OUTLIERSTheStoryofSuccess
MALCOLMGLADWELL
BACKBAYBOOKSLITTLE,BROWNAND
COMPANYNEWYORK•BOSTON•LONDON
BeginReadingTableofContents
ReadingGroupGuideCopyrightPage
ForDaisy
INTRODUCTION
TheRosetoMystery
“THESEPEOPLEWEREDYINGOFOLDAGE.THAT’SIT.”
out·li·er\-,l ( )r\noun1:somethingthatissituatedawayfromorclasseddifferentlyfromamainor
relatedbody2:astatisticalobservationthatismarkedlydifferentinvaluefromtheothersofthesample
1.RosetoValfortoreliesonehundredmilessoutheastofRomeintheApenninefoothillsoftheItalianprovinceofFoggia.Inthe
styleofmedievalvillages,thetownisorganizedaroundalargecentralsquare.FacingthesquareisthePalazzoMarchesale,thepalaceoftheSaggesefamily,oncethegreatlandownerofthoseparts.Anarchwaytoonesideleadstoachurch,theMadonnadelCarmine—OurLadyofMountCarmine.Narrowstonestepsrunupthehillside,flankedbyclosely
clusteredtwo-storystonehouseswithred-tileroofs.
Forcenturies,thepaesaniofRosetoworkedinthemarblequarriesinthesurroundinghills,orcultivatedthefieldsintheterracedvalleybelow,walkingfourandfivemilesdownthemountaininthemorningandthenmakingthelongjourneybackupthehillatnight.Lifewashard.The
townsfolkwerebarelyliterateanddesperatelypoorandwithoutmuchhopeforeconomicbettermentuntilwordreachedRosetoattheendofthenineteenthcenturyofthelandofopportunityacrosstheocean.
InJanuaryof1882,agroupofelevenRosetans—tenmenandoneboy—setsailforNewYork.TheyspenttheirfirstnightinAmerica
sleepingonthefloorofatavernonMulberryStreet,inManhattan’sLittleItaly.Thentheyventuredwest,eventuallyfindingjobsinaslatequarryninetymileswestofthecitynearthetownofBangor,Pennsylvania.Thefollowingyear,fifteenRosetansleftItalyforAmerica,andseveralmembersofthatgroupendedupinBangoraswell,joining
theircompatriotsintheslatequarry.Thoseimmigrants,inturn,sentwordbacktoRosetoaboutthepromiseoftheNewWorld,andsoononegroupofRosetansafteranotherpackedtheirbagsandheadedforPennsylvania,untiltheinitialstreamofimmigrantsbecameaflood.In1894alone,sometwelvehundredRosetansappliedforpassportstoAmerica,leaving
entirestreetsoftheiroldvillageabandoned.
TheRosetansbeganbuyinglandonarockyhillsideconnectedtoBangorbyasteep,ruttedwagonpath.Theybuiltcloselyclusteredtwo-storystonehouseswithslateroofsonnarrowstreetsrunningupanddownthehillside.TheybuiltachurchandcalleditOurLadyofMountCarmelandnamedthe
mainstreet,onwhichitstood,GaribaldiAvenue,afterthegreatheroofItalianunification.Inthebeginning,theycalledtheirtownNewItaly.ButtheysoonchangedittoRoseto,whichseemedonlyappropriategiventhatalmostallofthemhadcomefromthesamevillageinItaly.
In1896,adynamicyoungpriestbythenameofFatherPasqualedeNiscotookover
atOurLadyofMountCarmel.DeNiscosetupspiritualsocietiesandorganizedfestivals.Heencouragedthetownsfolktoclearthelandandplantonions,beans,potatoes,melons,andfruittreesinthelongbackyardsbehindtheirhouses.Hegaveoutseedsandbulbs.Thetowncametolife.TheRosetansbeganraisingpigsintheirbackyards
andgrowinggrapesforhomemadewine.Schools,apark,aconvent,andacemeterywerebuilt.SmallshopsandbakeriesandrestaurantsandbarsopenedalongGaribaldiAvenue.Morethanadozenfactoriessprangupmakingblousesforthegarmenttrade.NeighboringBangorwaslargelyWelshandEnglish,andthenexttownoverwas
overwhelminglyGerman,whichmeant—giventhefractiousrelationshipsbetweentheEnglishandGermansandItaliansinthoseyears—thatRosetostayedstrictlyforRosetans.IfyouhadwanderedupanddownthestreetsofRosetoinPennsylvaniainthefirstfewdecadesafter1900,youwouldhaveheardonlyItalian,andnotjustany
ItalianbuttheprecisesouthernFoggiandialectspokenbackintheItalianRoseto.Roseto,Pennsylvania,wasitsowntiny,self-sufficientworld—allbutunknownbythesocietyaroundit—anditmightwellhaveremainedsobutforamannamedStewartWolf.
Wolfwasaphysician.Hestudieddigestionandthe
stomachandtaughtinthemedicalschoolattheUniversityofOklahoma.HespenthissummersonafarminPennsylvania,notfarfromRoseto—althoughthat,ofcourse,didn’tmeanmuch,sinceRosetowassomuchinitsownworldthatitwaspossibletoliveinthenexttownandneverknowmuchaboutit.“Oneofthetimeswhenwewereuptherefor
thesummer—thiswouldhavebeeninthelatenineteenfifties—Iwasinvitedtogiveatalkatthelocalmedicalsociety,”Wolfsaidyearslaterinaninterview.“Afterthetalkwasover,oneofthelocaldoctorsinvitedmetohaveabeer.Andwhilewewerehavingadrink,hesaid,‘Youknow,I’vebeenpracticingforseventeenyears.Igetpatientsfromallover,andI
rarelyfindanyonefromRosetoundertheageofsixty-fivewithheartdisease.’”
Wolfwastakenaback.Thiswasthe1950s,yearsbeforetheadventofcholesterol-loweringdrugsandaggressivemeasurestopreventheartdisease.HeartattackswereanepidemicintheUnitedStates.Theyweretheleadingcauseofdeathinmenundertheageofsixty-
five.Itwasimpossibletobeadoctor,commonsensesaid,andnotseeheartdisease.
Wolfdecidedtoinvestigate.HeenlistedthesupportofsomeofhisstudentsandcolleaguesfromOklahoma.Theygatheredtogetherthedeathcertificatesfromresidentsofthetown,goingbackasmanyyearsastheycould.Theyanalyzedphysicians’records.They
tookmedicalhistoriesandconstructedfamilygenealogies.“Wegotbusy,”Wolfsaid.“Wedecidedtodoapreliminarystudy.Westartedinnineteensixty-one.Themayorsaid,‘Allmysistersaregoingtohelpyou.’Hehadfoursisters.Hesaid,‘Youcanhavethetowncouncilroom.’Isaid,‘Whereareyougoingtohavecouncilmeetings?’Hesaid,‘Well,
we’llpostponethemforawhile.’Theladieswouldbringuslunch.Wehadlittleboothswherewecouldtakeblood,doEKGs.Wewerethereforfourweeks.ThenItalkedwiththeauthorities.Theygaveustheschoolforthesummer.WeinvitedtheentirepopulationofRosetotobetested.”
Theresultswereastonishing.InRoseto,
virtuallynooneunderfifty-fivehaddiedofaheartattackorshowedanysignsofheartdisease.Formenoversixty-five,thedeathratefromheartdiseaseinRosetowasroughlyhalfthatoftheUnitedStatesasawhole.ThedeathratefromallcausesinRoseto,infact,was30to35percentlowerthanexpected.
Wolfbroughtinafriendofhis,asociologistfrom
OklahomanamedJohnBruhn,tohelphim.“Ihiredmedicalstudentsandsociologygradstudentsasinterviewers,andinRosetowewenthousetohouseandtalkedtoeverypersonagedtwenty-oneandover,”Bruhnremembers.Thishappenedmorethanfiftyyearsago,butBruhnstillhadasenseofamazementinhisvoiceashedescribedwhattheyfound.
“Therewasnosuicide,noalcoholism,nodrugaddiction,andverylittlecrime.Theydidn’thaveanyoneonwelfare.Thenwelookedatpepticulcers.Theydidn’thaveanyofthoseeither.Thesepeopleweredyingofoldage.That’sit.”
Wolf’sprofessionhadanameforaplacelikeRoseto—aplacethatlayoutsideeverydayexperience,where
thenormalrulesdidnotapply.Rosetowasanoutlier.
2.Wolf’sfirstthoughtwasthattheRosetansmusthaveheldontosomedietarypracticesfromtheOldWorldthatleftthemhealthierthanotherAmericans.Buthequicklyrealizedthatwasn’ttrue.TheRosetanswerecookingwith
lardinsteadofwiththemuchhealthieroliveoiltheyhadusedbackinItaly.PizzainItalywasathincrustwithsalt,oil,andperhapssometomatoes,anchovies,oronions.PizzainPennsylvaniawasbreaddoughplussausage,pepperoni,salami,ham,andsometimeseggs.SweetssuchasbiscottiandtaralliusedtobereservedforChristmasandEaster;in
Rosetotheywereeatenyear-round.WhenWolfhaddieticiansanalyzethetypicalRosetan’seatinghabits,theyfoundthatawhopping41percentoftheircaloriescamefromfat.Norwasthisatownwherepeoplegotupatdawntodoyogaandrunabrisksixmiles.ThePennsylvanianRosetanssmokedheavilyandmanywerestrugglingwithobesity.
Ifdietandexercisedidn’texplainthefindings,thenwhataboutgenetics?TheRosetanswereaclose-knitgroupfromthesameregionofItaly,andWolf’snextthoughtwastowonderwhethertheywereofaparticularlyhardystockthatprotectedthemfromdisease.SohetrackeddownrelativesoftheRosetanswhowerelivinginotherpartsofthe
UnitedStatestoseeiftheysharedthesameremarkablegoodhealthastheircousinsinPennsylvania.Theydidn’t.
HethenlookedattheregionwheretheRosetanslived.WasitpossiblethattherewassomethingaboutlivinginthefoothillsofeasternPennsylvaniathatwasgoodfortheirhealth?ThetwoclosesttownstoRosetowereBangor,whichwasjust
downthehill,andNazareth,afewmilesaway.ThesewerebothaboutthesamesizeasRoseto,andbothwerepopulatedwiththesamekindofhardworkingEuropeanimmigrants.Wolfcombedthroughbothtowns’medicalrecords.Formenoversixty-five,thedeathratesfromheartdiseaseinNazarethandBangorwerethreetimesthatofRoseto.Anotherdeadend.
