought has significant impact on crop germination in Bhutingra. Reduction
in winter rainfall and snowfall has been affecting the winter crop such as barley, maize and potato.
Decreasing winter rainfall in recent years is serious threat to the rain-fed agriculture system. On
the other hand, increasing monsoon rainfall is causing massive soil erosion. This has caused loss
of fertile soil affecting the agricultural productivity.
Respondents also mentioned that flowering of apple and pear has been delayed by one and half
months since last four years. In case of Ringmo there is a large reduction of agriculture production
in recent years. Food security is the biggest threat to the community. According to the local people,
food they grow is sufficient only for three months. The main crops are wheat and potato and
production of both of these have been reduced largely. Desertification of grazing land is another
problem affecting the livestock food requirements.
Human Health: Due to lack of drinking water during dry season people of Bhutingra are now
forced to collect water from other sources. Mostly children and women are engaged in collecting
waterway far to other villages increasing health stress to the women and children further.
Though they collect water and store in their home, the water is not so safe to use for drinking
purpose. Hence, lack of safe drinking water is causing water borne diseases in the vicinity. Poor
sanitation is another important factor degrading the health status of the people.
Infrastructure: Increasing monsoon rainfall is triggering more landslides in Bhutingra. There
was a huge landslide adjacent to the village. In 2008 five households and large number of arable
lands were swept away by the landslide. The Bhutingra village has been threatened by the risk of
landslide and highly vulnerable to it.
3.6.3 Coping Mechanism
No noticeable coping mechanisms were observed during the field survey. However, in Bhutingra
village to avoid the impact of drought, people have delayed the cultivation date by a month (from
January to February).
3.6.4 Recommendations
1. The decrease in rainfall and snowfall has direct impact on the rain-fed agricultural practices in
both Bhutingra and Ringmo villages, so emphasis should be given in this sector. Water pools
or canal system should be constructed in the villages so that people can irrigate the agriculture
field during dry seasons.
2. Water scarcity is one of the main problems in both of the villages. Thus, water conservation
practices like rainwater harvesting should be carried out along with construction of water
supply project to facilitate the villagers with pure drinking water throughout the year.
3. Health and sanitation is one of the major needs in Bhutingra village. Awareness campaign on
sanitation should be conducted and proper health service should be provided.
4. Awareness on climate change, its impact and locally available adaptation measure should be
conducted to enhance the knowledge of local people.
5. In case Bhutingra, the landslide vulnerable community (10 households) should be relocated to safer area.
6. Being situated in Shey-Phoksundo national park and adjacent to the beautiful Shey-Phoksundo
Lake, both of the villages have great potential of tourism. Both of the villages is on the way
to Shey-Phoksundo Lake, hence tourism potential along with some basic infrastructure
development activities like water supply, sanitation might, trial development, and other
accommodation facilities might change socio-economic status of the local people.
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3.7 Doti District3.7.1. Location Profile
Doti District is located in the Seti zone of far western Nepal. Geographically Doti lies in the
mountainous zone with numerous lowland valleys carved by Seti River. Climate change in Doti
has been affecting the livelihood of the people in recent years because of decreasing temperature
and increasing rainfall pattern. Temperature analysis of Silgadi climate station for the 30-year
period (1980 to 2009) shows that both annual average maximum and minimum temperature are
decreasing. Similarly, the average annual rainfall trend is also decreasing over the 30 years from
1978-2009 at the rate of 2.009 mm per year.
Doti is highly vulnerable to climate change because of very low socio-economic adaptive capability
(GoN/NAPA 2010). Poverty is another triggering factor for low adaptation capability as the human
poverty index for Doti is 53.4 (UNDP 2004). The vulnerability index for Doti is very high in terms of
landslide and drought and it is ecologically highly sensitive district (GoN/NAPA 2010).
Doti district is popular for its religious as well as natural beauty and have immense potential of
tourism. Khaptad National Park (KNP) is the one of the main attraction of Doti district.
There are numerous religious temples in Doti for domestic as well as international visitors. Natural
beauty of Seti River and its landscape if promoted could be an attractive place for nature trek.
Similarly, there are various lakes and ponds in Doti which yet to be explored and promoted for
tourism.
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Present research was carried out in Wadi village of Baglekh VDC, Doti. Agriculture and remittance
are the main sources of income. Firewood is the major source of energy for cooking and space
heating, however in recent days; use of solar energy is growing. Though agriculture is the main
occupation in Wadi village, the food they grow is only sufficient for three to four months (Field
survey 2012).
In recent years, due to decreasing rainfall pattern, the rain-fed agriculture in Wadi village added
extra pressure on agriculture productivity worsening the food security condition.
3.7.2 People’s Perception on Climate Change
People of Wadi village believed that climate change in terms of increasing temperature is not
so significant. Summer is usual but winter is getting shorter since the last 20 to 30 years. The
frequency of snowfall has been declined remarkably as Wadi village receives snowfall in every
four to five years interval. This is the noticeable change because in past there used to be snowfall
every year. Similarly, people are experiencing more foggy days in winter. Increasing frequency of
heavy storm is another severe climate induced hazard in the Wadi village.
Agriculture: The agricultural production has been largely declined in recent years. Crop varieties
like black lentil, buckwheat, and legumes are no more in practice these days. According to the
villagers, the production of black lentil per unit land has been greatly reduced from 70 kg/Ropani
(1 Ropani = 0.05 ha) to about 10 kg/Ropani over the 10 years period. Similarly, quantity of cereal
crops like rice and wheat has been reduced remarkably (approximately 25 percent) as compared
to the past 20 to 30 years.
Prevalence of new species of beetles is affecting the buckwheat (Eleusine coracena) production.
Baglekh VDC is food deficit VDC and World Food Program supports food aid. In recent years, due
to declining agriculture production the food security level of Wadi village is getting worse and
people are forced to depend upon the food aid. According to the local people agriculture, water
resources, forest and biodiversity, and human health are the sectors where noticeable changes
have been observed;
Water resources: Water availability is a growing issue in Wadi village affecting the livestock and
livelihood of the people. Natural ponds are disappearing leading to drinking water scarcity in the vicinity.
Similarly, during monsoon season due to heavy rainfall excessive soil erosion and landslides are
affecting fertile agriculture land. Though, people of Wadi village have piped water supply system,
occurrence of leeches in the drinking water is another water related issue affecting the human health.
Forest and biodiversity: Invasive plant species are replacing local fodder trees like Saurauia
nepaulensis (Gogan), Ficus nerifolia (Dudhelo) and Ficus semicordata (Khanio). As a result livestock
grazing is now under pressure. Invasive species like Azaratinum haustonianum (Nilo gandhe jhar),
Eupatorium adenophorum (Banmara) are getting more abundant putting pressure on forest
biodiversity and agricultural system. However, these invasive species are good source of firewood for
local people. Though, community forestry and buffer zone management is under way, the availability
of medicinal plants in nearby forest and Khaptad National Park (KNP)and buffer zone is declining.
Human and animal health: Occurrence of previously known and some new unidentified human
diseases is getting more common. Number of cases with typhoid and skin allergies are increasing
these days. Due to unavailability of fodder, livestock populations are decreasing. Frequency of
livestock death is increasing as explained by the local people. The cases of diarrhoea are now
common in livestock affecting the livestock population.
In the past people used to cure such diseases by applying local herbal medicines, however, these
medicines have no effect any more. People think that such occurrence of diseases in livestock is
due to the growth of invasive species like Michania micrantha and Azaretinum haustonaianum.
3.7.3 Coping Mechanism
People use synthetic fertilizers in the agriculture field to enhance the agriculture production. People
have introduced the hybrid seed varieties and synthetic seed, however such practices are not enough
to enhance agriculture productivity, as they are less tolerant to environmental stress. Black lentil,
Buckwheat, Legumes etc are not more in practice these days, as they do not produce significantly.
3.7.4 Recommendations
1. Use of chemical fertilizer should be discouraged. Bio-fertilizer made by agriculture and
household biodegradable water should provide option for chemical fertilizer. To avoid the
nuisance of beetles, inter-cropping, rotational farming system, multiple cropping, and strip
cropping agricultural practices should be some possible alternatives.
2. The water quality of piped drinking water supply should be improved by source conservation
and treatment. Realizing the issue of declining water sources, new water sources should be
explored if available. Water conservation practices is essential to use water wisely especially
during dry period. Construction of water storage facility is essential in both community and
household level. Rainwater harvesting might be on possible option to collect and use water
during wet season.
3. Conservation of forest through community forestry should be strengthened. Forest based
entrepreneurs should be promoted to benefit from forest products particularly medicinal plants.
4. Health centre for human and livestock is also important, as occurrence of new diseases is
more common these days.
5. Use of solar energy is getting popular in the locality, which should be encouraged
further. Use of improved cooking stove is good way to use firewood efficiently.
It also helps to reduce the risk of indoor air pollution. To promote the clean energy, micro-
hydro is the most viable alternative energy option in the village.
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3.8 Gorkha District
3.8.1 Location Profile
Gorkha District lies in Gandaki Zone. The headquarters is Gorkha Bazar. The district covers an
area of 3,610 square kilometers and has a population of 288,134. The elevation ranges from 488
to 8,166 meters (Mt. Manaslu), with several peaks above 7,000m.
In recent decades Gorkha is witnessing the impact of climate change with overall increasing
temperature and decreasing rainfall (GoN/NAPA 2010). The rainfall data from Larke Samdo
precipitation station shows decreasing trend of average annual rainfall (30.40 mm/year) over
the 31 years period (1980 to 2010). The decrement rate is relatively large and the inter-annual
variability is more pronounced than other districts.
Gorkha district is highly vulnerable to climate change as the combined vulnerability index is
high (GoN/NAPA 2010). GLOF and landslides are the major threat to the people in Gorkha. An
unnamed glacial lake in Gorkha district is among the 20 potentially dangerous glacial lakes of
Nepal (Bajracharya et al., 2001). Because of the low socio-economic status, the climate change
adaptation capability is comparatively low for this district (GoN/NAPA 2010).
Gorkha district is well known for its cultural, religious and natural richness. Gorkha palace is one
of the main attractions of Gorkha. Besides this, Tibetan culture, monasteries and historic temples
are other highlights. From Gorkha one can have a great view of Annapurna, Manaslu and Ganesh
ranges. Manaslu Conservation Area is the main tourist destinations in Gorkha. Adventurous
caves, hot springs and beautiful waterfalls are other natural highlights.
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Rafting in the Aankhu Khola and Budhi Gandaki is another adventurous activity that can be done
in Gorkha. The study area, Chhekam village, consists of two settlements; Chhekam settlement and
Paro settlement located on Tsum valley of Gorkha. Tibetan speaking Mongolians are the dominant
ethnic group in Chhekam village.
The main income source for the villagers is the trade of Cordyceps sinensis (Yarsa Gumba) from
Tsum to Tibet.
Beside this seasonal business of Yarsa Gumba, agriculture is another major occupation. Chhekam
village is rich in natural beauty and cultural diversity. The Tibetan culture is the major attraction
of Chhekam village. Beside this, stunning views of Ganesh Himal range to the south and Himchuli
and Budha Himal to the southwest are other major natural attractions.
3.8.2 People’s Perception on Climate Change
According to the local people agriculture, water resources, forest and biodiversity are the main
sector where significant impacts have been observed:
Agriculture and livestock: Shear and Lung Rivers are the prime source of water for irrigation to
supply water for crops like wheat, buckwheat (Phapar), and Tibetan mustard. However, declining
water discharge in these rivulets has largely affected subsistence farming in the village. River flow
during March to May is not sufficient to supply the water need for crop growth affecting the
agriculture production. In case of livestock, animal grazing is the main problem due to intense
rainfall, soil erosion, and landslides.
Water resources: Water scarcity is the major problem in Chhekam village. According to the local
people, natural rivulets like Lung Lungba and Saki Lungba are now drying up. People recall that,
some 10-12 years back there used to be continuous flow throughout the year. In recent years it
is hard to see flowing water in these rivulets during dry season. There has been a remarkable
change in snowfall duration as stated by the local people.
In the past there used to snowfall for six months, but now it has reduced significantly. People have
noticed remarkable retreating of Churke Himal Glacier in recent decades. They reported that the
Churke Himal glacier and a small river namely Manglba have completely disappeared. Because
of seasonal drying of natural streams the traditional culture of using water mills is disappearing
these days. Three abandoned water mills downstream of Saki Lungba are example of it.
Forest and biodiversity: Frequent windstorm is affecting the nearby forest in recent years. As
for example severe storm of February 2012 had serious impacts on the forest. Number of trees
was uprooted by the massive windstorm. People have never witnessed such heavy storm in their
entire life.
3.8.3 Coping Mechanism
The traditional culture of grinding cereals by water mill is now about to vanish because of drying
rivulets. To grind their cereals they are now using petrol powered mills. To cope with drying water
sources people are now using Chesong (a bronze vessel) to store the water for dry winter months.
In agriculture sector people are now growing less water demanding Tibetan mustard instead of
wheat, which used to be a major crop in the village. People are also growing different vegetables
like cabbages and spinaches in the field. To enhance the productivity they are using cow dung and
organic manure in their field.
3.8.4 Recommendations
1. Water is the main issue in Chhekam village. Integrated water resource management project
should be formulated to fulfill people’s drinking water demands as well as the irrigation needs.
Sanitation facility should also be considered into the water supply project for better health
of the people. Water conservation practices including concept of rainwater harvesting will be
helpful to use water wisely. Proper sanitation facility is also essential.
2. People should be pre-informed about the extreme weather as frequent windstorm is affecting
the livelihood largely.