WhatWolfbegantorealizewasthatthesecretofRosetowasn’tdietorexerciseorgenesorlocation.IthadtobeRosetoitself.AsBruhnandWolfwalkedaroundthetown,theyfiguredoutwhy.TheylookedathowtheRosetansvisitedoneanother,stoppingtochatinItalianonthestreet,say,orcookingforoneanotherintheirbackyards.Theylearned
abouttheextendedfamilyclansthatunderlaythetown’ssocialstructure.Theysawhowmanyhomeshadthreegenerationslivingunderoneroof,andhowmuchrespectgrandparentscommanded.TheywenttomassatOurLadyofMountCarmelandsawtheunifyingandcalmingeffectofthechurch.Theycountedtwenty-twoseparatecivicorganizationsinatown
ofjustundertwothousandpeople.Theypickedupontheparticularegalitarianethosofthecommunity,whichdiscouragedthewealthyfromflauntingtheirsuccessandhelpedtheunsuccessfulobscuretheirfailures.
IntransplantingthepaesanicultureofsouthernItalytothehillsofeasternPennsylvania,theRosetans
hadcreatedapowerful,protectivesocialstructurecapableofinsulatingthemfromthepressuresofthemodernworld.TheRosetanswerehealthybecauseofwheretheywerefrom,becauseoftheworldtheyhadcreatedforthemselvesintheirtinylittletowninthehills.
“IremembergoingtoRosetoforthefirsttime,and
you’dseethree-generationalfamilymeals,allthebakeries,thepeoplewalkingupanddownthestreet,sittingontheirporchestalkingtoeachother,theblousemillswherethewomenworkedduringtheday,whilethemenworkedintheslatequarries,”Bruhnsaid.“Itwasmagical.”
WhenBruhnandWolffirstpresentedtheirfindingstothemedicalcommunity,
youcanimaginethekindofskepticismtheyfaced.Theywenttoconferenceswheretheirpeerswerepresentinglongrowsofdataarrayedincomplexchartsandreferringtothiskindofgeneorthatkindofphysiologicalprocess,andtheythemselvesweretalkinginsteadaboutthemysteriousandmagicalbenefitsofpeoplestoppingtotalktooneanotheronthe
streetandofhavingthreegenerationsunderoneroof.Livingalonglife,theconventionalwisdomatthetimesaid,dependedtoagreatextentonwhowewere—thatis,ourgenes.Itdependedonthedecisionswemade—onwhatwechosetoeat,andhowmuchwechosetoexercise,andhoweffectivelyweweretreatedbythemedicalsystem.Noonewas
usedtothinkingabouthealthintermsofcommunity.
WolfandBruhnhadtoconvincethemedicalestablishmenttothinkabouthealthandheartattacksinanentirelynewway:theyhadtogetthemtorealizethattheywouldn’tbeabletounderstandwhysomeonewashealthyifalltheydidwasthinkaboutanindividual’spersonalchoicesoractionsin
isolation.Theyhadtolookbeyondtheindividual.Theyhadtounderstandthecultureheorshewasapartof,andwhotheirfriendsandfamilieswere,andwhattowntheirfamiliescamefrom.Theyhadtoappreciatetheideathatthevaluesoftheworldweinhabitandthepeoplewesurroundourselveswithhaveaprofoundeffectonwhoweare.
InOutliers,IwanttodoforourunderstandingofsuccesswhatStewartWolfdidforourunderstandingofhealth.
PARTONE
OPPORTUNITY
CHAPTERONE
TheMatthewEffect
“FORUNTOEVERYONETHATHATHSHALLBEGIVEN,ANDHESHALLHAVEABUNDANCE.BUTFROMHIMTHATHATHNOTSHALLBETAKENAWAYEVENTHATWHICHHEHATH.”—MATTHEW25:29
1.Onewarm,springdayinMayof2007,theMedicineHatTigersandtheVancouverGiantsmetfortheMemorialCuphockeychampionshipsinVancouver,BritishColumbia.TheTigersandtheGiantswerethetwofinestteamsintheCanadianHockeyLeague,whichinturnisthefinestjuniorhockeyleagueinthe
world.Thesewerethefuturestarsofthesport—seventeen-,eighteen-,andnineteen-year-oldswhohadbeenskatingandshootingpuckssincetheywerebarelymorethantoddlers.
ThegamewasbroadcastonCanadiannationaltelevision.UpanddownthestreetsofdowntownVancouver,MemorialCupbannershungfromthe
lampposts.Thearenawaspacked.Alongredcarpetwasrolledoutontheice,andtheannouncerintroducedthegame’sdignitaries.FirstcamethepremierofBritishColumbia,GordonCampbell.Then,amidtumultuousapplause,outwalkedGordieHowe,oneofthelegendsofthegame.“Ladiesandgentlemen,”theannouncerboomed.“Mr.Hockey!”
Forthenextsixtyminutes,thetwoteamsplayedspirited,aggressivehockey.Vancouverscoredfirst,earlyinthesecondperiod,onareboundbyMarioBliznak.Lateinthesecondperiod,itwasMedicineHat’sturn,astheteam’sscoringleader,DarrenHelm,firedaquickshotpastVancouver’sgoalie,TysonSexsmith.Vancouveransweredinthethirdperiod,
scoringthegame’sdecidinggoal,andthen,whenMedicineHatpulleditsgoalieindesperation,Vancouverscoredathirdtime.
Intheaftermathofthegame,theplayersandtheirfamiliesandsportsreportersfromacrossthecountrycrammedintothewinningteam’slockerroom.Theairwasfilledwithcigarsmoke
andthesmellofchampagneandsweat-soakedhockeygear.Onthewallwasahand-paintedbanner:“EmbracetheStruggle.”InthecenteroftheroomtheGiants’coach,DonHay,stoodmisty-eyed.“I’mjustsoproudoftheseguys,”hesaid.“Justlookaroundthelockerroom.Thereisn’toneguywhodidn’tbuyinwholeheartedly.”
Canadianhockeyisa
meritocracy.ThousandsofCanadianboysbegintoplaythesportatthe“novice”level,beforetheyareeveninkindergarten.Fromthatpointon,thereareleaguesforeveryageclass,andateachofthoselevels,theplayersaresiftedandsortedandevaluated,withthemosttalentedseparatedoutandgroomedforthenextlevel.Bythetimeplayersreach
theirmidteens,theverybestofthebesthavebeenchanneledintoaneliteleagueknownasMajorJuniorA,whichisthetopofthepyramid.AndifyourMajorJuniorAteamplaysfortheMemorialCup,thatmeansyouareattheverytopofthetopofthepyramid.
Thisisthewaymostsportspicktheirfuturestars.It’sthewaysocceris
organizedinEuropeandSouthAmerica,andit’sthewayOlympicathletesarechosen.Forthatmatter,itisnotallthatdifferentfromthewaytheworldofclassicalmusicpicksitsfuturevirtuosos,orthewaytheworldofballetpicksitsfutureballerinas,orthewayoureliteeducationalsystempicksitsfuturescientistsandintellectuals.
Youcan’tbuyyourwayintoMajorJuniorAhockey.Itdoesn’tmatterwhoyourfatherormotheris,orwhoyourgrandfatherwas,orwhatbusinessyourfamilyisin.NordoesitmatterifyouliveinthemostremotecornerofthemostnortherlyprovinceinCanada.Ifyouhaveability,thevastnetworkofhockeyscoutsandtalentspotterswillfindyou,andif
youarewillingtoworktodevelopthatability,thesystemwillrewardyou.Successinhockeyisbasedonindividualmerit—andbothofthosewordsareimportant.Playersarejudgedontheirownperformance,notonanyoneelse’s,andonthebasisoftheirability,notonsomeotherarbitraryfact.
Orarethey?
2.Thisisabookaboutoutliers,aboutmenandwomenwhodothingsthatareoutoftheordinary.Overthecourseofthechaptersahead,I’mgoingtointroduceyoutoonekindofoutlierafteranother:togeniuses,businesstycoons,rockstars,andsoftwareprogrammers.We’regoingtouncoverthesecretsofa
remarkablelawyer,lookatwhatseparatestheverybestpilotsfrompilotswhohavecrashedplanes,andtrytofigureoutwhyAsiansaresogoodatmath.Andinexaminingthelivesoftheremarkableamongus—theskilled,thetalented,andthedriven—Iwillarguethatthereissomethingprofoundlywrongwiththewaywemakesenseofsuccess.
Whatisthequestionwealwaysaskaboutthesuccessful?Wewanttoknowwhatthey’relike—whatkindofpersonalitiestheyhave,orhowintelligenttheyare,orwhatkindoflifestylestheyhave,orwhatspecialtalentstheymighthavebeenbornwith.Andweassumethatitisthosepersonalqualitiesthatexplainhowthatindividualreachedthetop.
Intheautobiographiespublishedeveryyearbythebillionaire/entrepreneur/rockstar/celebrity,thestorylineisalwaysthesame:ourheroisborninmodestcircumstancesandbyvirtueofhisowngritandtalentfightshiswaytogreatness.IntheBible,Josephiscastoutbyhisbrothersandsoldintoslaveryandthenrisestobecomethepharaoh’sright-handmanon
thestrengthofhisownbrillianceandinsight.Inthefamousnineteenth-centurynovelsofHoratioAlger,youngboysbornintopovertyrisetorichesthroughacombinationofpluckandinitiative.“Ithinkoverallit’sadisadvantage,”JebBushoncesaidofwhatitmeantforhisbusinesscareerthathewasthesonofanAmericanpresidentandthebrotherof
anAmericanpresidentandthegrandsonofawealthyWallStreetbankerandUSsenator.WhenheranforgovernorofFlorida,herepeatedlyreferredtohimselfasa“self-mademan,”anditisameasureofhowdeeplyweassociatesuccesswiththeeffortsoftheindividualthatfewbattedaneyeatthatdescription.
“Liftupyourheads,”
RobertWinthroptoldthecrowdmanyyearsagoattheunveilingofastatueofthatgreatheroofAmericanindependenceBenjaminFranklin,“andlookattheimageofamanwhorosefromnothing,whoowednothingtoparentageorpatronage,whoenjoyednoadvantagesofearlyeducationwhicharenotopen—ahundredfoldopen—to
yourselves,whoperformedthemostmenialservicesinthebusinessesinwhichhisearlylifewasemployed,butwholivedtostandbeforeKings,anddiedtoleaveanamewhichtheworldwillneverforget.”
InOutliers,Iwanttoconvinceyouthatthesekindsofpersonalexplanationsofsuccessdon’twork.Peopledon’trisefromnothing.We
doowesomethingtoparentageandpatronage.Thepeoplewhostandbeforekingsmaylookliketheydiditallbythemselves.Butinfacttheyareinvariablythebeneficiariesofhiddenadvantagesandextraordinaryopportunitiesandculturallegaciesthatallowthemtolearnandworkhardandmakesenseoftheworldinwaysotherscannot.Itmakes
adifferencewhereandwhenwegrewup.Theculturewebelongtoandthelegaciespasseddownbyourforebearsshapethepatternsofourachievementinwayswecannotbegintoimagine.It’snotenoughtoaskwhatsuccessfulpeoplearelike,inotherwords.Itisonlybyaskingwheretheyarefromthatwecanunravelthelogicbehindwhosucceedsand
whodoesn’t.Biologistsoftentalkabout
the“ecology”ofanorganism:thetallestoakintheforestisthetallestnotjustbecauseitgrewfromthehardiestacorn;itisthetallestalsobecausenoothertreesblockeditssunlight,thesoilarounditwasdeepandrich,norabbitchewedthroughitsbarkasasapling,andnolumberjackcutitdownbeforeitmatured.
Weallknowthatsuccessfulpeoplecomefromhardyseeds.Butdoweknowenoughaboutthesunlightthatwarmedthem,thesoilinwhichtheyputdowntheroots,andtherabbitsandlumberjackstheywereluckyenoughtoavoid?Thisisnotabookabouttalltrees.It’sabookaboutforests—andhockeyisagoodplacetostartbecausetheexplanation
forwhogetstothetopofthehockeyworldisalotmoreinterestingandcomplicatedthanitlooks.Infact,it’sdownrightpeculiar.
3.Hereistheplayerrosterofthe2007MedicineHatTigers.Takeacloselookandseeifyoucanspotanythingstrangeaboutit.
No. Name Pos. L/R Height
9 BrennanBosch C R 5’8”
11 ScottWasden C R 6’1”
12 ColtonGrant LW L 5’9”
14 DarrenHelm LW L 6’
15 DerekDorsett RW L 5’11”
16 DaineTodd C R 5’10”
17 TylerSwystun RW R 5’11”
19 MattLowry C R 6’
20 KevinUndershute LW L 6’
21 JerridSauer RW R 5’10”
22 TylerEnnis C L 5’9”
23JordanHickmott C R 6’
25 JakubRumpel RW R 5’8”
28 BrettonCameron C R 5’11”
36 ChrisStevens LW L 5’10”
3 GordBaldwin D L 6’5”
4 David D L 6’1”
Schlemko
5TreverGlass D L 6’
10 KrisRussell D L 5’10”
18 MichaelSauer D R 6’3”
24 MarkIsherwood D R 6’
27 ShayneBrown D L 6’1”
29 JordanBendfeld
D R 6’3”
31RyanHolfeld G L 5’11”
33 MattKeetley G R 6’2”
Doyouseeit?Don’tfeelbadifyoudon’t,becauseformanyyearsinthehockeyworldnoonedid.Itwasn’tuntilthemid-1980s,infact,
thataCanadianpsychologistnamedRogerBarnsleyfirstdrewattentiontothephenomenonofrelativeage.
BarnsleywasataLethbridgeBroncoshockeygameinsouthernAlberta,ateamthatplayedinthesameMajorJuniorAleagueastheVancouverGiantsandtheMedicineHatTigers.Hewastherewithhiswife,Paula,andtheirtwoboys,andhis
wifewasreadingtheprogram,whensheranacrossarosterlistjustliketheoneabovethatyoujustlookedat.
“Roger,”shesaid,“doyouknowwhentheseyoungmenwereborn?”
Barnsleysaidyes.“They’reallbetweensixteenandtwenty,sothey’dbeborninthelatesixties.”
“No,no,”Paulawenton.“Whatmonth.”
“Ithoughtshewascrazy,”Barnsleyremembers.“ButIlookedthroughit,andwhatshewassayingjustjumpedoutatme.Forsomereason,therewereanincrediblenumberofJanuary,February,andMarchbirthdates.”
Barnsleywenthomethatnightandlookedupthebirthdatesofasmanyprofessionalhockeyplayersashecouldfind.Hesawthesame
pattern.Barnsley,hiswife,andacolleague,A.H.Thompson,thengatheredstatisticsoneveryplayerintheOntarioJuniorHockeyLeague.Thestorywasthesame.MoreplayerswereborninJanuarythaninanyothermonth,andbyanoverwhelmingmargin.Thesecondmostfrequentbirthmonth?February.Thethird?March.Barnsleyfoundthat
therewerenearlyfiveandahalftimesasmanyOntarioJuniorHockeyLeagueplayersborninJanuaryaswereborninNovember.Helookedattheall-starteamsofeleven-year-oldsandthirteen-year-olds—theyoungplayersselectedforelitetravelingsquads.Samestory.HelookedatthecompositionoftheNationalHockeyLeague.Samestory.Themorehe
looked,themoreBarnsleycametobelievethatwhathewasseeingwasnotachanceoccurrencebutanironlawofCanadianhockey:inanyelitegroupofhockeyplayers—theverybestofthebest—40percentoftheplayerswillhavebeenbornbetweenJanuaryandMarch,30percentbetweenAprilandJune,20percentbetweenJulyandSeptember,and10
percentbetweenOctoberandDecember.
“Inallmyyearsinpsychology,Ihaveneverrunintoaneffectthislarge,”Barnsleysays.“Youdon’tevenneedtodoanystatisticalanalysis.Youjustlookatit.”
LookbackattheMedicineHatroster.Doyouseeitnow?Seventeenoutofthetwenty-fiveplayersontheteamwereborninJanuary,
February,March,orApril.Hereistheplay-by-play
forthefirsttwogoalsintheMemorialCupfinal,onlythistimeI’vesubstitutedtheplayers’birthdaysfortheirnames.ItnolongersoundslikethechampionshipofCanadianjuniorhockey.ItnowsoundslikeastrangesportingritualforteenageboysbornundertheastrologicalsignsCapricorn,
Aquarius,andPisces.
March11startsaroundonesideoftheTigers’net,leavingthepuckforhisteammateJanuary4,whopassesittoJanuary22,whoflipsitbacktoMarch12,whoshootspoint-blankattheTigers’goalie,April27.April
27blockstheshot,butit’sreboundedbyVancouver’sMarch6.Heshoots!MedicineHatdefensemenFebruary9andFebruary14divetoblockthepuckwhileJanuary10looksonhelplessly.March6scores!
Let’sgotothesecondperiodnow.
MedicineHat’sturn.TheTigers’scoringleader,January21,chargesdowntherightsideoftheice.Hestopsandcircles,eludingtheVancouverdefensemanFebruary15.January21then
deftlypassesthepucktohisteammateDecember20—wow!what’shedoingoutthere?!—whoshrugsofftheonrushingdefenderMay17andslidesacross-creasepassbacktoJanuary21.Heshoots!VancouverdefensemanMarch12dives,tryingtoblocktheshot.
Vancouver’sgoalie,March19,lungeshelplessly.January21scores!Heraiseshishandsintriumph.HisteammateMay2jumpsonhisbackwithjoy.
4.Theexplanationforthisisquitesimple.Ithasnothingtodowithastrology,noristhere
anythingmagicalaboutthefirstthreemonthsoftheyear.It’ssimplythatinCanadatheeligibilitycutoffforage-classhockeyisJanuary1.AboywhoturnstenonJanuary2,then,couldbeplayingalongsidesomeonewhodoesn’tturntenuntiltheendoftheyear—andatthatage,inpreadolescence,atwelve-monthgapinagerepresentsanenormousdifferencein
physicalmaturity.ThisbeingCanada,the
mosthockey-crazedcountryonearth,coachesstarttoselectplayersforthetraveling“rep”squad—theall-starteams—attheageofnineorten,andofcoursetheyaremorelikelytoviewastalentedthebiggerandmorecoordinatedplayers,whohavehadthebenefitofcriticalextramonthsof
maturity.Andwhathappenswhena
playergetschosenforarepsquad?Hegetsbettercoaching,andhisteammatesarebetter,andheplaysfiftyorseventy-fivegamesaseasoninsteadoftwentygamesaseasonlikethoseleftbehindinthe“house”league,andhepracticestwiceasmuchas,oreventhreetimesmorethan,hewouldhave
otherwise.Inthebeginning,hisadvantageisn’tsomuchthatheisinherentlybetterbutonlythatheisalittleolder.Butbytheageofthirteenorfourteen,withthebenefitofbettercoachingandallthatextrapracticeunderhisbelt,hereallyisbetter,sohe’stheonemorelikelytomakeittotheMajorJuniorAleague,andfromthereintothebigleagues.*
Barnsleyarguesthatthesekindsofskewedagedistributionsexistwheneverthreethingshappen:selection,streaming,anddifferentiatedexperience.Ifyoumakeadecisionaboutwhoisgoodandwhoisnotgoodatanearlyage;ifyouseparatethe“talented”fromthe“untalented”;andifyouprovidethe“talented”withasuperiorexperience,then
you’regoingtoendupgivingahugeadvantagetothatsmallgroupofpeoplebornclosesttothecutoffdate.
IntheUnitedStates,footballandbasketballdon’tselect,stream,anddifferentiatequiteasdramatically.Asaresult,achildcanbeabitbehindphysicallyinthosesportsandstillplayasmuchashisorhermorematurepeers.*But
baseballdoes.ThecutoffdateforalmostallnonschoolbaseballleaguesintheUnitedStatesisJuly31,withtheresultthatmoremajorleagueplayersareborninAugustthaninanyothermonth.(Thenumbersarestriking:in2005,amongAmericansplayingmajorleaguebaseball505wereborninAugustversus313borninJuly.)
Europeansoccer,
similarly,isorganizedlikehockeyandbaseball—andthebirth-datedistributionsinthatsportareheavilyskewedaswell.InEngland,theeligibilitydateisSeptember1,andinthefootballassociation’spremierleagueatonepointinthe1990s,therewere288playersbornbetweenSeptemberandNovemberandonly136playersbornbetweenJune
andAugust.Ininternationalsoccer,thecutoffdateusedtobeAugust1,andinonerecentjuniorworldchampionshiptournament,135playerswereborninthethreemonthsafterAugust1,andjust22wereborninMay,June,andJuly.TodaythecutoffdateforinternationaljuniorsoccerisJanuary1.Takealookattherosterofthe2007CzechNational
Juniorsoccerteam,whichmadetheJuniorWorldCupfinals.