3. Landslide and soil erosion control is another issue that needs especial attention. Bioengineering
techniques can be one effective solution. It will not only control the landslide and soil erosion
but also provides fodder requirements of livestock.
4. Chhekam village is a step closer towards low carbon development mechanism. Micro hydro is
the basic energy source for lighting. People are using improved cooking stoves for efficient use
of firewood. Some households are using gas stoves for cooking purpose. Such climate friendly
energy use practices should be encouraged further.
5. Promotion of market-based trade of Yarsa Gumba might bring some economic activity in the
community, as agriculture production in these days is not so impressive to sustain their life.
Another important key to enhance socio-economic status of local people is the promotion of
tourism. Chhekam village can be developed as a minor Trek to explore Tibetan culture. It also
has possibility of promoting perfect site for Mountain View of Ganesh Himal, Annapurna and
Manaslu.
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3.9 Humla District3.9.1 Local Profile
Humla District is located in the northern corner of Karnali zone and boarders China to the north.
The headquarters is Simikot. The district covers an area of 5,655 square kilometers and has
population of 40,595 (2001). The elevation of Humla ranges from 1,524 to 7,337 meters. Simikot
also serves as the administrative headquarters of the Humla district.
In recent years, significant impacts of climate change have been observed in Humla district. Climate
data from Simikot station in Humla district shows slight decrease in annual rainfall over the 28
years from 1979-2006 at the rate of 2.727 mm per year. In case of temperature, data analysis for
17 years period (1989-2005) shows decreasing trend for monthly maximum temperature, while
monthly minimum temperature is increasing.
The best part about Humla district is its incomparable beauty. With magnificent green valley
cutting through its rugged high peaks, wild rivers running across the land, and is the perfect
picture of natural beauty and diverse wildlife. Aside from these natural treasures, the district has
many ancient temples and other places of worship that speak about its rich history. However,
due to lack of infrastructure, communications, severe cold mountain climate and difficult walking
conditions, Humla is amongst the most treacherous trekking route in the country. Despite of
these underlying issues, Humla has great potential for an adventurous trekking and wilderness
experience. One of the popular tourist destinations along Humla trek is the Halji village (study
site in this research) in Limi VDC. Halji is the biggest (about 96 households) village among three
villages such as Jang and Til in Limi and is the monastic headquarter as well.
Limi VDC
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Halji village provides beautiful landscapes, rivers, meadows, exquisite wildlife and vegetation. Halji
has the 11th century Rinchenling Monastery and is considered as one of the oldest Ngyingmapa
sect monastery in west Nepal.
In addition, trekking to Halji offers glimpse of Mt. Kailash, Mt. Saipal, Mt. Mendun and Ghur-La
Mandala along with several waterfall and hot springs. The combined vulnerability index for Humla
is moderate; however Ecological Vulnerability Index (EVI) is relatively high (MoE/NAPA 2010). The
adaptive capability of Humla is very poor as the Combined Adaptation Capability Index (CACI) for
Humla is very low (MoE/NAPA 2010).
Not only the Humla itself, the small Halji village is also experiencing remarkable effect of changing
climate. The Halji village is threatened by frequent floods and associated hazards. This village
faces number of challenges due to flood that has washed out the village and the Gompa property;
lamas and monks were having difficulty to conduct day-to-day rites and rituals.
3.9.2 People’s Perception on Climate Change
Most of the respondents believe that, temperature has increased in past decades while the
rainfall pattern is getting more erratic. Temporal pattern of monsoon rainfall and winter snowfall
have been changed largely affecting the agriculture and livelihood. In particular, monsoon rainfall
arrives one month earlier than past and drought prevails in pre-monsoon season (mainly April-
May).
The noticeable impact of climate change in Halji village is the melting of Halji Glacier and expansion
of glacial lake upstream. Since 2006, Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) has repeatedly struck
the village, which have occurred annually destroying buildings, farmlands and infrastructure,
however; there are no reports of human casualties so far.
Large areas of agricultural land have been washed away and historical monastery has also been
affected. Summary of historic GLOF events and associated impacts to Halji village is given below:
SN Date Time Impacts Remarks
1 30 June 2011 4:30 PM Seven water mills were destroyed, 7 Horses and 17
Chauri were killed, two houses were damaged, and
more than hundred agricultural fields were affected
Currently
they have 7
Water Mills.
2 July 2009 9:00 am Six water mills and some agricultural lands were
washed away
3 July 2008 10:00 am Four water mills were washed away completely
4 July 2007 8:30 am Four water mills, two local bridges and agricultural land
were washed away
5 July 2006 9:00 am Two bridges and two water mills were destroyed
Source: Field Survey (2012)
Other impacts associated with Halji Glacier are the raising water level in nearby river. According
to the locals, the water level of Halji River has increased approximately by 4 m. Due to frequent
flood and increasing discharge in river (due to melting of glacier), river erosion and bank cutting
are getting more severe.
3.9.3 Coping Mechanism
In order to minimize the risk of frequent floods, gabion walls have been constructed annually
since 2006 with a financial support from District Development Committee (DDC). A native fast
growing willow trees and shrubs have been planted.
By planting those native trees, the local people hope that it will help with water retention and
reduced erosion of the streambed and embankment. According to local sources, an approximately
80 percent of the native trees i.e., willow planted along the riverbank has grown successfully.
In addition, the plantation of native trees on the flat area, approximately 2000 a bag with sands
has been placed near the riverbed to support the gabion boxes.
People of Halji have implemented Community Based Approach (CBA) and each individual is
contributing for it. According to villagers approximately 700-800 m river length has been protected
with gabion walls. Unfortunately, this effort is not sufficient to reduce the potential impact of
GLOF. The construction of gabion wall has not proven to be a dependable solution as each year
the community constructed gabion wall is swept away by the flood.
3.9.4 Recommendations
1. To raise the living status of local people new opportunities for income generation should
be created. Promotion of tourism can be one of promising solution as Halji village is
destinations for historical and religious monastery, unique culture and beautiful landscape.
The “Limi Valley Trekking Route (LVTR)” is one of the famous trekking routes in Humla, hence,
promotion of LVTR route considering the possible mitigation option to climate change on a
climate smart way is essential.
2. The prime source of energy for cooking and space heating is firewood. In order to implement
the low carbon development strategy, other environment friendly technology should be
endorsed. Example includes improve cooking stoves.
3. Halji village has one micro hydro with 6.5 KW capacities but current generation is only 4
KW of electricity. To fulfill their electric demand, most of the people in Halji are using solar
energy. These environment friendly technologies should be promoted further.
4. The major threat, which needs immediate action in Halji village, is GLOF.
5. Early warning system should be developed to evacuate the villagers in order to minimize the
risk of GLOF. River training work should be intensified, as the current effort of gabion wall
construction is not sufficient to mitigate the effects of flood. Research on Glacial hydrology
should be conducted to monitor the glacier and glacial lake activities.
6. Disaster preparedness regarding the GLOF and associated risks should be implemented
immediately. Lowering of water level in glacial lake by constructing a dam with a gated canal
opening in order to mitigate the GLOF should be developed.
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3.10 Jumla District3.10.1 Location Profile
Jumla District lies in the Karnali zone in the mid-western development region of Nepal. Khalanga
is the headquarters of the Jumla district. The district covers an area of 2,531 square kilometers
and had population of 89,427. The elevation ranges from 915-4,679 meters. Jumla is main access
point to Mugu, Humla and Dolpa. In particular, it is well known for its high potential of rice
production. However, the agricultural productivity is highly rainfall dependent. In recent years,
climate change is affecting the monsoon rainfall, which in turn has severe impacts on agriculture
in this mountainous region.
As the economic status of people in Jumla is highly agriculture dependent, any shortfall in
agriculture production leads to direct effect on their livelihood. The climate data analysis of Jumla
meteorological station shows that there is overall decreasing trend in average annual rainfall
for the period 1983-2010. Similarly, the 28 years temperature analysis shows that both average
annual maximum and minimum temperature are increasing.
Regarding the climate change vulnerability of Jumla district, the combined vulnerability index for
Jumla district is moderate, however, drought and ecological vulnerability is relatively high. Located
in the mountainous region and with limited developments, adaptive capability is very low.
According to NAPA vulnerability assessment, the combined adaptation capability for Jumla is very
low (GoN/NAPA 2010) for Jumla.
Rafting and Kayaking in the Karnali River are the main attraction of Jumla. In addition, Jumla is
well known for its Tibetan and Matwali Chhetris culture. It also includes natural attractions like
waterfalls and hot water springs. For this study, Dipayalgaun of Dipayalgaun VDC and Pipal gaun
of Kartik Swami VDC of Jumla district were selected.
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Agriculture is the main source of income in both of the VDCs. Both of the VDCs have large potential
of rice production. However, people rely on weather dependent rain-fed paddy production for
their livelihoods, which is severely affected by changing climate. Besides agriculture, trading of
Cordicepts sinensis (Yarsa Gumba in local language) is season income source in Dipayalgaun.
In case of Pipalgaun village, government service is other important occupation, which may be due
to the high literacy rate (73.2 percent) in Pipalgaun as compared with Dipayalgaun (46.2 percent).
3.10.2 People’s Perception on Climate Change
Majority of the respondents are not well informed about the issues of climate change. However,
most of the respondents have experience-increasing trend of temperature in recent years.
Rainfall amount has been decreasing while it is getting more intense and causing flash flood and
hailstorm. In particular, monsoon rainfall is getting more erratic and temporal variation is more
pronounced. Consequently, agriculture sector in both of the VDCs is largely affected by changing
climate. Besides this, there are some noticeable impacts on water resources and biodiversity.
However, most of the respondents have experienced an increasing trend in temperature in recent
years. Rainfall amount has been decreasing while it is getting more intense and causing flash
flood and hailstorm. In particular, monsoon rainfall is getting more erratic and temporal variation
is more pronounced. Consequently, agriculture sector in both of the VDCs is largely affected
by changing climate. Besides this, there are some noticeable impacts on water resources and
biodiversity.
Agriculture: Because of decreasing monsoon rainfall and its temporal and spatial variation,
agriculture production has been greatly reduced in both Dipayalgaun and Pipalgaun village.
In particular, production of local rice variety (Orizya sativa) is commonly known as Asian rice has
been reduced by 50 percent. Prevalence of new diseases is the major problem in rice production.
Similarly, the production of barley, corn and potato are also decreasing due to early snowmelt,
intense hailstorm and less rainfall. In case of Pipalgaun, seasonal migration of local people was
reported due to declining crop productivity. Hence, food security is now growing as a serious
problem in Pipalgaun and the situation is even worse in case of marginalized people. Another
emerging issue in agriculture sector is declining available grazing and pastureland.
The rangeland is both of the VDCs seem to have largely affected by changing rainfall pattern. As a
result, the livestock grazing has become a serious problem in Dipayalgaun and Pipalgaun Village.
Water resource: In both of the villages, water availability was not a serious issue in the past,
however, in recent years; the quality of water has been degraded due to the frequent flash flood
and associated erosion. The major sources of drinking water (natural spring) are drying up and
people (especially women) have to spent longer time to collect water for household use.
Forest and biodiversity: Non Timber Forest Product (NTFP) is the main biological resource in
both Dipayalgaun and Pipalgaun VDCs. NTFP is another important source of income generation
for these poor people.
Local people are selling these valuable products into the market and generating additional
income. Since last decade, these wild species are decreasing and getting less abundant. Similarly,
the flowering time of plants species have been shifted by one month. Consequently, the livelihood
of local communities has been greatly affected adding extra pressure to the economic status of
these poor people.
3.10.3 Coping Mechanism
People of Dipayalgaun and Pipalgaun are now using new varieties of rice like Chandanath I and III
because people believed that the previous rice variety no more appropriate for current climatic
condition. People have now shifted their cropping pattern because of the temporal shifting
of rainfall (or snowfall). To cope with the drinking water scarcity, in both village water storage
tank have been constructed to supply water for household use through community tap system.
Being rural mountainous communities with limited livelihood options, adaptive capacity in both
Dipayalgaun and Kartikswami VDCs are low due to limited information, poor access to services,
and inequitable access to productive assets.
3.10.4 Recommendations
1. Agriculture sector should be placed on top priority, as agriculture is being a major source of
income for both of the villages. As the rice production is highly rain-fed, hence to minimize
the untimely monsoon rainfall, irrigation facility is needed both in Dipayalgaun and Pipalgaun
village. New rice varieties for changing climatic condition should be tested and provided to the
farmers for better production.
2. Drinking water is emerging as serious problem in both of the villages; hence, construction of
reservoir to collect water and distribution throughout the year is important. Water treatment
facility is essential to avoid the sediment problem during rainy season.
3. Forest management and protection should be carried out. The concept of community forestry
and Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) can be some good examples. Such practice has two
advantages; the first one is the forest conservation itself and the second one is the benefits
from forest products, carbon trading, soil erosion control, and water conservation.
4. During field visit it was observed that most of the villagers have Improve Cooking Stove (ICS)
installed in their home. Similarly, most of the respondents have solar energy for lighting. In
both villages, micro-hydro facility is available; however, the current generation capacity is not
sufficient to fulfill their demand. Hence, use of solar and micro-hydro should be encouraged
and the micro-hydro capacity should be upgraded.
5. The impacts of climate change are not evenly distributed between different communities. Poor
and marginalized communities, who often live in vulnerable areas with limited information,
limited livelihoods options and low adaptive capacity, are obviously most vulnerable to climate
change. Hence, the adaptation needs of marginalized community should be emphasized.