Herewegoagain:
No. Player BirthDate Position
1 MarcelGecov
Jan.1,1988
MF
2 LudekFrydrych
Jan.3,1987
GK
3 PetrJanda
Jan.5,1987
MF
4 JakubDohnalek
Jan.12,1988
DF
5 JakubMares
Jan.26,1987
MF
6 MichalHeld
Jan.27,1987
DF
7 MarekStrestik
Feb.1,1987
FW
8 JiriValenta
Feb.14,1988
MF
9 JanSimunek
Feb.20,1987
DF
10 TomasOklestek
Feb.21,1987
MF
11 LubosKalouda
Feb.21,1987
MF
12 RadekPetr
Feb.24,1987
GK
13 OndrejMazuch
Mar.15,1989
DF
14 OndrejKudela
Mar.26,1987
MF
15 MarekSuchy
Mar.29, DF
1988
16 MartinFenin
Apr.16,1987
FW
17 TomasPekhart
May26,1989
FW
18 LukasKuban
Jun.22,1987
DF
19 TomasCihlar
Jun.24,1987
DF
20 TomasFrystak
Aug.18,1987
GK
Tomas Sep.
21 Micola 26,1988
MF
Atthenationalteamtryouts,theCzechsoccercoachesmightaswellhavetoldeveryonebornaftermidsummerthattheyshouldpacktheirbagsandgohome.
Hockeyandsoccerarejustgames,ofcourse,involvingaselectfew.Buttheseexactsamebiasesalsoshowupinareasofmuch
moreconsequence,likeeducation.Parentswithachildbornattheendofthecalendaryearoftenthinkaboutholdingtheirchildbackbeforethestartofkindergarten:it’shardforafive-year-oldtokeepupwithachildbornmanymonthsearlier.Butmostparents,onesuspects,thinkthatwhateverdisadvantageayoungerchildfacesinkindergarten
eventuallygoesaway.Butitdoesn’t.It’sjustlikehockey.Thesmallinitialadvantagethatthechildbornintheearlypartoftheyearhasoverthechildbornattheendoftheyearpersists.Itlockschildrenintopatternsofachievementandunderachievement,encouragementanddiscouragement,thatstretchonandonforyears.
Recently,twoeconomists
—KellyBedardandElizabethDhuey—lookedattherelationshipbetweenscoresonwhatiscalledtheTrendsinInternationalMathematicsandScienceStudy,orTIMSS(mathandsciencetestsgiveneveryfouryearstochildreninmanycountriesaroundtheworld),andmonthofbirth.Theyfoundthatamongfourthgraders,theoldestchildrenscoredsomewherebetween
fourandtwelvepercentilepointsbetterthantheyoungestchildren.That,asDhueyexplains,isa“hugeeffect.”Itmeansthatifyoutaketwointellectuallyequivalentfourthgraderswithbirthdaysatoppositeendsofthecutoffdate,theolderstudentcouldscoreintheeightiethpercentile,whiletheyoungeronecouldscoreinthesixty-eighthpercentile.
That’sthedifferencebetweenqualifyingforagiftedprogramandnot.
“It’sjustlikesports,”Dhueysaid.“Wedoabilitygroupingearlyoninchildhood.Wehaveadvancedreadinggroupsandadvancedmathgroups.So,earlyon,ifwelookatyoungkids,inkindergartenandfirstgrade,theteachersareconfusingmaturitywithability.And
theyputtheolderkidsintheadvancedstream,wheretheylearnbetterskills;andthenextyear,becausetheyareinthehighergroups,theydoevenbetter;andthenextyear,thesamethinghappens,andtheydoevenbetteragain.Theonlycountrywedon’tseethisgoingonisDenmark.Theyhaveanationalpolicywheretheyhavenoabilitygroupinguntiltheageoften.”
Denmarkwaitstomakeselectiondecisionsuntilmaturitydifferencesbyagehaveevenedout.
DhueyandBedardsubsequentlydidthesameanalysis,onlythistimelookingatcollege.Whatdidtheyfind?Atfour-yearcollegesintheUnitedStates—thehigheststreamofpostsecondaryeducation—studentsbelongingtothe
relativelyyoungestgroupintheirclassareunderrepresentedbyabout11.6percent.Thatinitialdifferenceinmaturitydoesn’tgoawaywithtime.Itpersists.Andforthousandsofstudents,thatinitialdisadvantageisthedifferencebetweengoingtocollege—andhavingarealshotatthemiddleclass—andnot.*
“Imean,it’sridiculous,”
Dhueysays.“It’soutlandishthatourarbitrarychoiceofcutoffdatesiscausingtheselong-lastingeffects,andnooneseemstocareaboutthem.”
5.Thinkforamomentaboutwhatthestoryofhockeyandearlybirthdayssaysaboutsuccess.
Ittellsusthatournotionthatitisthebestandthebrightestwhoeffortlesslyrisetothetopismuchtoosimplistic.Yes,thehockeyplayerswhomakeittotheprofessionallevelaremoretalentedthanyouorme.Buttheyalsogotabigheadstart,anopportunitythattheyneitherdeservednorearned.Andthatopportunityplayedacriticalroleintheirsuccess.
ThesociologistRobertMertonfamouslycalledthisphenomenonthe“MatthewEffect”aftertheNewTestamentverseintheGospelofMatthew:“Foruntoeveryonethathathshallbegiven,andheshallhaveabundance.Butfromhimthathathnotshallbetakenawayeventhatwhichhehath.”Itisthosewhoaresuccessful,inotherwords,whoaremost
likelytobegiventhekindsofspecialopportunitiesthatleadtofurthersuccess.It’stherichwhogetthebiggesttaxbreaks.It’sthebeststudentswhogetthebestteachingandmostattention.Andit’sthebiggestnine-andten-year-oldswhogetthemostcoachingandpractice.Successistheresultofwhatsociologistsliketocall“accumulativeadvantage.”
Theprofessionalhockeyplayerstartsoutalittlebitbetterthanhispeers.Andthatlittledifferenceleadstoanopportunitythatmakesthatdifferenceabitbigger,andthatedgeinturnleadstoanotheropportunity,whichmakestheinitiallysmalldifferencebiggerstill—andonandonuntilthehockeyplayerisagenuineoutlier.Buthedidn’tstartoutan
outlier.Hestartedoutjustalittlebitbetter.
Thesecondimplicationofthehockeyexampleisthatthesystemswesetuptodeterminewhogetsaheadaren’tparticularlyefficient.Wethinkthatstartingall-starleaguesandgiftedprogramsasearlyaspossibleisthebestwayofensuringthatnotalentslipsthroughthecracks.Buttakealookagainatthatroster
fortheCzechRepublicsoccerteam.TherearenoplayersborninJuly,October,November,orDecember,andonlyoneeachinAugustandSeptember.Thoseborninthelasthalfoftheyearhaveallbeendiscouraged,oroverlooked,orpushedoutofthesport.ThetalentofessentiallyhalfoftheCzechathleticpopulationhasbeensquandered.
Sowhatdoyoudoifyou’reanathleticyoungCzechwiththemisfortunetohavebeenborninthelastpartoftheyear?Youcan’tplaysoccer.Thedeckisstackedagainstyou.SomaybeyoucouldplaytheothersportthatCzechsareobsessedwith—hockey.Butwait.(Ithinkyouknowwhat’scoming.)Here’stherosterofthe2007Czechjuniorhockeyteamthat
finishedfifthattheworldchampionships.
No. Player BirthDate Position
1 DavidKveton
Jan.3,1988
Forward
2 JiriSuchy
Jan.3,1988
Defense
3 MichaelKolarz
Jan.12,1987
Defense
4 JakubVojta
Feb.8,1987
Defense
5 JakubKindl
Feb.10,1987
Defense
6 MichaelFrolik
Feb.17,1989
Forward
7 MartinHanzal
Feb.20,1987
Forward
8 TomasSvoboda
Feb.24,1987
Forward
9 JakubCerny
Mar.5,1987
Forward
10 TomasKudelka
Mar.10,1987
Defense
11 JaroslavBarton
Mar.26,1987
Defense
12 H.O.Pozivil
Apr.22,1987
Defense
13 DanielRakos
May25,1987
Forward
14 DavidKuchejda
Jun.12,1987
Forward
15 VladimirSobotka
Jul.2,1987
Forward
16 JakubJul.19, Goalie
Kovar 1988
17 LukasVantuch
Jul.20,1987
Forward
18 JakubVoracek
Aug.15,1989
Forward
19 TomasPospisil
Aug.25,1987
Forward
20 OndrejPavelec
Aug.31,1987
Goalie
21 TomasKana
Nov.29,1987
Forward
22 MichalRepik
Dec.31,1988
Forward
Thoseborninthelastquarteroftheyearmightaswellgiveuponhockeytoo.
Doyouseetheconsequencesofthewaywehavechosentothinkaboutsuccess?Becausewesoprofoundlypersonalizesuccess,wemissopportunitiestoliftothers
ontothetoprung.Wemakerulesthatfrustrateachievement.Weprematurelywriteoffpeopleasfailures.Wearetoomuchinaweofthosewhosucceedandfartoodismissiveofthosewhofail.And,mostofall,webecomemuchtoopassive.Weoverlookjusthowlargearoleweallplay—andby“we”Imeansociety—indeterminingwhomakesit
andwhodoesn’t.Ifwechoseto,wecould
acknowledgethatcutoffdatesmatter.Wecouldsetuptwooreventhreehockeyleagues,dividedupbymonthofbirth.Lettheplayersdeveloponseparatetracksandthenpickall-starteams.IfalltheCzechandCanadianathletesbornattheendoftheyearhadafairchance,thentheCzechandtheCanadiannationalteams
suddenlywouldhavetwiceasmanyathletestochoosefrom.
Schoolscoulddothesamething.ElementaryandmiddleschoolscouldputtheJanuarythroughApril–bornstudentsinoneclass,theMaythroughAugustinanotherclass,andthoseborninSeptemberthroughDecemberinthethirdclass.Theycouldletstudentslearnwithandcompeteagainstother
studentsofthesamematuritylevel.Itwouldbealittlebitmorecomplicatedadministratively.Butitwouldn’tnecessarilycostthatmuchmoremoney,anditwouldleveltheplayingfieldforthosewho—throughnofaultoftheirown—havebeendealtabigdisadvantagebytheeducationalsystem.Wecouldeasilytakecontrolofthemachineryof
achievement,inotherwords—notjustinsportsbut,aswewillsee,inothermoreconsequentialareasaswell.Butwedon’t.Andwhy?Becauseweclingtotheideathatsuccessisasimplefunctionofindividualmeritandthattheworldinwhichweallgrowupandtheruleswechoosetowriteasasocietydon’tmatteratall.
6.BeforetheMemorialCupfinal,GordWasden—thefatherofoneoftheMedicineHatTigers—stoodbythesideoftheice,talkingabouthissonScott.HewaswearingaMedicineHatbaseballcapandablackMedicineHatT-shirt.“Whenhewasfourandfiveyearsold,”Wasdenremembered,“hislittle
brotherwasinawalker,andhewouldshoveahockeystickinhishandandtheywouldplayhockeyonthefloorinthekitchen,morningtillnight.Scottalwayshadapassionforit.Heplayedrephockeythroughouthisminor-leaguehockeycareer.HealwaysmadetheTripleAteams.Asafirst-yearpeeweeorafirst-yearbantam,healwaysplayedonthe[top]
repteam.”Wasdenwasclearlynervous:hissonwasabouttoplayinthebiggestgameofhislife.“He’shadtoworkveryhardforwhateverhe’sgot.I’mveryproudofhim.”
Thoseweretheingredientsofsuccessatthehighestlevel:passion,talent,andhardwork.Buttherewasanotherelement.WhendidWasdenfirstgetthesense
thathissonwassomethingspecial?“Youknow,hewasalwaysabiggerkidforhisage.Hewasstrong,andhehadaknackforscoringgoalsatanearlyage.Andhewasalwayskindofastandoutforhisage,acaptainofhisteam….”
Biggerkidforhisage?Ofcoursehewas.ScottWasdenwasbornonJanuary4,withinthreedaysoftheabsolute
perfectbirthdayforanelitehockeyplayer.Hewasoneoftheluckyones.IftheeligibilitydateforCanadianhockeywerelaterintheyear,hemighthavebeenwatchingtheMemorialCupchampionshipfromthestandsinsteadofplayingontheice.
CHAPTERTWO
The10,000-HourRule
“INHAMBURG,WEHADTOPLAYFOREIGHT
HOURS.”
1.TheUniversityofMichigan
openeditsnewComputerCenterin1971,inabrand-newbuildingonBealAvenueinAnnArbor,withbeige-brickexteriorwallsandadark-glassfront.Theuniversity’senormousmainframecomputersstoodinthemiddleofavastwhiteroom,looking,asonefacultymemberremembers,“likeoneofthelastscenesinthemovie2001:ASpace
Odyssey.”Offtothesideweredozensofkeypunchmachines—whatpassedinthosedaysforcomputerterminals.In1971,thiswasstateoftheart.TheUniversityofMichiganhadoneofthemostadvancedcomputerscienceprogramsintheworld,andoverthecourseoftheComputerCenter’slife,thousandsofstudentspassedthroughthat
whiteroom,themostfamousofwhomwasagawkyteenagernamedBillJoy.
JoycametotheUniversityofMichigantheyeartheComputerCenteropened.Hewassixteen.Hewastallandverythin,withamopofunrulyhair.Hehadbeenvoted“MostStudiousStudent”byhisgraduatingclassatNorthFarmingtonHighSchool,outsideDetroit,
which,asheputsit,meantthathewasa“no-datenerd.”Hehadthoughthemightendupasbiologistoramathematician.Butlateinhisfreshmanyear,hestumbledacrosstheComputerCenter—andhewashooked.
Fromthatpointon,theComputerCenterwashislife.Heprogrammedwheneverhecould.Joygotajobwithacomputerscienceprofessorso
hecouldprogramoverthesummer.In1975,heenrolledingraduateschoolattheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeley.There,heburiedhimselfevendeeperintheworldofcomputersoftware.DuringtheoralexamsforhisPhD,hemadeupaparticularlycomplicatedalgorithmontheflythat,asoneofhismanyadmirershaswritten,“sostunnedhis
examiners[that]oneofthemlatercomparedtheexperienceto‘Jesusconfoundinghiselders.’”
Workingincollaborationwithasmallgroupofprogrammers,JoytookonthetaskofrewritingUNIX,whichwasasoftwaresystemdevelopedbyAT&Tformainframecomputers.Joy’sversionwasverygood.Itwassogood,infact,thatit
became—andremains—theoperatingsystemonwhichliterallymillionsofcomputersaroundtheworldrun.“IfyouputyourMacinthatfunnymodewhereyoucanseethecode,”Joysays,“IseethingsthatIremembertypingintwenty-fiveyearsago.”AnddoyouknowwhowrotemuchofthesoftwarethatallowsyoutoaccesstheInternet?BillJoy.
AftergraduatingfromBerkeley,JoycofoundedtheSiliconValleyfirmSunMicrosystems,whichwasoneofthemostcriticalplayersinthecomputerrevolution.Thereherewroteanothercomputerlanguage—Java—andhislegendgrewstillfurther.AmongSiliconValleyinsiders,JoyisspokenofwithasmuchaweassomeonelikeBillGatesof
Microsoft.HeissometimescalledtheEdisonoftheInternet.AstheYalecomputerscientistDavidGelerntersays,“BillJoyisoneofthemostinfluentialpeopleinthemodernhistoryofcomputing.”
ThestoryofBillJoy’sgeniushasbeentoldmanytimes,andthelessonisalwaysthesame.Herewasaworldthatwasthepurestof
meritocracies.Computerprogrammingdidn’toperateasanold-boynetwork,whereyougotaheadbecauseofmoneyorconnections.Itwasawide-openfieldinwhichallparticipantswerejudgedsolelyontheirtalentandtheiraccomplishments.Itwasaworldwherethebestmenwon,andJoywasclearlyoneofthosebestmen.
Itwouldbeeasierto
acceptthatversionofevents,however,ifwehadn’tjustlookedathockeyandsoccerplayers.Theirswassupposedtobeapuremeritocracyaswell.Onlyitwasn’t.Itwasastoryofhowtheoutliersinaparticularfieldreachedtheirloftystatusthroughacombinationofability,opportunity,andutterlyarbitraryadvantage.
Isitpossiblethesame
patternofspecialopportunitiesoperateintherealworldaswell?Let’sgobackoverthestoryofBillJoyandfindout.
2.Foralmostageneration,psychologistsaroundtheworldhavebeenengagedinaspiriteddebateoveraquestionthatmostofus
wouldconsidertohavebeensettledyearsago.Thequestionisthis:istheresuchathingasinnatetalent?Theobviousanswerisyes.NoteveryhockeyplayerborninJanuaryendsupplayingattheprofessionallevel.Onlysomedo—theinnatelytalentedones.Achievementistalentpluspreparation.Theproblemwiththisviewisthatthecloserpsychologistslook
atthecareersofthegifted,thesmallertheroleinnatetalentseemstoplayandthebiggertherolepreparationseemstoplay.
ExhibitAinthetalentargumentisastudydoneintheearly1990sbythepsychologistK.AndersEricssonandtwocolleaguesatBerlin’seliteAcademyofMusic.WiththehelpoftheAcademy’sprofessors,they
dividedtheschool’sviolinistsintothreegroups.Inthefirstgroupwerethestars,thestudentswiththepotentialtobecomeworld-classsoloists.Inthesecondwerethosejudgedtobemerely“good.”Inthethirdwerestudentswhowereunlikelytoeverplayprofessionallyandwhointendedtobemusicteachersinthepublicschoolsystem.Alloftheviolinistswerethen
askedthesamequestion:overthecourseofyourentirecareer,eversinceyoufirstpickeduptheviolin,howmanyhourshaveyoupracticed?
Everyonefromallthreegroupsstartedplayingatroughlythesameage,aroundfiveyearsold.Inthosefirstfewyears,everyonepracticedroughlythesameamount,abouttwoorthreehoursa
week.Butwhenthestudentswerearoundtheageofeight,realdifferencesstartedtoemerge.Thestudentswhowouldendupthebestintheirclassbegantopracticemorethaneveryoneelse:sixhoursaweekbyagenine,eighthoursaweekbyagetwelve,sixteenhoursaweekbyagefourteen,andupandup,untilbytheageoftwentytheywerepracticing—thatis,
purposefullyandsingle-mindedlyplayingtheirinstrumentswiththeintenttogetbetter—welloverthirtyhoursaweek.Infact,bytheageoftwenty,theeliteperformershadeachtotaledtenthousandhoursofpractice.Bycontrast,themerelygoodstudentshadtotaledeightthousandhours,andthefuturemusicteachershadtotaledjustoverfour
thousandhours.Ericssonandhis
colleaguesthencomparedamateurpianistswithprofessionalpianists.Thesamepatternemerged.Theamateursneverpracticedmorethanaboutthreehoursaweekoverthecourseoftheirchildhood,andbytheageoftwentytheyhadtotaledtwothousandhoursofpractice.Theprofessionals,onthe
otherhand,steadilyincreasedtheirpracticetimeeveryyear,untilbytheageoftwentythey,liketheviolinists,hadreachedtenthousandhours.
ThestrikingthingaboutEricsson’sstudyisthatheandhiscolleaguescouldn’tfindany“naturals,”musicianswhofloatedeffortlesslytothetopwhilepracticingafractionofthetimetheirpeersdid.Nor
couldtheyfindany“grinds,”peoplewhoworkedharderthaneveryoneelse,yetjustdidn’thavewhatittakestobreakthetopranks.Theirresearchsuggeststhatonceamusicianhasenoughabilitytogetintoatopmusicschool,thethingthatdistinguishesoneperformerfromanotherishowhardheorsheworks.That’sit.Andwhat’smore,thepeopleattheverytop
don’tworkjustharderorevenmuchharderthaneveryoneelse.Theyworkmuch,muchharder.