6. Places in Jumla are the gateway to most popular trekking route to Rara and Dolpa. However,
Dipayalgaun and Pipalgaun of Jumla district have great potential of tourism development. In this
regard, these villages can be promoted as a remote and wilderness sites for adventurous trekking.
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3.11 Kaski District3.11.1 Location Profile
Kaski District lies in the western development region of Nepal and one of the major tourist
destinations in Nepal. The climate change scenario in Kaski district shows increasing trend of
both rainfall and temperature. The climate data analysis from Pokhara Airport meteorological
station in Kaski shows increase in average annual rainfall over the 31 years from 1980-2010 with
inter-annual variability.
Similarly, the 30 years temperature analysis shows that both average annual maximum and
minimum temperature are increasing over the period 1981-2010. The climate change vulnerability
status of Kaski district is moderate (GoN/NAPA 2010). However, the ecological sensitivity towards
climate change for Kaski district is very high. In addition, it is also highly vulnerable for landslide
hazards. The most interesting fact about Kaski district is its impressive adaptive capability to
climate change.
According to GoN/NAPA (2010) the combined adaptation capability for Kaski is very high. The
individual adaptation capability index in terms of infrastructure, technology and socio-economic
condition are also very high.
Kaski comprises the most famous tourist destinations in Nepal namely Pokhara.
The serenity of Phewa Lake and the magnificence of the fishtailed summit of Machhapuchhre
(6,977 m) rising behind it create an ambience of peace and magic.
Beside this, the spectacular panorama of the Annapurna range (Annapurna I to IV) is another
major attraction of Kaski. Kaski district falls under the Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA) and is
well known for its biological diversity. Because of its diverse climatic regime, Kaski district provides
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suitable habitat for various flora and fauna species, hence it is an attractive place for tourists to
enjoy wildlife.
The study area, Sikles, is located to the north east of Pokhara in the shadow of Annapurna II and
Lamjung mountains. It is a large village, possibly the second largest Gurung village in Nepal. Sikles
is a good example of well-preserved traditional Gurung culture.
Above the village is Rishing Danda, from where a panoramic view of the peaks of Annapurna II and
Lamjung can be seen. Folk songs and dances are an important part of Gurung life and cultural. In
particular, traditional Ghantu dance performed by three young girls is precious tradition in Sikles.
3.11.2 People’s Perception on Climate Change
Very few respondents know about the climate
change while majority of them are not familiar
with the issues of climate change. According
to the local people, effect of climate change
in Sikles is not so pronounced and visible.
The local people of Kaski stated that climate
change impacts on different sectors like
agriculture, ecology, water resource has not
been experienced so well till date.
However, some respondents have experienced
hotter summer and colder winter these days.
About 40 percent of respondent believe that
there are some changes in temperature and
rainfall pattern as they are facing extreme
rainfall and hailstorm events in recent years.
The consequence of such extreme events that
was reported during the field visit is the large
shortfall in rice production in recent years. Rice
is the major crop in Sikles and it is the important
income generating source for local people, hence
the livelihood of local people has been greatly
affected by such climate related hazards.
According to the local people, agriculture sector
is the most affected sector due to the changing
change.
Disaster in Kaski district
On 05 May 2012 an avalanche in the Annapurna Mountains caused floods in the Seti River, Kaski district. The level of Seti River was as high as 30 ft. at some locations during the time of flooding. The bad hit area is 40 km north from Pokhara valley. Twenty houses, two temples and one community building have been swept and half of a kilometer of the road section, three suspension bridges and water supply system to the Pokhara valley that supplies around 60 percent of water supply in the valley and electric poles have been damaged. Most of the deceased are pilgrims, locals, tourists and laborers working on sand/stone quarry in the riverbank.
Agriculture: Heavy hailstorm and extreme rainfall events are the major threat to agriculture
(especially rice field). The heavy hailstorm of October 2012 is recent example of such extreme
events. The impact of hailstorm was so severe that there was 60 percent reduction in rice
production in that particular year.
Human and animal health: Prevalence of mosquitoes is the only growing nuisance for people in
Sikles village. However, local people are well aware about the environmental health and sanitation.
3.11.3 Coping Mechanism
Though there are no any severe water related impacts, which are being experienced by the local
people, they have well managed water supply system. They have constructed a large reservoir
to collect the water from nearby spring. The collected water is then distributed to individual
household through private tap.
3.11.4 Recommendations
1. The Gurung dominated Sikles village have immense potential of tourism where trekkers can
easily spend several day to avoid the normal Annapurna tourist trail and find a less crowded
and unspoiled area of Himalayan Nepal. As the largest Gurung village in Nepal, Sikles is
rarely visited place by outsider. Thus, it can be developed as a model trekking village along
the Annapurna circuit where visitors will have opportunity of enjoying distinct flavor of local
Gurung lifestyle, observing handicraft production and sight-seeing of different mountainous
peaks including Annapurna and Manaslu. Of particular interest are the local cloth weaving and
the ancient water driven flourmills.
2. Furthermore, Sikles is particularly good for bird watching because of its pristine forested
surroundings where different species of birds thrive.
3. Agriculture is the sector in which pronounced impacts have been observed; hence, it should be
prioritized for adaptation programs. People should be pre-informed about the extreme rainfall
and storm events. Similarly, disaster preparedness plan and programs for climate induced
hazards especially hailstorm should be implemented. Awareness about climate change and
associated impacts is essential as most of the local people and unaware about the issues of
climate change.
4. Though most of the respondents have improved cooking stoves in their homes for cooking
and space heating, firewood is still the prime source of energy. Hence, to develop Sikles as a
climate smart village use of firewood should be discouraged and alternative options like solar,
biogas etc should be promoted. The existing micro-hydro plant with 100 kW capacities should
be upgraded in order to fulfill increasing demand of electricity in the village.
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3.12 Lamjung District3.12.1 Location Profile
Lamjung District lies in Gandaki Zone. The district headquarter is Besishahar. The district covers
an area of 1,692 square kilometers and has a population of 167,724. Lamjung is in the western
part of the country and is well known for its biological diversity and natural beauty.
The main attraction of Lamjung is eye-catching mountains like Manaslu (8,162 m), Manaslu South
(7,937 m), Lamjung chuli (6,988m), Annapurna II (7,939 m), and Himal chuli (7,947 m). The “Lamjung
Himal Trek” is one of the popular trekking routes of Annapurna region. In addition Lamjung is also
popular for white water rafting in Marshyangdri River. However, the tourism industry in Lamjung
district has been threatened by changing climate.
Climate data analysis of Khudi Bazar Station from 1981 to 2010-show gradual warming trend.
Both of the average annual maximum and minimum temperatures are increasing. Similarly, the
rainfall analysis for same period show increasing trend, however, the inter-annual variability is
more pronounced than temperature. According to NAPA vulnerability assessment, the overall
vulnerability index from Lamjung is very high. The major climate induced hazards include Landslide
and GLOF. The combined adaptation capability index for Lamjung is moderate (GoN/NAPA 2010).
The study site Suirung village is located in Khudi VDC of Annapurna region. Suirung is one of the
popular tourist destinations along Annapurna circuit because of its natural beauty and religious
diversity. Being very rich in natural resource, Suirung is one of the ideal destinations for mountain
views.
In addition, the clustered houses of village are another attraction of Suirung. Thus, trekking to
Suirung is not only a way to observed mountain views and sceneries, but one can also learn about
the culture, tradition and lifestyle of the local community.
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3.12.2 People’s Perception on Climate Change
People of Suirung have not experienced any noticeable changes in the local climate. Though,
Lamjung district is highly vulnerable to climate change, Suirung village seem to be have
insignificant impacts of climate change. However, there was severe water deficiency in 2010 and
as a result agricultural productivity was dropped drastically. According to the locals, snowfall in
recent years is short lived and amount of snowfall has been decreased in recent years. In addition,
new plant species have been seen in the village. Similarly, prevalence of caterpillars in Cauliflower
is increasing in recent years. Despite of these changes, there were no other impacts of climate
change reported during field visit.
The most interesting fact about Suirung is its performance towards low carbon development
strategy reflecting the status of awareness of local people in terms of carbon mitigation and
environment protection.
The main source of energy in Suirung is the micro-hydro having capacity of 5 kW. Similarly, use
of climate friendly energy sources like solar and biogas is also growing. The main driver of such
development seems to be tourism.
Hence, Suirung village is a good example of how tourism can contribute to the local livelihood
development as well as other development activities. People have access of safe drinking water
through community tap system with storage tank. They also have proper sanitation facility in
their homes. People of Suirung have enough water supplies for agriculture and livestock farming.
From field observation it was observed that, Suirung village is rapidly growing village in terms of
development activities. Though no sever impacts of climate change has been observed in Suirung
till date, the village is developing itself as climate resilient village. Tourism is the prime-governing
factor for such radical changes in socio-economic status of people in this remote village.
3.12.3 Coping Mechanism
People of this region sell goat and sheep and the manure from these animals as an alternative
income sources for the livelihood. Firewood was the main source of energy for cooking and
heating purpose. The people of this region fulfill their demand through nearby forest and trees
from their own land. Some family’s uses kerosene as source of lighting during power cut and
some had installed solar power as substitute for kerosene.
3.12.4 Recommendations
1. Suirung village should be presented as a model village for climate resilient and low carbon
development. Suirung village is already on its way to become a climate smart village and should
be promoted as a model climate smart village. Visitors will then have great view of natural
beauty of mountains as well as opportunities to learn and explore about the climate smart
village.
2. Tourism activities in Suirung are relatively high, hence the potential negative impacts should
be identified and action should be taken to minimize it. The concept of sustainable tourism or
eco-tourism should be promoted and implemented with proper monitoring to maximize the
positive benefits.
3. People of Suirung are still using firewood for cooking and space heating, hence promotion
of bio-gas and improve cooking stoves will reduce their carbon emission which in turn will
mitigate the health risk associated with indoor air pollution.
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3.13 Mugu District3.13.3 Location Profile
Mugu District lies to the east of Humla in the Karnali zone and borders China to the north. The
headquarters is Gamgadi. The district covers an area of 3,535 square kilometers and has a
population of 43,937. The elevation ranges from 1,524 to 7,045 meters (Kanjirowa Himal). The
biggest lake (Rara) and smallest protected areas of Nepal Rara National Park (RNP) lies in the
Mugu District.
It is one of the least developed districts of Nepal having very less human development index
(CBS 2007). Lower literacy rate, very low social and economic empowerment index with high
human poverty index are the characteristics of Mugu district (UNDP 2004). Because of poor
human development status, Mugu district is considered as highly vulnerable to changing climate.
The climatic trend in Mugu district shows increasing temperature and decreasing rainfall (GoN/
NAPA 2010). The climatic data from Rara climate station shows decreasing trend for both monthly
maximum and minimum temperature over the period from 1979 to 2006.
Rainfall analysis of 36 years (1971-2006) reveals that the average annual rainfall is decreasing
over the period with significant inter-annual variability. According to NAPA’s climate change
vulnerability mapping of Nepal, the combined vulnerability index for Mugu is very high, however,
the combined adaptation capability is very low (GoN/NAPA 2010).
Mugu is highly vulnerable to landslide, drought, rainfall and temperature extremes (GoN/NAPA
2010). The ecological sensitivity towards changing climate is also very high for Mugu district (GoN/
NAPA 2010).
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Mugu district is popular for extraordinary beauty of Rara Lake. Nature trek to Rara Lake through
Rara National Park (RNP) is the major trekking route in Mugu. Along the trekking one can capture
the immense beauty of Chuchemara peak and coniferous forest.
Mugu comprises several rivers including Mugu Karnali, Humla Karnali, and Langu Khola. In
addition it includes numbers of beautiful high altitude lakes and ponds. Jhyari village of Pina VDC
was selected for this study, which lies within the RNP. People in Jhyari are facing water scarcity and
poor sanitation facility. Firewood is the main source of energy in Jhyari.
The agriculture practice in Jhyar is mostly rain-fed and is the prime source of income for the
livelihood. However, extreme water scarcity has great impact on agriculture and livelihood of
people. Jhyari village falls on the lower part of Great Himalayan Trail near Rara Lake where lower
and upper route of GHT meets. Being very close to Rara Lake, Jhyari has great potential of tourism.
3.13.2 People’s Perception on Climate Change
Almost all respondents have experienced increasing rainfall trend in recent years while duration
of dry winter months are increasing. Prolonged drought is another extreme weather events being
experienced in Jhyari village. As for example in 2012 there was no rainfall for four months (March-
June). Since seven to eight years, people have been experiencing significant decrease in rainfall.
Not only the rainfall but also the amount and duration of snowfall are decreasing these days. Both
the summer and winter is getting hotter with frequent windstorm as compared to last 15 to 20
years. Agriculture, water resources and human health are the sector where people have noticed
significant impacts;
Agriculture: Wheat, potato and barley are the major crops, which are in practice. In recent years,
productivity of these crops has been declined significantly due to increase in the number of dry
days.
According to the local people, yield of potato and barley has declined by 50 percent since last 10
years. Besides, intense rainfall during monsoon leading to massive soil erosion, which has direct
impact on agricultural productivity. Similarly, local people have reported the occurrence of new
disease in potato, which did not occur four years before. Under all these circumstances the food
production of Jhyari is not sufficient to feed the people throughout the year.
Water resources: People of Jhyari are entirely dependent on the nearby river to fulfill their water
demand. However, in recent years due to extended dry months and increasing temperature
river discharge is decreasing. In case of rainy season, higher quantity of eroded materials and
debris carried by river makes water unusable. Decrease in the river discharge during dry months
and unsuitability of water during rainy season is posing direct implication on human livelihood
and comfort. Lack of piped water supply and sufficient water storage system further worsen the
situation. On a household level, the water storage capacity is about 22.5 liters per household,
which is not sufficient during prolonged water scarcity period.