Theideathatexcellenceatperformingacomplextaskrequiresacriticalminimumlevelofpracticesurfacesagainandagaininstudiesofexpertise.Infact,researchershavesettledonwhattheybelieveisthemagicnumberfortrueexpertise:ten
thousandhours.“Theemergingpicture
fromsuchstudiesisthattenthousandhoursofpracticeisrequiredtoachievethelevelofmasteryassociatedwithbeingaworld-classexpert—inanything,”writestheneurologistDanielLevitin.“Instudyafterstudy,ofcomposers,basketballplayers,fictionwriters,iceskaters,concertpianists,
chessplayers,mastercriminals,andwhathaveyou,thisnumbercomesupagainandagain.Ofcourse,thisdoesn’taddresswhysomepeoplegetmoreoutoftheirpracticesessionsthanothersdo.Butnoonehasyetfoundacaseinwhichtrueworld-classexpertisewasaccomplishedinlesstime.Itseemsthatittakesthebrainthislongtoassimilateallthat
itneedstoknowtoachievetruemastery.”
Thisistrueevenofpeoplewethinkofasprodigies.Mozart,forexample,famouslystartedwritingmusicatsix.But,writesthepsychologistMichaelHoweinhisbookGeniusExplained,
bythestandardsofmaturecomposers,
Mozart’searlyworksarenotoutstanding.Theearliestpieceswereallprobablywrittendownbyhisfather,andperhapsimprovedintheprocess.ManyofWolfgang’schildhoodcompositions,suchasthefirstsevenofhisconcertosforpianoandorchestra,arelargely
arrangementsofworksbyothercomposers.OfthoseconcertosthatonlycontainmusicoriginaltoMozart,theearliestthatisnowregardedasamasterwork(No.9,K.271)wasnotcomposeduntilhewastwenty-one:bythattimeMozarthadalreadybeen
composingconcertosfortenyears.
ThemusiccriticHaroldSchonberggoesfurther:Mozart,heargues,actually“developedlate,”sincehedidn’tproducehisgreatestworkuntilhehadbeencomposingformorethantwentyyears.
Tobecomeachess
grandmasteralsoseemstotakeabouttenyears.(OnlythelegendaryBobbyFischergottothatelitelevelinlessthanthatamountoftime:ittookhimnineyears.)Andwhat’stenyears?Well,it’sroughlyhowlongittakestoputintenthousandhoursofhardpractice.Tenthousandhoursisthemagicnumberofgreatness.
Hereistheexplanationfor
whatwassopuzzlingabouttherostersoftheCzechandCanadiannationalsportsteams.TherewaspracticallynooneonthoseteamsbornafterSeptember1,whichdoesn’tseemtomakeanysense.You’dthinkthatthereshouldbeafairnumberofCzechhockeyorsoccerprodigiesbornlateintheyearwhoaresotalentedthattheyeventuallymaketheirway
intothetoptierasyoungadults,despitetheirbirthdates.
ButtoEricssonandthosewhoargueagainsttheprimacyoftalent,thatisn’tsurprisingatall.Thatlate-bornprodigydoesn’tgetchosenfortheall-starteamasaneight-year-oldbecausehe’stoosmall.Sohedoesn’tgettheextrapractice.Andwithoutthatextrapractice,he
hasnochanceathittingtenthousandhoursbythetimetheprofessionalhockeyteamsstartlookingforplayers.Andwithouttenthousandhoursunderhisbelt,thereisnowayhecanevermastertheskillsnecessarytoplayatthetoplevel.EvenMozart—thegreatestmusicalprodigyofalltime—couldn’thithisstrideuntilhehadhistenthousandhoursin.Practice
isn’tthethingyoudoonceyou’regood.It’sthethingyoudothatmakesyougood.
Theotherinterestingthingaboutthattenthousandhours,ofcourse,isthattenthousandhoursisanenormousamountoftime.It’sallbutimpossibletoreachthatnumberallbyyourselfbythetimeyou’reayoungadult.Youhavetohaveparentswhoencourageandsupportyou.Youcan’t
bepoor,becauseifyouhavetoholddownapart-timejobonthesidetohelpmakeendsmeet,therewon’tbetimeleftinthedaytopracticeenough.Infact,mostpeoplecanreachthatnumberonlyiftheygetintosomekindofspecialprogram—likeahockeyall-starsquad—oriftheygetsomekindofextraordinaryopportunitythatgivesthemachancetoputinthosehours.
3.So,backtoBillJoy.It’s1971.He’stallandgawkyandsixteenyearsold.He’sthemathwhiz,thekindofstudentthatschoolslikeMITandCaltechandtheUniversityofWaterlooattractbythehundreds.“WhenBillwasalittlekid,hewantedtoknoweverythingabouteverythingwaybeforehe
should’veevenknownhewantedtoknow,”hisfather,William,says.“Weansweredhimwhenwecould.Andwhenwecouldn’t,wewouldjustgivehimabook.”Whenitcametimetoapplytocollege,JoygotaperfectscoreonthemathportionoftheScholasticAptitudeTest.“Itwasn’tparticularlyhard,”hesaysmatter-of-factly.“Therewasplentyoftimeto
checkittwice.”Hehastalentbythe
truckload.Butthat’snottheonlyconsideration.Itneveris.ThekeytohisdevelopmentisthathestumbledacrossthatnondescriptbuildingonBealAvenue.
Intheearly1970s,whenJoywaslearningaboutprogramming,computerswerethesizeofrooms.A
singlemachine(whichmighthavelesspowerandmemorythanyourmicrowavenowhas)couldcostupwardsofamilliondollars—andthat’sin1970sdollars.Computerswererare.Ifyoufoundone,itwashardtogetaccesstoit;ifyoumanagedtogetaccess,rentingtimeonitcostafortune.
What’smore,programmingitselfwas
extraordinarilytedious.Thiswastheerawhencomputerprogramswerecreatedusingcardboardpunchcards.Eachlineofcodewasimprintedonthecardusingakeypunchmachine.Acomplexprogrammightincludehundreds,ifnotthousands,ofthesecardsintallstacks.Onceaprogramwasready,youwalkedovertowhatevermainframecomputeryouhadaccessto
andgavethestackofcardstoanoperator.Sincecomputerscouldhandleonlyonetaskatatime,theoperatormadeanappointmentforyourprogram,anddependingonhowmanypeoplewereaheadofyouinline,youmightnotgetyourcardsbackforafewhoursorevenaday.Andifyoumadeevenasingleerror—evenatypographicalerror—inyourprogram,youhad
totakethecardsback,trackdowntheerror,andbeginthewholeprocessagain.
Underthosecircumstances,itwasexceedinglydifficultforanyonetobecomeaprogrammingexpert.Certainlybecominganexpertbyyourearlytwentieswasallbutimpossible.Whenyoucan“program”foronlyafewminutesoutofeveryhouryou
spendinthecomputerroom,howcanyouevergetintenthousandhoursofpractice?“Programmingwithcards,”onecomputerscientistfromthateraremembers,“didnotteachyouprogramming.Ittaughtyoupatienceandproofreading.”
Itwasn’tuntilthemid-1960sthatasolutiontotheprogrammingproblememerged.Computerswere
finallypowerfulenoughthattheycouldhandlemorethanone“appointment”atonce.Ifthecomputer’soperatingsystemwasrewritten,computerscientistsrealized,themachine’stimecouldbeshared;thecomputercouldbetrainedtohandlehundredsoftasksatthesametime.That,inturn,meantthatprogrammersdidn’thavetophysicallyhandtheirstacks
ofcomputercardstotheoperatoranymore.Dozensofterminalscouldbebuilt,alllinkedtothemainframebyatelephoneline,andeveryonecouldbeworking—online—allatonce.
Hereishowonehistoryoftheperioddescribestheadventoftime-sharing:
Thiswasnotjusta
revolution.Itwasarevelation.Forgettheoperator,thecarddecks,thewait.Withtime-sharing,youcouldsitatyourTeletype,banginacoupleofcommands,andgetananswerthenandthere.Time-sharingwasinteractive:Aprogramcouldaskfora
response,waitforyoutotypeitin,actonitwhileyouwaited,andshowyoutheresult,allin“realtime.”
ThisiswhereMichigancamein,becauseMichiganwasoneofthefirstuniversitiesintheworldtoswitchovertotime-sharing.By1967,aprototypeofthe
systemwasupandrunning.Bytheearly1970s,MichiganhadenoughcomputingpowerthatahundredpeoplecouldbeprogrammingsimultaneouslyintheComputerCenter.“Inthelatesixties,earlyseventies,Idon’tthinktherewasanyplaceelsethatwasexactlylikeMichigan,”MikeAlexander,oneofthepioneersofMichigan’s
computingsystem,said.“MaybeMIT.MaybeCarnegieMellon.MaybeDartmouth.Idon’tthinktherewereanyothers.”
ThiswastheopportunitythatgreetedBillJoywhenhearrivedontheAnnArborcampusinthefallof1971.Hehadn’tchosenMichiganbecauseofitscomputers.Hehadneverdoneanythingwithcomputersinhighschool.He
wasinterestedinmathandengineering.Butwhentheprogrammingbughithiminhisfreshmanyear,hefoundhimself—bythehappiestofaccidents—inoneofthefewplacesintheworldwhereaseventeen-year-oldcouldprogramallhewanted.
“Doyouknowwhatthedifferenceisbetweenthecomputingcardsandtime-sharing?”Joysays.“It’sthe
differencebetweenplayingchessbymailandspeedchess.”Programmingwasn’tanexerciseinfrustrationanymore.Itwasfun.
“Ilivedinthenorthcampus,andtheComputerCenterwasinthenorthcampus,”Joywenton.“HowmuchtimedidIspendthere?Oh,aphenomenalamountoftime.Itwasopentwenty-fourhours.Iwouldstaythereall
night,andjustwalkhomeinthemorning.Inanaverageweekinthoseyears,IwasspendingmoretimeintheComputerCenterthanonmyclasses.Allofusdowntherehadthisrecurringnightmareofforgettingtoshowupforclassatall,ofnotevenrealizingwewereenrolled.
“Thechallengewasthattheygaveallthestudentsanaccountwithafixedamount
ofmoney,soyourtimewouldrunout.Whenyousignedon,youwouldputinhowlongyouwantedtospendonthecomputer.Theygaveyou,like,anhouroftime.That’sallyou’dget.Butsomeonefiguredoutthatifyouputin‘timeequals’andthenaletter,liketequalsk,theywouldn’tchargeyou,”hesaid,laughingatthememory.“Itwasabuginthesoftware.
Youcouldputintequalskandsitthereforever.”