Human health: Scarcity of clean and safe drinking water in Jhyari has created various health
related problems. The frequent occurrence of communicable diseases such as diarrhea and
cholera in Jhyari village as reported by District Hospital Gamgadi is reflecting the poor sanitation
facility. Out of total 112 HHs, only 12 have toilet facility, which is useless because of severe water
scarcity. Open defecation is one of the major reasons behind children being the most vulnerable
group in-terms of communicable diseases.
3.1.3.3 Coping Mechanism
From the field survey and observation it was found that people in village have not adopted any
coping strategies.
3.13.4 Recommendations
1. In order to address the water availability problem, water conservation practices are essential.
Promotion of rainwater harvesting system will be helpful to store sufficient water during
monsoon season, which can be utilized during dry months.
Similarly, community based water supply systems should be developed, for this construction
of storage tanks are essential. Occurrence of new disease in potato should be identified as
soon as possible and alternative crop variety should be provided to the farmers in order to
increase the production.
2. Annual food production is not sufficient to meet the demand. Thus, change in cropping
pattern; use of new crop varieties according to changing climatic condition is some solutions.
Construction of irrigation system with storage facility should be developed to supply water
during dry period.
3. Health and sanitation should be given higher priority. Occurrence of any kind of communicable
disease should be diagnosed and treated properly in order to control potential catastrophe in
future.
4. Awareness about climate change and its impacts as well as locally available adaptation
measures should be carried out to enhance people knowledge on climate change and
associated impacts.
5. Since Jyari village is nearest settlement to Rara Lake with high tourism potential. Tourism
promotion with basic infrastructure development might bring economic development in the
locality.
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3.14 Mustang District3.14.1 District Profile
Mustang District lies in Dhaulagiri Zone. Jomsom is district headquarter of Jumla. The district
covers an area of 3,573 square kilometers. The elevation of Mustang district ranges from 1,372 to
8,167 meters (Mt. Dhaulagiri, the 8th highest peak in the world), with several peaks above 7,000
meters.
The total population of Mustang is 14,981 (CBS 2008) and ethnically dominated by Gurung,
Thakali and Chhetri. Mustang comprises 16 VDCs with average household size of 4.62. Despite
being a mountainous region, the literacy rate of Mustang is quite impressive i.e. 74 percent (CBS
2008). Tourism is the main profession in Mustang because of its stunning mountainous beauty,
breathtaking landscapes and cultural diversity. Recently, Mustang has been listed as world’s third
best trekking destination of Best in Travel 2013 compiled by Lonely Planet (Lonely Planet 2013).
Besides tourism, agriculture is another major occupation. The Human Development Index (HDI)
for Mustang is comparatively low i.e. 0.482 (UNDP 2004). Not only the HDI, Human Empowerment
Index (HEI), Gender Development Index (GDI) and Human Poverty Index (HPI) are also low with
respective value of 0.475, 0.47 and 41 (UNDP 2004).
Hence, from these statistics it is clear that the overall development status of Mustang district is
moderate, thus development planning along with tourism promotion is essential in near future.
Climate precipitation data of Mustang district shows inter-annual variability with overall increasing
trend over the 53 years (1958-2010). However, temperature data were available only since 1981
and the 30 years (1981-2010) temperature analysis shows slightly decreasing trend for maximum
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Surkhang VDC
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temperature while average minimum temperature is increasing. Combined Vulnerability Index
(CVI) is moderate (0.45) for Mustang district. In particular, Mustang district is highly vulnerable to
GLOF with vulnerability index of 0.95.
According to NAPA vulnerability mapping, out of 20 potentially dangerous glacier lakes of Nepal,
Mustang alone includes three of them (Bajracharya et al. 2001). However, the adaptive capability
of Mustang is also moderate as the Combined Adaptation Capability Index (CACI) including
infrastructure, socio-economic and technology is moderate (0.314) (MoE 2010). The food security
level of Mustang is relatively low with Global Hunger Index (GHI) ranging from 20 to 29.9 (GoN,
2010). In particular landless, marginalized and dalit populations are more vulnerable.
3.14.2 People’s Perception on Climate Change
Most of the respondents in both of the VDCs believed that temperature has increased in recent
decades significantly. However, they argued that the snowfall (or rainfall) amount is decreasing.
This conclusion is also supported by the climate data analysis. In addition, monsoon rainfall
pattern on both spatial and temporal scale is getting more erratic.
As a result, frequency of flash flood during wet season and drought during dry seasons is
increasing. In case of Samjung, the irregular pattern of hailstorm is emerging as threat to the
agriculture and livelihood. Besides this, the total number of yearly landslides events is increasing
because of sudden and heavy rainfall causing severe soil erosion and loss of fertile topsoil. In
general the agriculture and water resource sectors (particularly drinking water sources) have been
greatly affected by climate-induced extremities.
Water resources: The major climate induced hazards in Samjung village includes flash floods,
hailstorm, landslide, channel erosion and it’s widening. In addition, frequent seasonal drought has
added extra pressure on drinking water sources including natural spring and lakes. Similarly, in
case of Dhe, the major impacts have been observed on the water sector. Natural springs and lakes
are drying up and the river flow is decreasing which has great impact on drinking water sources.
Agriculture: Frequent landslide and flash floods have caused loss of fertile soil as well as
destruction of irrigation canal. In Dhe village due to the declining water sources, the irrigation
system has been affected significantly; as a result some people have already migrated to other
place in search of water.
According to the locals, the agriculture productivity has significantly declined. The impact on
livestock is also experienced as the fodder and water availability has been reduced remarkably. Due
to these underlying issues, ten households have completely moved elsewhere within last 5-6 years.
3.14.3 Coping Mechanism
Realizing the consequence of changing climate, the villagers of Samjung have implemented some
river training works by constructing gabion wall on riverbanks in order to minimize riverbank
erosion especially during flash flood.
Similarly, they have planted Bhote Pipal (a local tree) around the agricultural field and along the
river to control the erosion and loss of productive soil. In Dhe village, people have constructed
artificial lakes (more than six in numbers) to fulfill their water demand for agriculture and
household (drinking) use. On a household level, people of Dhe have constructed small reservoir
in their homes to conserve the water for dry season and drought periods.
3.14.4 Recommendations
1. Both Samjung and Dhe villages have been threatened by the risk of flash flood. Hence,
resettlement plan should be implemented as soon as possible in order to prevent the potential
loss of life and property in near future.
2. In Dhe village, resettlement process has already been initiated a year before, however, this
effort need to be intensify further.
3. Though Annapurna Conservation Area Program has provided some support in planting cash
crop like apple in their farm to raise their economic status, additional financial support is
needed to intensify river training works and other construction activities.
4. In case of Dhe village, drinking water supply should be on top priority as people are facing the
chronic water scarcity mainly during dry season.
5. No doubt Mustang is the attractive destination for trekking, so promotion of sustainable tourism
will bring more opportunities for the local people along with economic and developmental
benefits.
6. Realizing the Mustang’s potential on solar and wind energy, one step towards GHG mitigation
could be promotion of alternative energy technologies to minimize the fuel wood dependency.
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3.15 Myagdi District3.15.1 Location Profile
Myagdi District lies 290 km West of Kathmandu in the Dhaulagiri zone. It is a mountainous
district dissected by many rivers and streams. Myagdi is witnessing climate change by increasing
temperature and rainfall (GoN/NAPA 2010). The temperature data from nearby Baglung climate
station shows increasing trend for average annual maximum temperature and decreasing trend
for average annual minimum temperature over the 30 years period (1980-2010).
For the same period, the average annual rainfall shows decreasing trend. The vulnerability index
for rainfall and temperature is moderate. It is ranked as highly vulnerable district in terms of
landslide hazard (GoN/NAPA 2010). In general, the combined vulnerability index for Myagdi is
moderate. Likewise, the combined adaptation capability is moderate with moderate socio-
economic adaptation capability (GoN/NAPA 2010). In terms of infrastructure, the adaptation
capability is very low (GoN/NAPA 2010).
Myagdi district has great potential of tourism because of its mountainous beauty. Mt. Dhaulagiri in
the west and Mt. Annapurna in the east are the major tourist attractions. One can enjoy the view
of world’s deepest gorge called Andha gorge carved by Kaligandaki River. Similarly, Dhorpatan
Hunting Reserve is another destination in Myagdi for nature trek.
The famous trekking route in Myagdi is the Tatopani-Ghoreaani-Poonhill, which starts from
Tatopani of Myagdi and passes through Khibang, Sikha and Chitre. Poonhill is popular place for
sunrise view as well as the panoramic view of Dhaulagiri range. During the Tatopani to Poonhill
trek, one can experience the largest Rhododendron forest and find eight different species of
rhododendrons.
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The current research was carried out in Chitre village of Myagdi district. Dhaulagiri and Annapurna
is the main mountain that can be viewed from this village. Chitre village lies along the Tatopani-
Ghorepani trekking route-a section of Annapurna Circuit Trekking. Panoramic views of Dhaulagiri
range and Annapurna range, Rhododendron valley, views of Kopra ridge are the main highlight
of Chitre village.
3.5.2 People’s Perception on Climate Change
According to the local people agriculture and water resources are the two sectors in which
significant impacts have been observed.
Agriculture: Production of main agricultural crops like potato, maize, garlic and barley are
decreasing. Agriculture is the prime source of income in Chitre village, however in recent years
people are migrating (especially youth) in search of income due to decreasing production. Lack of
labor for agriculture is one of the main issues related with this sector. Besides this, frequency of
extreme hailstorm is now increasing. This has notable impact of agriculture production due to the
physical damage caused by hailstorms.
Water resource: Villagers of Chitre said that the Pyari Baraha pond nearby Chitre village is
shrinking significantly. Pyari Baraha pond is considered as a holy pond having both cultural as well
as religious significance. According to the local people, size of the pond is gradually decreasing
since past eight to ten years. Not only the size but also the water level has been greatly reduced.
Development of marshes and swampy areas around the lake is another problem affecting the
water quality.
Energy sector: The village is connected to the national electricity grid; however the main source
of energy in 40 percent of household is still firewood. According to villagers, they are collecting
firewood from nearby community forest throughout the year. They have reported the forest cover
nearby the village is declining. This has created pressure on firewood collection, as they have to
spend more time on firewood collection.
3.15.3 Coping Mechanism
The trend of farmer’s adaptation in this region has changed from traditional agricultural practices
to new kind of tourism business. The people of Myagdi have adopted diversification of crops that
including farming of diverse crops both in open and green house. The people of this region also
introduced kitchen water harvesting technologies to tackle water shortage.
3.15.4 Recommendations
1. Adoption of new crop varieties, which are suitable for changing climatic condition, is essential
to enhance the agriculture productivity.
2. Forest conservation is essential as forest cover area is decreasing. Community forestry is
suitable option to conserve forest and get benefited from forest products.
3. Immediate conservation practices should be implemented to protect the Phyari Baraha pond.
Proper fencing and regular cleaning activities could be short-term management plan. The long-
term plan should include water sources conservation. Awareness program is also essential to
mitigate further degradation.
4. Availability of firewood is an emerging issue. Adoption of energy efficient technology like
improved cooking stove is one way to reduce the firewood consumption. In addition, use
electricity for cooking and space-heating purpose should be encouraged in order to minimize
firewood dependency.
5. Awareness program on climate change, its effects and local adaption measures should be
conducted to build climate resilience in community.
6. As mentioned above, Chitre village is on the way to Tatopani-Ghorepani Trek along the
Annapurna Circuit. Promotion of tourism with basic infrastructure development will bring new
opportunities for local people. It can also possibly solve the problem of migration.
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3.16 3.16.1 Location Profile
Nuwakot district, part of Bagmati zone, is one of the seventy-five districts of Nepal with Bidur as
its district headquarters. It covers an area of ,121 km2 and has a population of 277,471 in 2011.
The district contains places of historical significance such as located in the village of Devighat at
the confluence of the Tadi and Trishuli River.
Nuwakot district is located in the central part of Nepal and is prone to facing natural hazards
including soil erosion, forest degradation, and drought. On top of that in recent years, Nuwakot
has been experiencing noticeable evidence of climate change. The climatic data from Nuwakot
climate station shows an increasing trend of temperature. The 26 years (1984-2010) temperature
analysis shows that average annual maximum and minimum are decreasing. On the other hand, 38
years (1972-2009) rainfall data indicates decreasing trend with pronounced inter-annual variability.
Nuwakot district is highly vulnerable to landslide hazard. Besides this, the rainfall/temperature and
ecological vulnerability is moderate. However, the overall vulnerability index for Nuwakot is very low
(GoN/NAPA 2010).
The adaptation capability for Nuwakot is high in terms of infrastructure and technology, while
the socio-economic adaptation capability is relatively low. In general, the combined adaptation
capability is moderate (GoN/NAPA 2010).
Nuwakot is known as a one of the popular historical places of Nepal. The historic seven-storied palace
built between 1763 AD to 1770 AD reflects the perfect cultural and civilization images of the region in the
very ancient days. In addition, temples like Nuwakot Bhagbati, Bhairabhi and Panchya kanya are other
historic and religious attractions. Besides the historic importance, Nuwakot also serves is natural beauty.
The Panoramic Mountain view of Mt. Manaslu and Mt. Langtang is one of the major attractions of
Nuwakot. Two settlements of Nuwakot district, Taruka and Gerkhu VDC, are selected for present
study.
Nuwakot District
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Taruka VDC
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Gerkhu VDC is one of the most vulnerable VDC of Nuwakot in terms of landslide and extreme
precipitation. Within past five years (2006-2011) there have been 32 events of landslide due to
which about 186 people were injured (Red Cross 2012). Agriculture is the prime occupation and is
mostly rain-fed; however, seasonal irrigation facility is also available.
Majority of people in Gerkhu have access of national grid electricity and liquid petroleum gas for
lighting and cooking purpose. However, few households have biogas plant for cooking purpose.
In Taruka VDC, Dalit population dominates the community. These are the poor, illiterate, and
marginalized people. People in Taruka have very less agricultural land and their family basically
depends on remittance. Firewood is the main source of energy in Taruka VDC for cooking and
space heating. Taruka also have access of national grid electricity.
3.16.2 People’s Perception on Climate Change
Water resource: Water resource in Trauka VDC is emerging as a major threat. Natural water
sources are drying. More than five drinking water sources including Kuwa pani, Khote pani, Badelo
dhara, Tallo rajkaw dhara have already disappeared completely. Gerkhutar shares the common
problem with Trauka. Numerous wells and other fresh water sources have completely dried
out in last few years. As a result people are now forced to travel one to two hours for drinking
water collection. In addition, rainfall pattern is getting more extreme with pronounced temporal
variation. Unexpected and intense rainfall events are more common leading to flash flood, soil
erosion and landslide.
Agriculture: In recent years, the agriculture production has been reduced largely because of
water deficiency. Most of the agricultural field doesn’t have irrigation facility; hence, the effects
are even severe during dry season.
Prevalence of beetles and insects is becoming nuisance to local farmers. In particular, white
beetle in rice, Kalpole in Maize, Gawaro and Snail in Maize are common cases. Some traditional
crop varieties have been replaced with new varieties because of declining productivity of older
one. Some examples include cereal crops like Pisum sp. and Machyang and varieties of rice like;
Makawanpur, Phalame, Bindheshwor replacing Anandi, Masino, Kajira etc. Due to the changing
weather pattern some crop varieties are not able to grow well hence, such crops are cnot being
cultivated these days. Example includes Dhaiya dhan, Kharbhuja (Water melon), Sweat potato
(Sutuni), Chile Brinjal and varieties of lentils like: Lathyrus sativus (Khesari), Junelo (Sorghum
vulgare Pers.) and Lens culinaris (Musuro, red lentil).
Forest and biodiversity: New exotic and invasive species like Eupatorium adenophorum,
Ageratum houstonianum and other invasive weeds are replacing local fodder plants in both
villages. Forest fires are getting more frequent putting pressure on availability of timber and
timber products. People have also experienced declining wild birds and animals. In particular,
leopard, fox and deer are now getting rare.
Human and animal diseases: Records on Tar Taruka Ayurvedic Treatment Centre of Taruka
village reveals that cases of skin allergies are increasing in Taruka VDC. In recent years occurrence
of heat waves are increasing which may also have impacts on human and animal health.
In case of livestock, new diseases have also been reported particularly in chicken and goat. In
addition Khoryat found in oxen, buffalo and Cows is another livestock related health issue.
Similarly, parasites including liver flukes, round worms, and tapeworms are a major problem
affecting livestock production. Skin diseases appear to be the most common form of infection
followed by diseases such as pneumonia, respiratory diseases, mastitis and foot and mouth
disease.
3.16.3 Coping Mechanism
The status of coping strategy in both of the villages is not so impressive. Agriculture sector is one of the
highly affected sectors than other. People have adopted some coping mechanism in order to improve the
productivity. To avoid the extreme weather condition mainly drought and storm, people have changed
the crop cycle. To enhance the agriculture productivity, people are using chemical fertilizer widely.
3.16.4 Recommendations
1. Infrastructure development in both of the VDCs should be a long-term plan, which in turn
will help to enhance the adaptive capability of local communities through socio-economic
developments. Construction of irrigation canal and its equitable distribution is important to
sustain the agricultural water demand throughout the year.
2. Similarly, well-managed drinking water supply project should be implemented (especially in Taruka
VDC) because the existing water supply system is not sufficient to meet the local demands.
3. To conserve the existing water sources, forest conservation and watershed management are
important. On a household level, rainwater-harvesting technique is a viable solution. Similarly
on a community level, construction of artificial ponds to store the water during wet season
and using it during dry season possibly solve the water scarcity problem. In case of agriculture,
water conserving irrigation techniques like drip irrigation system or sprinkle irrigation system
should be encouraged. Similarly, use of chemical fertilizer should be replaced with bio-
fertilizer. The prevalence of insects and pests can also be minimized by crop rotation and
multiple cropping methods.
4. Dalits and other marginalized communities are more vulnerable to the climate change than
other ethnic group. Hence, priority should be given to such people who really need support to
cope with changing climate.
5. Firstly, community should be provided with information about climate change and its potential
impact on ecosystem and livelihood. Secondly, capacity building programs like fish farming, goat
and chicken farming; bee farming should be put into practice to enhance socio-economic status of
local people with the support of national and international agencies and government bodies.
6. Thirdly, disaster preparedness planning should be formulated considering the major climate
induced hazards like landslide, drought, extreme rainfall etc. Use of firewood should be
discouraged (especially in Taruk) to reduce the carbon footprint and air pollution related
health impacts. Use of clean energy sources line biogas, solar home system, and micro-hydro
are possible solution. To promote these climate friendly energy sources as an alternative to
firewood, subsidy should be given to poor and marginalized people.
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3.17 Sankhuwasabha District3.17.1 Location Profile
Sankhuwasabha Districtlies in Koshi Zone. Khandbari is the district headquarters of Sankhuwasaba.
The district covers an area of 3,480 square kilometers and had a population of 1,59,3023 in 2001.
The elevation ranges from 345 to 8,463m (Mt. Makalu), which is the fifth highest peak in the world.
The Makalu-Barun National Park and Buffer Zone is in this district.
Due to its great altitudinal variation i.e. 300-8463 m, Sankhuwasabha comprises various climatic
regimes from warm tropical to cool temperate and alpine climate. Over the northern part,
several east to west stretching mountains are present. The major peaks include Makalu (8,463
m), Kumbakarna (5858 m), Lumba Sumba (8,463 m), Panch Pokhari (5,000 m) and Jaljale (4,832
m). Among these mountains, Makalu is one of the fifth tallest mountains on earth. Because of
its mountainous beauty and diversified climatic regime, Sankhuwasabha has great potential of
tourism industry. The major tourist destinations in Sankhuwasabha include natural sites like
Arun Valley, Tinjure Milke Jaljale (TMJ), a rhododendron preservation area and historic sites Dingla
Hedangna Gadi etc.
In addition, Sankhuwasabha encompasses Makalu Barun National Park (MBNP) and Buffer
Zone (BZ), can also be an interesting destination for trekkers. The study site Nundaki VDC and
TMJ represents middle and High Mountain landscape along with Kanchenjunga Conservation
Area (KCA) and Makalu-Barun National Park (MBNP). This is why TMJ is one of the major tourist
destinations for trekking and river rafting.
Situated in the high Himalayan region, Sankhuwasabha is highly sensitive to the climate change.
The TMJ falls in the eastern Himalayan climatic regime where monsoon starts early (June) and
stays longer than in Western Nepal (until late September).
The area has a wide climatic range, from warm temperature in the lower region to alpine in the
upper hill slopes. The temperature drops with increasing altitude and results in different climatic
zones within a short vertical distance.
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Nundhaki VDC
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Climate data analysis of Chainpur station of Sankhuwasabha shows increasing trend in annual
rainfall over the 63-year period (1947-2009) with inter-annual variability. Similarly, the 23 years
(1987-2009) temperature analysis shows decreasing trend for both maximum and minimum
temperature, however, the decrement rate (-0.173oC/year) is large in case of minimum
temperature. According to NAPA vulnerability mapping, the Combined Vulnerability Index (CVI)
for Sankhuwasabha is moderate (MoE/NAPA 2010). GLOF is the biggest threat to the people of
Sankhuwasabha with high vulnerability index.
The Combined Adaptation Capability Index (CACI) is moderate. Adaptation capability in terms of
infrastructure development is relatively higher than technology and socio-economic adaptation
capability (MoE/NAPA 2010). Sankhuwasabha is experiencing climate-induced hazards like fire and
flood hazards intermittently. According to MoHA (2009), 43 fire events and 26 flood and landslide
events have been recorded from 2058 to 2065 B.S causing severe damage to life and property.
3.17.2 People’s Perception on Climate Change
Most of the respondents believed that temperature has increased in recent decades significantly.
However, they argued that the snowfall (or rainfall) amount is decreasing. In particular, changes in
monsoon rainfall pattern are the most noticeable and prominent indication of changing climate.
On the other hand, drought occasions are also getting common in past several years. Hailstone is
another problematic climatic hazard in this region, which has increased in its frequency since last
decade. Similarly, the occurrence of frost during winter season has also increased remarkably.
In addition, majority of respondents experienced spreading of animal diseases quite often. In
general the water resource, agriculture, human health and biodiversity sector have been greatly
affected by climate-induced extremities.
Water resources: In recent 10 years, significant impacts on water resources have been noticed.
The remarkable example is the shrinking of Guphapokhari Lake; one of the prime drinking water
source for people in Nundhaki VDC. Previously, the water level in Guphapokhari used to remain
same year around (i.e. no significant seasonal variation), however in recent years the water level
during winter (dry) season usually drops well below the normal level. Similarly other water sources
are also drying up rapidly thus people of Nundhaki are looking for immediate alternatives to fulfill
their domestic water demand especially during dry period.
Agriculture: Agriculture is one of the major income generating sources for people of Nundhaki.
In recent years due to the increasing pest’s population, the agriculture productivity has decreased
largely. In addition, different kinds of diseases in livestock are of common occurrence and more
frequently in recent days. Moreover, unavailability of fodder especially during winter is emerging
as biggest threat to the livestock rearing.
Human health: With increasing temperature and changing climate, human health problems are
also increasing in Nundhaki village. According to a local health worker, new skin diseases are
spreading in recent 2-3 years. Skin irritation is a widely experienced problem and children are
more sensitive towards it. Besides this, occurrence of insects is also increasing affecting the water
sources and quality of sanitation.
Biodiversity: About 25 species of Rhododendron has been recorded in TMJ area (IUCN 2010). The
TMJ is renowned for its high diversity of Nepalese rhododendron species (25 out of the 32 species
found in Nepal). The area has a high number of rhododendron arboreum (laligurans in Nepali), a
red bloom that was designated the national flower in 1962.
According to local, flowering period of Rhododendron has shifted earlier than usual. In addition,
the spatial distribution of Rhododendron is not homogeneous and the flowering time varies from
place to place within the same forest.
3.17.3 Coping Mechanism
In order to minimize the effect of frost, farmers have adopted locally available technologies. They
have constructed sheds in the agriculture field to protect the crop form freezing cold. Similarly,
they are preserving and storing some crops like potato and radish in their homes for long-term
use especially during the dry period prevailed by drought. Similarly, to cope with increasing pest
effect, they have started using chemical fertilizer to increase crop productivity. In addition, they
are also experimenting new seed varieties to avoid the effect of specific pests.
To cope with drying water sources and seasonal drought, people have been storing water in a tank
or bucket during wet season and using it during dry period for drinking and household use. In
case of livestock, as mention above, outbreak of diseases is the main threat; hence people have
planned to have insurance for livestock.
3.17.4 Recommendations
1. Gupha is one of the major tourist destinations in eastern Nepal along Kanchenjunga trekking
route because of its religious, cultural, and historical richness as well as natural beauty.
However, due to lack of infrastructure, this diversified place has not been explored in its
fullest. In this regard, tourism development and promotion along with awareness campaign
on environment protection issues (especially sanitation and water conservation) should be
considered.
2. Being one of the popular tourist destinations with high religious significance, Gorapokhari
Lake should be placed in top priority from conservation point of view. Immediate conservation
action should be implemented as the lake is shrinking year by year. Likewise, Gupha Pokhari
should be developed as major tourists hub with some information where the visitors will have
access to learn about the natural and cultural including the biodiversity of the area.
3. Water scarcity is growing as a main problem in Nundhaki VDC, hence, current water
conservation practices should be intensified and further water conservation programs should
be implemented. The concept of rainwater harvesting can be an economic solution. In addition,
proper sanitation practice should be applied in order to avoid water borne diseases in future.
4. To control the pests’ population and associated damage to agricultural production the concept of
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) should be implemented along with awareness programs for
farmers.
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3.18 Sindhupalchowk District3.18.1 Location Profile
Sindhupalchowk District is located in the Bagmati zone to the north of Kathmandu. The headquarters
is Chautara. The district covers an area of 2,542 square kilometers and had a population of 305,857 in
2001. The elevation ranges from 850 to 7,080 meters. The climate is sub-tropical to temperate to alpine.
Part of the Langtang National Park (LNP) lies in this district.
It is a hilly region of the Nepal and mostly inhabited by the indigenous community. In recent days due to
decreasing rainfall, people are at greatest risk of declining agriculture productivity. Data from Chautara
precipitation station in Sindhupalchowk shows slightly increasing trend in annual rainfall over the 31
years from 1978-2008 with inter-annual variability.
Sindhupalchowk district has been categorized under moderately vulnerable group in NAPA’s climate
change vulnerability mapping for Nepal (GoN/NAPA, 2010). Being surrounded by Langtang National
Park and Gaurishankar Conservation Area, ecologically it is highly sensitive to climate change (GoN/
NAPA, 2010). This district is also highly vulnerable in terms of rainfall and temperature (GoN/NAPA
2010). Similarly, this district is at high risk to climate-induced disasters such as landslides (NAPA,
2010). However, the socio-economic condition is relatively poor, which will significantly influence their
adaptive capacity.