JustlookatthestreamofopportunitiesthatcameBillJoy’sway.BecausehehappenedtogotoafarsightedschoolliketheUniversityofMichigan,hewasabletopracticeonatime-sharingsysteminsteadofwithpunchcards;becausetheMichigansystemhappenedtohaveabuginit,hecouldprogram
allhewanted;becausetheuniversitywaswillingtospendthemoneytokeeptheComputerCenteropentwenty-fourhours,hecouldstayupallnight;andbecausehewasabletoputinsomanyhours,bythetimehehappenedtobepresentedwiththeopportunitytorewriteUNIX,hewasuptothetask.BillJoywasbrilliant.Hewantedtolearn.
Thatwasabigpartofit.Butbeforehecouldbecomeanexpert,someonehadtogivehimtheopportunitytolearnhowtobeanexpert.
“AtMichigan,Iwasprobablyprogrammingeightortenhoursaday,”hewenton.“BythetimeIwasatBerkeleyIwasdoingitdayandnight.Ihadaterminalathome.I’dstayupuntiltwoorthreeo’clockinthemorning,
watchingoldmoviesandprogramming.SometimesI’dfallasleepatthekeyboard”—hemimedhisheadfallingonthekeyboard—“andyouknowhowthekeyrepeatsuntiltheend,anditstartstogobeep,beep,beep?Afterthathappensthreetimes,youhavetogotobed.IwasstillrelativelyincompetentevenwhenIgottoBerkeley.Iwasproficientbymysecondyear
there.That’swhenIwroteprogramsthatarestillinusetoday,thirtyyearslater.”Hepausedforamomenttodothemathinhishead—whichforsomeonelikeBillJoydoesn’ttakeverylong.Michiganin1971.Programminginearnestbysophomoreyear.Addinthesummers,thenthedaysandnightsinhisfirstyearatBerkeley.“So,somaybe…
tenthousandhours?”hesaid,finally.“That’saboutright.”
4.Istheten-thousand-hourruleageneralruleofsuccess?Ifwescratchbelowthesurfaceofeverygreatachiever,dowealwaysfindtheequivalentoftheMichiganComputerCenterorthehockeyall-starteam—somesortofspecial
opportunityforpractice?Let’stesttheideawith
twoexamples,andforthesakeofsimplicity,let’smakethemasfamiliaraspossible:theBeatles,oneofthemostfamousrockbandsever;andBillGates,oneoftheworld’srichestmen.
TheBeatles—JohnLennon,PaulMcCartney,GeorgeHarrison,andRingoStarr—cametotheUnited
StatesinFebruaryof1964,startingtheso-calledBritishInvasionoftheAmericanmusicsceneandputtingoutastringofhitrecordsthattransformedthefaceofpopularmusic.
ThefirstinterestingthingabouttheBeatlesforourpurposesishowlongtheyhadalreadybeentogetherbythetimetheyreachedtheUnitedStates.Lennonand
McCartneyfirststartedplayingtogetherin1957,sevenyearspriortolandinginAmerica.(Incidentally,thetimethatelapsedbetweentheirfoundingandtheirarguablygreatestartisticachievements—Sgt.Pepper’sLonelyHeartsClubBandandTheBeatles[WhiteAlbum]—istenyears.)Andifyoulookevenmorecloselyatthoselongyearsofpreparation,
you’llfindanexperiencethat,inthecontextofhockeyplayersandBillJoyandworld-classviolinists,soundsawfullyfamiliar.In1960,whiletheywerestilljustastrugglinghighschoolrockband,theywereinvitedtoplayinHamburg,Germany.
“Hamburginthosedaysdidnothaverock-and-rollmusicclubs.Ithadstripclubs,”saysPhilipNorman,
whowrotetheBeatlesbiographyShout!“TherewasoneparticularclubownercalledBruno,whowasoriginallyafairgroundshowman.Hehadtheideaofbringinginrockgroupstoplayinvariousclubs.Theyhadthisformula.Itwasahugenonstopshow,hourafterhour,withalotofpeoplelurchinginandtheotherlotlurchingout.And
thebandswouldplayallthetimetocatchthepassingtraffic.InanAmericanred-lightdistrict,theywouldcallitnonstopstriptease.
“ManyofthebandsthatplayedinHamburgwerefromLiverpool,”Normanwenton.“Itwasanaccident.BrunowenttoLondontolookforbands.ButhehappenedtomeetanentrepreneurfromLiverpool
inSohowhowasdowninLondonbypurechance.Andhearrangedtosendsomebandsover.That’showtheconnectionwasestablished.AndeventuallytheBeatlesmadeaconnectionnotjustwithBrunobutwithotherclubownersaswell.Theykeptgoingbackbecausetheygotalotofalcoholandalotofsex.”
Andwhatwassospecial
aboutHamburg?Itwasn’tthatitpaidwell.Itdidn’t.Orthattheacousticswerefantastic.Theyweren’t.Orthattheaudiencesweresavvyandappreciative.Theywereanythingbut.Itwasthesheeramountoftimethebandwasforcedtoplay.
HereisJohnLennon,inaninterviewaftertheBeatlesdisbanded,talkingabouttheband’sperformancesata
HamburgstripclubcalledtheIndra:
Wegotbetterandgotmoreconfidence.Wecouldn’thelpitwithalltheexperienceplayingallnightlong.Itwashandythembeingforeign.Wehadtotryevenharder,putourheartandsoulintoit,
togetourselvesover.InLiverpool,we’d
onlyeverdoneone-hoursessions,andwejustusedtodoourbestnumbers,thesameones,ateveryone.InHamburg,wehadtoplayforeighthours,sowereallyhadtofindanewwayofplaying.
Eighthours?HereisPeteBest,the
Beatles’drummeratthetime:“Oncethenewsgotoutaboutthatweweremakingashow,theclubstartedpackingthemin.Weplayedsevennightsaweek.Atfirstweplayedalmostnonstoptilltwelve-thirty,whenitclosed,butaswegotbetterthecrowdsstayedtilltwomostmornings.”
Sevendaysaweek?TheBeatlesendedup
travelingtoHamburgfivetimesbetween1960andtheendof1962.Onthefirsttrip,theyplayed106nights,fiveormorehoursanight.Ontheirsecondtrip,theyplayed92times.Ontheirthirdtrip,theyplayed48times,foratotalof172hoursonstage.ThelasttwoHamburggigs,inNovemberandDecember
of1962,involvedanother90hoursofperforming.Alltold,theyperformedfor270nightsinjustoverayearandahalf.Bythetimetheyhadtheirfirstburstofsuccessin1964,infact,theyhadperformedliveanestimatedtwelvehundredtimes.Doyouknowhowextraordinarythatis?Mostbandstodaydon’tperformtwelvehundredtimesintheirentirecareers.The
HamburgcrucibleisoneofthethingsthatsettheBeatlesapart.
“Theywerenogoodonstagewhentheywentthereandtheywereverygoodwhentheycameback,”Normanwenton.“Theylearnednotonlystamina.Theyhadtolearnanenormousamountofnumbers—coverversionsofeverythingyoucanthinkof,
notjustrockandroll,abitofjazztoo.Theyweren’tdisciplinedonstageatallbeforethat.Butwhentheycameback,theysoundedlikenooneelse.Itwasthemakingofthem.”
5.Let’snowturntothehistoryofBillGates.Hisstoryisalmostaswellknownasthe
Beatles’.Brilliant,youngmathwhizdiscoverscomputerprogramming.DropsoutofHarvard.StartsalittlecomputercompanycalledMicrosoftwithhisfriends.Throughsheerbrillianceandambitionandgutsbuildsitintothegiantofthesoftwareworld.That’sthebroadoutline.Let’sdigalittlebitdeeper.
Gates’sfatherwasa
wealthylawyerinSeattle,andhismotherwasthedaughterofawell-to-dobanker.AsachildBillwasprecociousandeasilyboredbyhisstudies.Sohisparentstookhimoutofpublicschooland,atthebeginningofseventhgrade,senthimtoLakeside,aprivateschoolthatcateredtoSeattle’selitefamilies.MidwaythroughGates’ssecondyearatLakeside,the
schoolstartedacomputerclub.
“TheMothers’Clubatschooldidarummagesaleeveryyear,andtherewasalwaysthequestionofwhatthemoneywouldgoto,”Gatesremembers.“Somewenttothesummerprogram,whereinner-citykidswouldcomeuptothecampus.Someofitwouldgoforteachers.Thatyear,theyputthree
thousanddollarsintoacomputerterminaldowninthisfunnylittleroomthatwesubsequentlytookcontrolof.Itwaskindofanamazingthing.”
Itwasan“amazingthing,”ofcourse,becausethiswas1968.Mostcollegesdidn’thavecomputerclubsinthe1960s.EvenmoreremarkablewasthekindofcomputerLakesidebought.Theschool
didn’thaveitsstudentslearnprogrammingbythelaboriouscomputer-cardsystem,likevirtuallyeveryoneelsewasdoinginthe1960s.Instead,LakesideinstalledwhatwascalledanASR-33Teletype,whichwasatime-sharingterminalwithadirectlinktoamainframecomputerindowntownSeattle.“Thewholeideaoftime-sharingonlygot
inventedinnineteensixty-five,”Gatescontinued.“Someonewasprettyforward-looking.”BillJoygotanextraordinary,earlyopportunitytolearnprogrammingonatime-sharesystemasafreshmanincollege,in1971.BillGatesgottodoreal-timeprogrammingasaneighthgraderin1968.
Fromthatmoment
forward,Gateslivedinthecomputerroom.Heandanumberofothersbegantoteachthemselveshowtousethisstrangenewdevice.BuyingtimeonthemainframecomputertheASRwashookeduptowas,ofcourse,expensive—evenforawealthyinstitutionlikeLakeside—anditwasn’tlongbeforethe$3,000putupbytheMothers’Clubranout.
Theparentsraisedmoremoney.Thestudentsspentit.ThenagroupofprogrammersattheUniversityofWashingtonformedanoutfitcalledComputerCenterCorporation(orC-Cubed),whichleasedcomputertimetolocalcompanies.Asluckwouldhaveit,oneofthefoundersofthefirm—MoniqueRona—hadasonatLakeside,ayearaheadof
Gates.WouldtheLakesidecomputerclub,Ronawondered,liketotestoutthecompany’ssoftwareprogramsontheweekendsinexchangeforfreeprogrammingtime?Absolutely!Afterschool,GatestookthebustotheC-Cubedofficesandprogrammedlongintotheevening.