Sindhupalchok have great potential of socio-cultural, natural as well as religious tourism. Indigenous
Tamang community is one of the interesting places to visit to learn about Tamang culture. View of Dorje
Lakpa (Jugal Mountain), natural beauty of Helambu, hot springs and waterfalls are major highlights of
Sindhupalchok. In addition, destinations including Panch Pokhari, Bhairabhi Kunda and Dudh Pokhari
have both religious and natural significance. Rafting, kayaking, and canoeing in Trishuli and Bheri River
are the adventurous activities which can be done in Sindhupalchok.
Similarly, Bungee jumping in Bhote Koshi River is another popular destination for people who love
adventure. Phulping village of Batase VDC and Phungboche village of Helambu VDC were selected for
current research. The phulping village lies on the lower track of the Great Himalayan Trail with socio-
cultural and geographical uniqueness.
N
Batase VDC
Helumbu VDC
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The village is entirely occupied by marginalized ethnic Tamang community of Nepal. Phungboche lies
in famous tourism destination (Helambu) of Nepal. This village is located in between upper and lower
tracks of the Great Himalayan Trail and occupied entirely Hyolmo ethnic community. Being at the
core of LNP, local biodiversity and forest resources are very significant for the people of Phungboche.
Forest, land and water are most important capitals for livelihood of local people.
Both of the Phulping and Phungboche village have been experiencing extreme rainfall pattern in
recent years. Monsoon rainfall is getting more intense while the duration of rainfall is getting shorter.
There has been growing evidence of delay (by two months) in monsoon rainfall in Phungboche village.
No consistent pattern has been reported in Phulping villager in terms of hotness and coldness in
different seasons. However, in case of Phungboche village both the summer and winter are getting
hotter than the past. Drought during dry period is now more common in both villages.
As for example during 2011, people of Phulping had experienced prolonged drought of four months without
a single drop of water. Temperature variability is more erratic and pronounced in recent years. The significant
change is weather pattern of Phulping village has been observed by local people is the winter snowfall.
Since last six years (2006-20012) there has not been any snowfall in winter. However, before this
period there used to be snowfall every winter. The case is similar in Phungboche village. These days,
winter snowfall is occurring in three years interval; however in the past it used occur every year.
Another significant change in weather condition experienced in Phulping village is frequent fog events,
which are completely new to the people. Agriculture, water resources, human and animal health, and
infrastructure is being affected by changing climatic pattern;
Agriculture: Production of major crop (maize) has been largely affected by drought in both villages.
Intense monsoon rainfall is another serious issue related with agriculture in both villages. As for example,
millet harvest in Phungboche has been largely affected by heavy rainfall. In addition, due to intense
erosion by heavy rainfall, loss of fertile soil is the dominant factor for loss in productivity. New diseases
particularly in Potatoes and Mustard are another major problem in Phulping village. Consequently, the
food security has been threatened, as the annual food production is only sufficient for six months.
Water resources: Due to prolonged dry winter, natural streams are drying up in Phulping village.
People have to face severe water deficiency during four months of dry season every year in both
villages. The existing water supply system is not sufficient to fulfill their annual water demand, in
addition prolonged dry winter and frequent drought is worsening water availability further. As a result
women and children are spending time in collecting water from nearby water source to meet their
household water demand. Poor sanitation is the main cause of communicable diseases in Phulping
village. Due to the excessive soil erosion, the water quality of nearby water sources is degrading. This
has added extra pressure on sanitation status of the local people. The story is not so different in
Phungboche village as the water availability is the common problem here also. People depend mainly
upon six different water sources in the village. The water availability is even severe during dry season
when the water in most of the sources decline significantly. The existing piped water supply system is
not functioning because of physical damage caused by high flow during monsoon period.
Human and animal health: Villagers in Phulping have reported that since three years domestic livestock
are suffering from an unidentified disease particularly in goats causing death. Due to the contamination of
water bodies especially during monsoon season number of cases with water borne diseases are increasing in
Phungboche village. This could be due to the higher sediment contamination during intense rainfall events.
Infrastructure: Along with increasing rainfall intensity, Phungboche village is getting more vulnerable
to the landslide hazard. Recent landslide events have damaged existing water supply system. Nearby
school and a monastery is now under threat of active landslide. Similar situation can be seen in the
Phulping village. Occurrence of landslide events is also increasing in Phulping village making it susceptible
to landslide hazard. Sixteen households are under threat of landslide just below the settlement area.
3.18.3 Coping Mechanism
People in Sindhupalchowk districts are coping with food insecurity by growing new paddy and broccoli
as new crop and vegetables. This broccoli would be the new vegetable as they can grow and sell this
vegetable and earn for their livelihoods. The paddy is considered another new crop because it can be
grown in winter season. Due to which they can solve the problem of buying rice from the market. Likewise,
the people of Sindhupalchowk have adopted different strategies to minimize environmental risk and
ensure food security and high agricultural production. Terraces on steep hill slopes have been made
to reduce erosion on one hand and in the other hand to obtain benefits of irrigations. Other strategies
adopted by villagers are the selection of crops like potato, maize, millet and wheat barley, which are
grown in un-irrigated land. The unseasonal foods and cash crops have also been practiced in this area.
Likewise, people in this region are using different strategies to keep livestock at proper conditions.
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3.18.4 Recommendations
1. Water scarcity status is severe in both villages especially during dry season. Infrastructure
development for water collection, storage, and distribution is essential to improve the water
availability status. In case of Phungboche village, the existing water supply system should be
maintained and upgraded so that it can also be in operation.
2. Soil erosion and landslide are the major threat to agriculture and livestock grazing in Phulping
village. Bioengineering techniques can solve both of these problems. Planting fodder plant varieties
will provide grazing land for livestock as well as it will prevent both landslide and soil erosion.
3. To control the soil erosion in the agriculture fields, different techniques like contour farming,
terracing, and Slope Agriculture Land Technique (SALT) can turn out to be some locally feasible
mitigation measures. In case of Pangboche village construction of gabion wall is essential to
prevent the nearby school from landslide hazard.
4. Due to extreme rainfall in Phungboche Millet production has been largely affected. Hence, people should
pre-inform about the extreme weather events in order to minimize the agricultural loss. New varieties of
potato and mustard, which are suitable for changing weather condition, could bring higher production.
5. Sanitation facility is one of the major concerns because communicable diseases are of common
occurrence in Phulping village as majority of households (110 out of 120) do not have toilets.
6. Diseases in livestock are another main issue related with animal health in Phulping. The Government
Animal Service Centre in Jalbire is not under operation. Access of animal health treatment facility is
very important to improve the animal health. There are many various possible trekking routes in
Helambu and minor trek to Phungboche is one of them. It can be promoted as a destination in which
one can learn about the Hyolmo culture along the Helambu trek.
7. Firewood is the main source of energy for cooking and space heating. Use of efficient technology
like improved cooking stove should be encouraged. In addition, use of alternative energy sources
like solar can be promoted with government subsidies to reduce firewood dependency.
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3.19.1 Location Profile
Solukhumbu district lies in the Sagarmatha Zone and borders China to the north. It is divided
into two regions: Solu and Khumbu. The headquarters is Salleri. The district covers an area of
3,312 square kilometers and has a population of 107,686. The elevation ranges from 1,500 to
8,848 meters (Mt. Everest) the world’s tallest peak in the world. The district also contains the
Sagarmatha National Park (SNP). There are many peaks over 7,000 meters in this district. This
district has several high mountain glacial lakes.
However, these high altitude mountains and associated glaciers are highly sensitive to raising
temperature. The average annual maximum and minimum temperature from Khumbu region
over the 23 years period (1987-2008) shows increasing trend. Rainfall analysis for same period
shows decreasing trend with pronounced inter-annual variability.
Solukhumbu district is highly vulnerable to GLOF (GoN/NAPA 2010). Out of 20 potentially dangerous
glacial lakes in Nepal, 12 lakes are found in Solukhumbu (Bajracharya et al., 2001). Landslide is
another major natural hazard in Solukhumbu threatening the livelihood of the people.
3.19 Solukhumbu District
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Khumjung VDC
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The combined vulnerability index for Solukhumbu district is high; however, it has low adaptation
capability (GoN/NAPA 2010). In particular, the infrastructure adaptation capability is relatively
lower than technological and socio-economic adaptation capability (GoN/NAPA 2010).
Solukhumbu is the most popular tourist destination in Nepal for trekking and mountaineering
and its economy depends highly on tourism ever since Sir Edmund Hillary and Sherpa Tenzing
Norgay successfully conquered world’s highest peak for the first time in May 1953.
Khumbu is the home of the famous Sherpas. Based on the 2001 census, Khumbu has about
6000 population where majority of the people are Sherpa within its three administrative Village
Development Committees (VDCs) viz. Namche, Khumjung and Chaurikharka (Pharakpa). The
traditional Sherpa culture, cultural museum, handicraft production are the main socio-cultural
attractions. Naturally Solukhumbu is the paradise of mountains containing the highest peak of the
world (Mt. Everest). Besides this, Mt. Lhotse, Mt. Nuptse, Mt. Cho Oyu and Mt. Amadablam are also
located in Solukhumbu. Gokyo Lake, Dudhkunda Lake, Gokyo Ri, Panch Pokhari, Kalapathar, Mera
Peak, Pharchamo Peak are other natural highlights. Despite of low infrastructure development,
Solukhumbu has immense potential of tourism industry. Two settlements are selected from
Khumjung VDC of Solukhumbu district for conducting the research. This study considered these
two settlements as a single village due to their homogeneity in socio-economy and geography.
Khumjung valley in Solukhumbu District lies in the upper track of the Great Himalayan Trail in the
Khumbu region.
3.19.2 People’s Perception on Climate Change
Khumjung VDC is witnessing impacts of climate change in recent years. The majority of the
communities in Khumbu regions are severely affected by climate change due to an increased
irregular snow and rainfall patterns. Rain and snowfall amounts are believed to have decreased
in total amount, but today arrive in the form of heavy storms and blizzards when more consistent
and predictable amounts fell in the past. For example, the Sherpas of Khumbu said that “it rains
when it should snow and snows when it should rain,” ruining our crops and agriculture.
Increasing monsoon rainfall is the widely experienced change in weather pattern. On the other
hand, prolonged drought is another example of changing climate. People have experienced
decreasing snowfall since last 10 years. People said that there used to be about four feet snow
during winter but now it is only 10 to 11 inch. Both winter and summer is getting hotter than
previous years. Windstorms are getting more frequent these days. As for example, windstorm of
January 2012 was the biggest windstorm people have ever experienced. Water resources, human
health, and tourism are the main sector, which is being affected the most;
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Water resources: Except for a few small settlements, most villages in the Khumbu region have
access to drinking water from the snow fed river. Fresh water supplies in villages along the main
trekking trails are becoming scarcer during the winter and spring months because of a combination
of changing precipitation patterns.
The current water supply through community tap system is insufficient to meet the demand of the
local people and the drying up of historically reliable springs, and new water demands imposed
by flush toilets and shower built for tourists along the major trekking route from Lukla to Everest
base camp, Gokyo and Thame valley.
There are in total 240 households with six members each in an average, for which only six
community taps are provided. Out of six taps only two are functioning. Water unavailability
problem gets even worse during peak tourist season (spring and autumn). Hence, water scarcity
has direct impact on people’s livelihood as well as on the tourism industry of the locality.
Human health: Poor sanitation due to water scarcity has resulted in the occurrence of various
communicable diseases. According to the Khunde Hospital, increasing cases of communicable
diseases such as diarrhea and cholera has been recorded. Similarly, women and children engaged
in fetching water from far distance are found to suffer from muscle and joint pains.
Weather pattern: Some trekking Sherpas reported that the climate of the Khumbu region is
definitely changing. In the past, after the post monsoon period, the weather from late September
to December was mainly clear and cold, and were the best time for for trekking in the region.
The majority of the trekking agents sold their trip packages during these months because of the
favorable weather conditions.
However, since the last decade, the weather has been changing from clear to cloudy conditions
during this period, with associated and growing problems in flying in and out of Lukla. In October
2011 thousands of tourists were stranded in Lukla for almost 10 days due to thick cloud cover,
which made it impossible for planes to land on the airstrip.
Tourism industry: The Sherpas of Khumbu frequently reported that the extreme climate
variability and hazard as a result of climate change is already posing uncertainty in the tourism in
future. The changing climate in the Khumbu region has affected their livelihoods especially those
who have been relying on tourism as their major source of income, primarily because in recent
years the weather has become less predictable than before. As a result, they reported that there
has been constant drop in tourist number in the region during the past several years.
Likewise, the impact of climate change in Khumbu region is wide and multi-faceted. Incidents of climate
hazards such as landslides, avalanches, glacial lake outburst and flooding are increasing, leaving
behind trails of destruction every year. Hundreds of local lives are lost and millions of rupees worth
of properties, infrastructure, transport systems, trails and bridges are either damaged or destroyed.
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Mountain glaciers are melting fast. This phenomenon is starting to have adverse effects on local
biodiversity and livelihoods, particularly increasing vulnerabilities of poor and marginalized
communities. For example, the glaciers in the Khumbu are either retreating fast or in some
cases have disappeared, increasing both the risk of catastrophic GLOFs, and affecting freshwater
supplies for hundreds of millions of people downstream.
As far as the occurrence of GLOF in Khumbu, the first GLOF occurred in 1977 near Pangboche
and in 1985 in the Bhote Koshi valley. Similarly, the Langmoche flood in the Bhote Koshi valley
was the most destructive GLOF in the Khumbu’s recorded history, destroying bridges, the ongoing
hydropower station at that time, drinking water systems, agricultural land, houses and killing five
people and lost significant amount of property.
The Khumbu region is likely to experience longer periods of drought in the summer and freezing
in the winter, both contributing to water scarcity. The scarcity of water in Khumjung has direct
impact on tourism industry. Though there are few number of locally owned tourist lodges and
some are under construction, due to unavailability of water they are not in operation.
Local people even claim that due to unavailability of enough water in Khumjung valley, tour
operators do not prefer to take their tourists to this site. Another serious issue related with
tourism industry is the rapid melting of snow and ice from the glorious Hyalu Mountain. Hyalu
Mountain used to be the tourist attraction of Khumjung valley. Nowadays it’s getting less popular
because of vanishing beauty from 60 liters to 1000 liters. This is the most widely used adaptation
practice in Khumjung valley.
3.19.3 Coping Mechanism
To cope with the increasing water scarcity, local people have started using rainwater-harvesting
technology. It has reduced the hardship of local people to collect drinking water to some extent.
The survey result shows that 62% of household in Khumjung valley are collecting rainwater in
tanks of different sizes. The collection tank varies from 60 liters to 1000 liters. This is the most
widely used adaptation practice in Khumjung valley.
3.19.4 Recommendations
1. Water conservation practices should be adapted in order to minimize water scarcity problem.
2. Rainwater harvesting system should be promoted further. Community based water supply
system should be developed and water storage tanks should be constructed. The existing
water supply system can be maintained and set into operation again.
3. Occurrence of any kind of communicable diseases should be diagnosed properly, so that it
could not take any catastrophic form in near future. Similarly, health and sanitation facility
should be placed on higher priority.
4. Awareness regarding climate change and its impacts should be well disseminated and local
adaptation measures should be identified. The knowledge and skills of local people to cope
with the adverse impacts of climate should be enhanced and strengthened.
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3.20 Taplejung District3.20.1 Location Profile
Taplejung District lies in the Mechi zone and borders China to the north and India to the east.
The headquarters is Taplejung Bazar. The district covers an area of 3,646 square kilometers and
has a population of 134,698 in 2001. The elevation ranges from 777 to 8,598 meters. This district
includes Mt. Kanchenjunga (8,598 meters), the third highest peak in the world. The Kanchenjunga
Conservation Area (KCA) lies in this district.
Climate change scenario of Taplejung district is relatively severe than other districts. It is considered
as one of the highly vulnerable districts in Nepal as the high combined vulnerability index is very
high (GoN/NAPA 2010). GLOF and landslide are two major climate induced hazards affecting the
livelihood and ecosystem in Taplejung. In addition, Taplejung is also vulnerable to rainfall and
temperature related extreme events. Climatic data of Taplejung climate station also indicates
that Taplejung district is experiencing gradual warming and decreasing rainfall trends. The 29
years (1981-2010) temperature analysis shows that average annual maximum and minimum
temperature have increased over this period.
On the other hand, rainfall is gradually decreasing with a rate of 5.6 mm/year over the period
from 1975 to 2009. The combined vulnerability index for Taplejung is moderate which may be
linked with low socio-economic status as well as other infrastructure development. Taplejung is
well known for its biological diversity and natural beauty. The main attraction of Taplejung is the
world’s third highest peak Kanchenjunga. Besides Kanchenjunga, one can have breath taking view
of Yalung Kang, Mt. Kumbakarna (Jannu), Kabru.
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Lelep VDC
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Alpine grasslands, rocky landscapes, dense temperate to subtropical forests, waterfalls and
stunning river valley carved by Tamur River are other natural highlights. Taplejung is also popular
for religious trekking including Dikichholing Gompa and Pathibhara Temple trek.
Because of its cultural richness comprised of Sherpa, Bhote and Limbu culture, Taplejung is an
interesting destination for those who want to learn different cultures of Nepal.
The study area, Ghunsa village of Lelep VDC is one of the High Hill villages dominated by Sherpa
community. Ghunsa is one of the popular tourist destinations along Kanchenjunga Base Camp
Trek. Similarly, it also lies in the Rhododendron Trail to Tinjure Milke Jaljale Trail (TMJT) and
Pathibhara Pilgrimage Trek. Natural waterfalls, traditional Sherpa culture and mountain views are
some of the tourism attraction in Ghunsa.
3.20.2 People’s Perception on Climate Change
Majority of respondents (>80percent) have reported that there is general increasing trend of
temperature in recent years. Number of days with snowfall is decreasing and reduction in amount
of snowfall has been experienced widely.
There has been remarkable temporal shifting of winter season with colder days. Some 10 years
back, winter season used to occur from December to second week of February, but now it stays
till March. Similarly, in the past, snowfall usually occurred for four months (December to March)
but these days it stays only for few weeks.
Agriculture: Due to diseases, untimely rainfall, the potato production in Ghunsa village has been
largely affected. The production of potato has been decreased by 90 percent in past ten years.
For the people of Ghunsa such events are not totally new. Some 20 years ago people used to grow
buckwheat (Tite Phapar in local language) in the same farmland. They replaced the buckwheat
with potato because production of buckwheat dropped drastically.
The changing climatic pattern in Ghunsa also has significant impacts on livestock. Due to decreasing
pastureland, prevalence of new diseases, and drying water sources, livestock population is
decreasing year by year. This has serious impact on the livelihood of the people because livestock
is the main source of transportation in this remote mountainous region. Beside this, milk and milk
products is another main source of food for local people.
Water resources: People have noticed notable changes in snow cover of nearby mountains. In
the past there used to be thick layers of snow in the mountains year around, however, in recent
years it can be only seen during winter. This is a clear indication of melting snow and ice from
the mountains. As a result the water level in the river is increasing with frequently occurring flash
flood. On the other hand, nature water resources are declining.
Disaster: Along with increasing rainfall, the landslide events are also increasing. In 2012 due to
heavy rainfall and snowfall, there were numerous events of landslide. As a result, the micro-
hydro plant was badly damaged. Frequency of flash flood is also increasing in Ghunsa because of
extreme rain and snowfall events.
3.20.4 Recommendations
1. Ghunsa has potential of tourism where visitors can learn about Sherpa culture, views of
mountains and waterfall. Hence, Ghunsa can be developed as a mid way destination to
Kanchenjunga and or TMJ.
2. With proper infrastructure development Ghunsa village can be developed as destinations
where visitors can stay for few days to interact with Sherpas, learn Sherpa culture and, enjoy
the beauty of waterfalls and mountains.
3. Development of basic infrastructure especially trails which has been damaged by frequent
landslides should be improved. To mitigate landslide along the Ghunsa trekking route,
appropriate bioengineering techniques should be implemented. In addition to this,
development of bridge joining Ghunsa to Sekhthum is essential because Sekathum connects
Ghunsa to both Kanchenjunga and TMJT.
4. Agriculture sector is the most affected sector in Ghunsa so it should be placed on top priority
for future adaptation programs.
New varieties of crop (especially potato) should be tested and appropriate variety that is most
suitable for current climatic condition should be provided to the local farmers in order to
enhance agriculture productivity.
5. Re-construction of Ghunsa micro-hydro is the urgent need of the people in Ghunsa. Similarly
disaster preparedness plan and programs are also necessary especially for GLOF, landslide,
and rainfall and temperature related extreme events.
3.20.3 Coping Mechanism
None of the respondents reported about the coping mechanism. During the field visit there was
not any indication of people’s coping strategy towards changing climate.
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4 conclusion and recommendations
Our extensive field survey in 20 different districts along the GHT combined with other literature and
rigorous discussions indicate that impact of climate change in the mountainous areas is tangible.
The localized impacts of climate change are inevitable and mountain people are more vulnerable
to such changes due to low adaptation capacity. Lack of basic infrastructure, rugged terrain, harsh
climate and lack of resources are the main driving factors for low socio-economic development.
Climate change on top of that is the additional burden for these rural people. The rainfall data
analysis shows decreasing trend for majority of districts. The most significant reduction in rainfall
was observed in Bajura, Baglung, Humla, Kaski, and Baglung. The temperature trend is not so
consistent with different locations. The average annual maximum temperature is found to be
increasing for majority of districts. However, the minimum temperature trend is decreasing. Out
to 20 districts, a pronounced warming trend was observed in Lamjung, Taplejung, Jumla, Doti,
Dolkha and Solukhumbu.
During the field visit to different villages of remote mountainous regions of Nepal, local people
spoke about changes in climate they have experienced. The results are consistent with current
climate change projection and other similar studies. In most of the villages, people have been
experiencing increasing temperature trend. Rainfall is unpredictable with intense monsoon rainfall
and increasing drought periods. People have also experienced delay in monsoon with less number
of rainy days. Here are the voices of local people in different remote mountainous locations of
Nepal;
• Warmer summer, drier winters with decreasing snowfall amount and duration
• Intense monsoon rainfall with decreasing rainfall duration, early or delayed onset of monsoon rainfall
• More frequent and intense windstorm and hailstorm
• Prolonged drought during winter or sometime during monsoon
• Declining water sources and widespread water scarcity
Agriculture is a the highly affected sector due to changes in weather patterns. The crop productivity
is declining in most of the areas resulting in widespread food insecurity. Due to prolonged drought
and untimely onset of monsoon, people have no option left but to irrigate their agriculture field. In
addition, occurrence of new diseases and dominance of invasive species is putting extra burden
to the livelihood of poor farmers. People are forced to depend upon food from local market to
meet their food deficiency. Food insecurity is increasing with decreasing agriculture production
and the situation is relatively worse in the respective villages of Doti, Jumla, Mugu, Sindhupalchok,
and Bajura.
4.1 Conclusion
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The decreasing agriculture productivity is one of the driving factors for youth migration in search of
income generation. Moreover, increasing events of soil erosion and landslides are causing loss of
fertile soil, loss of infrastructure and grazing lands. Due to unavailability of grazing areas, livestock
agriculture has been largely affected. With increasing temperature and growth of invasive species,
new diseases in livestock are reported by most of the villagers.
Widespread water scarcity is a common problem in most of the villages. However, the situation is
comparatively severe in the respective villages of Nuwakot, Dhading, Dolpa, Gorkha, and Mugu.
In most of the district natural water sources are declining remarkably. Drying of natural springs,
ponds, rivers especially during winter season is adding stress on women and children because
they are forced to travel far to collect water. Extreme monsoon rainfall on the other hand is
causing flash flood, excessive soil erosion and frequent landslides threatening the livelihood.
Natural hazards like landslide, windstorm, hailstorm, and soil erosion have been affecting forest
biodiversity significantly. Similarly, due to changing climatic conditions, new invasive species are
replacing the existing fodder varieties and other NTFPs. Firewood is the prime source of energy
in the mountains, due to decreasing forest cover, women and children now forced to travel far
to collect firewood. Along with natural hazards, occurrence of new diseases has been reported
widely. Due to lack of proper health facility, the vulnerability of such diseases and magnitude
of impact is relatively large. Water scarcity along with limited sanitation facility is worsening the
health status of people further.
Realizing the widespread changes, people are trying to cope with it. They are growing new crop
varieties, shifting the date of cultivation, improving water management by reservoir construction,
source conservation, and rain water harvesting, community forestry programs and seasonal
migration and shift from agriculture to other occupation. People are taking measures to adapt
themselves to a changing climate; however, further adaptation plan and programs are very crucial.
Empowering communities with information, technological skills, education and employment are
the essential elements, which should be included in adaptation programs. On a long run, climate
change mitigation will also be demanding, hence, carbon mitigation through green economy, low
carbon development mechanisms are equally important. As proposed, the concept of climate
smart living will provide fundamental solution for this.
Situated in the mountainous region, most of the villages have immense potential for tourism
development. It has been realized that tourism can be a driver to bring overall socio-economic
development in these remote mountain areas. Most of the areas possess immense natural,
cultural, and religious attractions which have not yet been realized to their fullest.
Some of the areas, which are already a tourist destination, like Laitak village of Dhading, Suirung
village of Lamjung, Ghunsa village of Taplejung, Sikles village of Kaski, and Khumjung valley of
Solukhumbu. However, there are some other location with immense tourism potential which
needs to be explored and promoted including Ringmo and Bhutigra village of Dopla, Dipayalgaun
and Pipalgaun of Jumla, Jhyari village of Mugu, Samjung village of Mustang and Chitre village of
Myagdi. With basic infrastructure development, these unexplored areas are expected to attract
people in near future. Promotion of tourism to these pristine areas under the GHT will be a step
towards capacity building of local people through socio-economic development, which in turn will
help to build a climate resilient community.
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4.2 Recommendations
Life for mountain people, as a rule, has always been a challenge. People in mountain are facing
multiple issues both existing and new challenges. Mountain communities in Nepal are often
marginalized from developmental influence and economic opportunities as a result these rural
people generally have to face high levels of poverty. The ecosystems they dwell in are among
the most sensitive because of harsh climatic condition, fragile geology, and steep terrain. These
resource poor isolated people are frequently being exposed to multiple natural hazards including
Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF), landslide, hailstorm, extreme rainfall, floods etc. The region
is also confronted with issues like environmental degradation, natural resource depletion, water
scarcity, and desertification (Schild 2008). Mountainous region challenges are characterized by
low income, low access to health facilities, poor education, and low skills. Moreover, the high
dependency on natural environment, physical vulnerability and limited entrepreneurial capacity
are resulting in poverty and lower socio-economic development. The underlying cause relating
these fundamental problems is lack of development which in a sense has been close to non-
existent. Poor physical and economic infrastructures, limited access to market, technologies
and information, poor institutional services and limited economic opportunities are some of the
examples of issues related to development in the mountains.
In recent years climate change is expected to place additional stress on these already challenging
ecosystem and livelihoods. Decline in rainfall and its erratic behavior, drought, flash floods, glacier
melting and GLOF are some well documented impact of climate change in the mountains. These
natural calamities often pose serious threats to local food production and trigger land degradation
and desertification (UNDP 2010). The combined effect of natural disaster and impacts of climate
change in the mountains has great damage mainly on the agriculture, water resource and human
health. Decreasing agriculture productivity in the mountainous region is causing out migration
to raise family income and also adapt to the changing climate (Karki 2012). The potential of
population migration and redistribution due to climate change associated hazards have also been
documented by IPCC in Fourth Assessment Report (IPCC 2007). The cases of people migration and
climate refugees in the mountainous region of Nepal due to above mentioned climate induced
hazards is getting more attention these days. As for example, the first recognized case of climate
change refuges in Nepal is the complete migration of 23 households of Dhe village in Upper
Mustang (Khatri 2013). These climate refugees are relocated due to the severe impact of climate
change on the livelihoods of the people. Labor migration is also increasing because of lack of
employment opportunities in the mountain. In order to raise family income and also adapt to the
changes taking place especially that caused by climate change in recent years, male population in
the mountain are declining because of labor migration (Karki 2012).
The persistent limited employment and economic opportunities in mountain communities have
now further hindered by the impacts of climate change. Poverty always being a synonymous
to the mountain communities is the main determining factor for climate change adaptation
process. According to UNDP (2009) the human poverty index by topographic region is high
in the mountains (i.e. 43.3). This indicates that about 43.3% of the total populations are living
under poverty line. Poverty in the mountainous regions has been recognized as the key driver
of vulnerability and low adaptive capability to climate change (Macchi et. al. 2011). Realizing
110 HCI / CAHC / Overview of Climate Change: Impact and Adaptation in Nepal Himalayas / 2015
these underlying issues, poverty alleviation through economic development is the only option
left for these resource poor mountain people. Livelihood assets are essential for adaption to
changing climate providing multiple options to cope with or adapt to changing conditions (Macchi
et. al. 2011). By far mid-hills and Terai have been more in priority for developmental projects
because of electoral compulsions. Given Nepal’s chaotic socio-political situation, it is unlikely that
conventional industries including large energy projects will be implemented any time soon in the
mountains. This has created limited employment opportunities in the mountain communities with
lower entrepreneurial capabilities. Hence, market driven value chain initiatives are indispensable
to bring radical economic development in these areas. Efforts to improve the economic situation
of mountain communities need to consider innovative financing mechanisms and approaches
such as payments for environmental services. Supportive and enabling environment for the
promotion of high-quality niche products and services from mountain areas would be critical for
improving livelihoods and protecting mountain environments. This would require assuring access
of mountain products to national and international markets.
Climate Vulnerability is more likely to increase in the coming years tremendously if some smart
interventions (that are possible even in the political uncertainly) are not made. One has to look
around and find competitive advantage that need least investment and lead time to prosper.
Though development brings overall socio-economic enhancement in rural mountainous region,
“Development as usual”, without considering risks and opportunities related with climate change
will not allow us to face emerging challenges. Although adaptation should remain Nepal’s
priority, in course of development, it is essential to opt for a green economy through low carbon
development path. Nepal is endowed with immense potential for hydropower which should be
promoted for all domestic energy requirements. Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and
Forests Degradation (REDD+) programme provides opportunities to reduce GHGs emissions and
bring investments in forest-related sustainable development for the dependent communities.
Green economy model for sustainable development and poverty alleviation will open windows
of opportunity to resolve the weakness of earlier development models. Nepal’s Climate Change
Policy, 2011 focus on promoting the use of renewable energy; however, it needs to be affordable
and accessible for remote mountain communities. Promotion of clean and climate friendly energy
sources like solar energy, bio-gas energy, micro-hydro with government subsidies in the mountain
will substantially decrease the firewood dependency and reduce carbon footprints. Though, Nepal
has promoted CDM projects in areas of biogas, micro-hydro and improved cooking stoves, but
mountain people are yet to benefit from it. Hence, it should be implemented effectively so that
people who really need financial support for their livelihood can be benefitted.
Tourism industry is the only hope in the mountain which has been a boon to the local economy.
In Nepal, mountain tourism comprises about 20 to 25% of the total tourist inflow; however it
is a significant income source for numerous people living in and around popular mountain
destinations such as the Everest and Annapurna regions (Nepal, 1999). Besides these popular
tourist destinations, Nepal contains other numerous places for adventurous trekking with
tremendous potential. Promotion of pro-poor sustainable tourism will help highlight market and
local product diversification for enhancing income generation and poverty alleviation as well as
conserve historical; conserving historical, cultural, and religious heritage and natural resources
and necessary infrastructure development as a whole. Developing the Great Himalaya Trail is
one such promising option. Promoting GHT would not be a very capital intensive project- the
ruggedness of the mountain trails are a natural asset for Nepal’s trekking and mountaineering
111HCI / CAHC / Overview of Climate Change: Impact and Adaptation in Nepal Himalayas / 2015
industry. Most sections of the trails are already in use by the local population- only some of the
sections need investment-and that too would attract public participation making the project
even less expensive. GHT, however, must be developed in climate smart ways considering the
issue of environment protection and carbon mitigation. This can be accomplished by promoting
Climate Smart Living in model communities across the length of GHT, and then replicating them
across the trail, making the entire GHT a climate-smart undertaking. Many of the 20 locations
this research covered qualify for promoting Climate Smart Living. Some are more suited than the
others (see annex).
Dealing with Climate Change does not need brand new solutions. Conventional development that
includes the presence of trails. roads, airstrips, schools, telecommunication, healthcare is the only
way to move ahead Building climate resilience needs climate-smart economic empowerment.
Climate Resilience build-up needs climate-smart economic empowerment. Climate Smart GHT
exemplifies it. This would become a driver for all-round development.
112 HCI / CAHC / Overview of Climate Change: Impact and Adaptation in Nepal Himalayas / 2015
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116 HCI / CAHC / Overview of Climate Change: Impact and Adaptation in Nepal Himalayas / 2015
Appendix 1
Climatic data from district wise
Annual precipitation of Bajhang from 1981-2010
Annual precipitation of Bajura from 1976-2011 Annual precipitation of from Dhading 1978-2008
Annual precipitation of Baglung from 1980-2009
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
1978
1981
1984
1987
1990
1993
1996
1999
2002
2005
2008
Pre
cip
ita
tio
n (
in m
m)
Year
y = -18.25x + 38324
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
1975 1985 1995 2005
Pre
cip
ita
tio
n (
mm
)
Year
y = -5.476x + 12919
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
1979 1989 1999 2009
An
nu
al P
reci
pit
ati
on
(m
m)
Year
y = -12.47x + 27117
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Pre
cip
ita
tio
n (
mm
)
Year
117HCI / CAHC / Overview of Climate Change: Impact and Adaptation in Nepal Himalayas / 2015
Annual precipitation of Dolakha from 1981-2010
Annual precipitation of Doti from 1978-2009 Annual precipitation of Gorkha from 1980-2010
Annual precipitation of Dolpa from 1981-2010
y = 11.42x - 20486
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
1980 1990 2000 2010
Pre
cip
ita
tio
n (
mm
)
Year
y = -12.26x + 24841
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Pre
cip
ita
tio
n (
mm
)
Year
y = -2.009x + 5350
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
1980 1990 2000 2010
Pre
cip
ita
tio
n (
mm
)
Year
y = -30.40x + 61730
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
1980 1990 2000 2010
Pre
cip
ita
tio
n (
mm
)
Year
118 HCI / CAHC / Overview of Climate Change: Impact and Adaptation in Nepal Himalayas / 2015
Annual precipitation of Kaski from 1980-2010 Annual precipitation of Lamjung from 1981-2010
Annual precipitation of Humla from 1979- 2006 Annual precipitation of Jumla from 1983-2010
y = -2.727x + 5977
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1978 1988 1998
Pre
cip
ita
tio
n (
mm
)
Year
y = -0.911x + 2615
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1983 1993 2003
Pre
cip
ita
tio
n (
mm
)
Year
y = 1.658x + 51.64
0500
100015002000250030003500400045005000
1980 1990 2000 2010
Pre
cip
ita
tio
n (
mm
)
Year
y = 5.762x - 7597
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
1980 1990 2000 2010
Pre
cip
ita
tio
n (
mm
)
Year
119HCI / CAHC / Overview of Climate Change: Impact and Adaptation in Nepal Himalayas / 2015
Annual precipitation of Mugu from 1971-2006 Annual precipitation of Mustang from 1958-2010
Annual precipitation of Nuwakot from 1972-2009
Annual precipitation of Sankhuwasaba from 1947-2009
y = -4.026x + 8878
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1970 1980 1990 2000
Pre
cip
ita
tio
n (
mm
)
Year
y = 0.085x - 8.332
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
1958 1968 1978 1988 1998 2008
Pre
cip
ita
tio
n (
in m
m)
Year
y = -7.990x + 17815
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Pre
cip
ita
tio
n (
mm
)
Year
y = 3.658x - 5844
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
1947 1957 1967 1977 1987 1997 2007
Pre
cip
ata
tio
n (
mm
)
Year
120 HCI / CAHC / Overview of Climate Change: Impact and Adaptation in Nepal Himalayas / 2015
Annual precipitation of Sindhupalchowk from 1980-2009 Annual precipitation of Solukhumbu from 1987-2008
Annual precipitation of Taplejung from 1975-2009
y = -8.085x + 19036
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
1980 1990 2000 2010
Pre
cip
ita
tio
n (
mm
)
Year
y = -9.074x + 18567
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1987 1992 1997 2002 2007
Pre
cip
ata
tio
n (
mm
)
Year
y = 5.654x - 9028
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
1975 1985 1995 2005
Pre
cip
ita
tio
n (
mm
)
Year
121HCI / CAHC / Overview of Climate Change: Impact and Adaptation in Nepal Himalayas / 2015
Appendix 2
Climate Smart Living in the GHT: Need for Solutions
No discussion of tourism and environmental management in the mountain areas of Nepal is
complete without reference to the socio-economic environment as tourism can play an essential
role in the development of mountain communities. However, tourism sector in Nepal has been
advanced in largely demand driven and unplanned way, resulting in damage to the pristine
mountain environment in certain parts of the country. On the other hand, a changing climate is
affecting the overall mountain system rapidly supplementing additional pressure to the mountain
tourism as well as livelihood of mountain people.
Realizing the issues like shortcoming of traditional tourism approach, increasing developmental
demand of poor mountain people and their need to cope with climate variation, HCI has formed
a conceptual framework on Climate Smart Living (CSL).
The premise of climate smart living is inspired by the realization of the fact that sustainable tourism
can be a driving factor of socio-economic development for mountain people. CSL considers nature
conservation as a central theme and believes that protection of physical environment and socio-
economic development can have a symbiotic relationship provided there a holistic approach that
addresses the needs of the environment conservation, promotion of tourism and development of
mountain community.
Hence, climate friendly sustainable tourism along with climate smart living in different trekking
routes around GHT may provide means of development in those parts as well as creates
opportunities for overall environment protection, climate change mitigation and adaptation
processes. In this win-win scenario, tourism enhances the socio-economic status of the local
community, which in turn improves the climate change adaptive capability, and encourages
people to protect their fragile mountain environment.
In general CSL is a conceptual model, which seeks practical solutions to develop strategy for
climate change adaptation and mitigation particularly over the mountainous region of Nepal. HCI
is working on developing a ‘Climate Smart Living Framework (CSLF)’ based on a list of indicators
to help build different sectors into a model for sustainable development (Fig 1). HCI has identified
four fundamental bases including awareness, adaptation, Low Carbon Development (LCD), and
governance in order to address the issue of climate change adaptation and mitigation (Fig 1).
CSLF conceptualized by HCI is an intervention based on the identified thematic areas (agriculture,
waste, health and sanitation, water, energy, forest and biodiversity, infrastructures and disaster)
for developmental activities.
By adopting CSL modality, economic development can be achieved in a climate smart way with
minimum disturbance to environment. Furthermore, HCI is attempting to make this model
replicable in several developmental sectors like industries, tourism as well as corporate sectors.
122 HCI / CAHC / Overview of Climate Change: Impact and Adaptation in Nepal Himalayas / 2015
Climate Awareness
Climate Smart LivingThe Framework
Governance
CLIMATE SMART LIVING
Climate
Resilience
actionaction
Climate Adaptation
Low Carbon
Development
It is well known that mountain people are struggling with high poverty rates, exacerbated by
climate change, environmental degradation and an increasing rural-urban migration, making
traditional livelihood options increasingly unsustainable.
Relating to these issues, tourism can be a viable adaptation strategy, providing mountain people
with alternative options, building on the strengths of the region through tourism and associated
development activities. CSL includes promotion of locally appropriate climate change adaptation
practices and carbon mitigation strategy through low carbon development facilitated by good
governance. Thus, implementation of CSL in the trekking routes along GHT identified by HCI can
prove an attractive solution to produce climate resilient Himalayan communities.
GPO Box: 12123, House No. 692Subarna Marg, Baluwatar, Kathmandu, NepalPhone: +977 1 4428976, Fax: +977 1 [email protected]
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