C-Cubedeventuallywent
bankrupt,soGatesandhisfriendsbeganhangingaroundthecomputercenterattheUniversityofWashington.Beforelong,theylatchedontoanoutfitcalledISI(InformationSciencesInc.),whichagreedtoletthemhavefreecomputertimeinexchangeforworkingonapieceofsoftwarethatcouldbeusedtoautomatecompanypayrolls.Inoneseven-month
periodin1971,Gatesandhiscohortsranup1,575hoursofcomputertimeontheISImainframe,whichaveragesouttoeighthoursaday,sevendaysaweek.
“Itwasmyobsession,”Gatessaysofhisearlyhighschoolyears.“Iskippedathletics.Iwentupthereatnight.Wewereprogrammingonweekends.Itwouldbearareweekthatwewouldn’t
gettwentyorthirtyhoursin.TherewasaperiodwherePaulAllenandIgotintroubleforstealingabunchofpasswordsandcrashingthesystem.Wegotkickedout.Ididn’tgettousethecomputerthewholesummer.ThisiswhenIwasfifteenandsixteen.ThenIfoundoutPaulhadfoundacomputerthatwasfreeattheUniversityofWashington.Theyhad
thesemachinesinthemedicalcenterandthephysicsdepartment.Theywereonatwenty-four-hourschedule,butwiththisbigslackperiod,sothatbetweenthreeandsixinthemorningtheyneverscheduledanything.”Gateslaughed.“I’dleaveatnight,aftermybedtime.IcouldwalkuptotheUniversityofWashingtonfrommyhouse.OrI’dtakethebus.That’s
whyI’malwayssogeneroustotheUniversityofWashington,becausetheyletmestealsomuchcomputertime.”(Yearslater,Gates’smothersaid,“Wealwayswonderedwhyitwassohardforhimtogetupinthemorning.”)
OneofthefoundersofISI,BudPembroke,thengotacallfromthetechnologycompanyTRW,whichhad
justsignedacontracttosetupacomputersystematthehugeBonnevillePowerstationinsouthernWashingtonState.TRWdesperatelyneededprogrammersfamiliarwiththeparticularsoftwarethepowerstationused.Intheseearlydaysofthecomputerrevolution,programmerswiththatkindofspecializedexperiencewerehardtofind.
ButPembrokeknewexactlywhomtocall:thosehighschoolkidsfromLakesidewhohadbeenrunningupthousandsofhoursofcomputertimeontheISImainframe.Gateswasnowinhissenioryear,andsomehowhemanagedtoconvincehisteacherstolethimdecampforBonnevilleundertheguiseofanindependentstudyproject.Therehespentthe
springwritingcode,supervisedbyamannamedJohnNorton,whoGatessaystaughthimasmuchaboutprogrammingasalmostanyonehe’devermet.
Thosefiveyears,fromeighthgradethroughtheendofhighschool,wereBillGates’sHamburg,andbyanymeasure,hewaspresentedwithanevenmoreextraordinaryseriesof
opportunitiesthanBillJoy.Opportunitynumberone
wasthatGatesgotsenttoLakeside.Howmanyhighschoolsintheworldhadaccesstoatime-sharingterminalin1968?OpportunitynumbertwowasthatthemothersofLakesidehadenoughmoneytopayfortheschool’scomputerfees.Numberthreewasthat,whenthatmoneyranout,oneofthe
parentshappenedtoworkatC-Cubed,whichhappenedtoneedsomeonetocheckitscodeontheweekends,andwhichalsohappenednottocareifweekendsturnedintoweeknights.NumberfourwasthatGatesjusthappenedtofindoutaboutISI,andISIjusthappenedtoneedsomeonetoworkonitspayrollsoftware.NumberfivewasthatGateshappened
tolivewithinwalkingdistanceoftheUniversityofWashington.Numbersixwasthattheuniversityhappenedtohavefreecomputertimebetweenthreeandsixinthemorning.NumbersevenwasthatTRWhappenedtocallBudPembroke.NumbereightwasthatthebestprogrammersPembrokeknewforthatparticularproblemhappenedtobetwohigh
schoolkids.AndnumberninewasthatLakesidewaswillingtoletthosekidsspendtheirspringtermmilesaway,writingcode.
Andwhatdidvirtuallyallofthoseopportunitieshaveincommon?TheygaveBillGatesextratimetopractice.BythetimeGatesdroppedoutofHarvardafterhissophomoreyeartotryhishandathisownsoftware
company,he’dbeenprogrammingpracticallynonstopforsevenconsecutiveyears.Hewaswaypasttenthousandhours.HowmanyteenagersintheworldhadthekindofexperienceGateshad?“Iftherewerefiftyintheworld,I’dbestunned,”hesays.“TherewasC-Cubedandthepayrollstuffwedid,thenTRW—allthosethingscametogether.Ihadabetter
exposuretosoftwaredevelopmentatayoungagethanIthinkanyonedidinthatperiodoftime,andallbecauseofanincrediblyluckyseriesofevents.”
6.IfweputthestoriesofhockeyplayersandtheBeatlesandBillJoyandBillGatestogether,Ithinkweget
amorecompletepictureofthepathtosuccess.JoyandGatesandtheBeatlesareallundeniablytalented.LennonandMcCartneyhadamusicalgiftofthesortthatcomesalongonceinageneration,andBillJoy,letusnotforget,hadamindsoquickthathewasabletomakeupacomplicatedalgorithmontheflythatlefthisprofessorsinawe.Thatmuchisobvious.
Butwhattrulydistinguishestheirhistoriesisnottheirextraordinarytalentbuttheirextraordinaryopportunities.TheBeatles,forthemostrandomofreasons,gotinvitedtogotoHamburg.WithoutHamburg,theBeatlesmightwellhavetakenadifferentpath.“Iwasverylucky,”BillGatessaidatthebeginningofourinterview.Thatdoesn’tmean
heisn’tbrilliantoranextraordinaryentrepreneur.ItjustmeansthatheunderstandswhatincrediblegoodfortuneitwastobeatLakesidein1968.
Alltheoutlierswe’velookedatsofarwerethebeneficiariesofsomekindofunusualopportunity.Luckybreaksdon’tseemliketheexceptionwithsoftwarebillionairesandrockbands
andstarathletes.Theyseemliketherule.
Letmegiveyouonefinalexampleofthehiddenopportunitiesthatoutliersbenefitfrom.Supposewedoanotherversionofthecalendaranalysiswedidinthepreviouschapterwithhockeyplayers,onlythistimelookingatbirthyears,notbirthmonths.Tostartwith,takeacloselookatthe
followinglistoftheseventy-fiverichestpeopleinhumanhistory.ThenetworthofeachpersoniscalculatedincurrentUSdollars.Asyoucansee,itincludesqueensandkingsandpharaohsfromcenturiespast,aswellascontemporarybillionaires,suchasWarrenBuffettandCarlosSlim.
No. Name
WealthinBillions Origin
(USD)
1 JohnD.Rockefeller 318.3 United
States
2 AndrewCarnegie 298.3 Scotland
3 NicholasIIofRussia 253.5 Russia
4WilliamHenryVanderbilt
231.6 UnitedStates
5OsmanAliKhan,AsafJahVII
210.8 Hyderabad
6 AndrewW.Mellon 188.8 United
States
7 HenryFord 188.1 UnitedStates
8MarcusLiciniusCrassus
169.8RomanRepublic
9 BasilII 169.4 ByzantineEmpire
10 CorneliusVanderbilt 167.4 United
States11 AlanusRufus 166.9 England
12 AmenophisIII 155.2 Ancient
Egypt
13WilliamdeWarenne,1stEarlofSurrey
153.6 England
14 WilliamIIofEngland 151.7 England
15 ElizabethI 142.9 EnglandJohnD.
16 RockefellerJr.
141.4 UnitedStates
17 SamWalton 128.0 UnitedStates
18 JohnJacobAstor 115.0 Germany
19 OdoofBayeux 110.2 England
20 StephenGirard 99.5 France
21 Cleopatra 95.8 AncientEgypt
22 StephenVanRensselaerIII 88.8 United
States
23 RichardB.Mellon 86.3 United
States
24 AlexanderTurneyStewart
84.7 Ireland
25WilliamBackhouseAstorJr.
84.7 UnitedStates
26 DonSimonIturbiPatiño 81.2 Bolivia
27SultanHassanalBolkiah
80.7 Brunei
28 FrederickWeyerhaeuser 80.4 Germany
29 MosesTaylor 79.3 UnitedStates
30 VincentAstor 73.9 UnitedStates
31 CarlosSlimHelú
72.4 Mexico
32 T.V.Soong 67.8 China
33 JayGould 67.1 UnitedStates
34 MarshallField 66.3 United
States
35 GeorgeF.Baker 63.6 United
States
36 HettyGreen 58.8 UnitedStates
37 BillGates 58.0 UnitedStates
38LawrenceJoseph 58.0 United
States
Ellison
39 RichardArkwright 56.2 England
40 MukeshAmbani 55.8 India
41WarrenBuffett 52.4
UnitedStates
42 LakshmiMittal 51.0 India
43 J.PaulGetty 50.1 UnitedStates
44 JamesG.Fair 47.2 UnitedStates
45 WilliamWeightman 46.1 United
StatesUnited
46 RussellSage 45.1 States
47 JohnBlair 45.1 UnitedStates
48 AnilAmbani 45.0 India
49LelandStanford 44.9
UnitedStates
50 HowardHughesJr. 43.4 United
States
51 CyrusCurtis 43.2 UnitedStates
52 JohnInsleyBlair 42.4 United
States
53EdwardHenryHarriman
40.9 UnitedStates
54 HenryH.Rogers 40.9 United
States
55 PaulAllen 40.0 UnitedStates
56 JohnKluge 40.0 Germany
57 J.P.Morgan 39.8 UnitedStates
58 OliverH.Payne
38.8 UnitedStates
59 YoshiakiTsutsumi 38.1 Japan
60 HenryClayFrick 37.7 United
States
61 JohnJacobAstorIV 37.0 United
States
62GeorgePullman 35.6
UnitedStates
63 CollisPotterHuntington 34.6 United
States
64PeterArrellBrownWidener
33.4 UnitedStates
65PhilipDanforth 33.4 United
Armour States
66 WilliamS.O’Brien 33.3 United
States
67 IngvarKamprad 33.0 Sweden
68 K.P.Singh 32.9 India
69JamesC.Flood 32.5
UnitedStates
70 LiKa-shing 32.0 China
71 AnthonyN.Brady 31.7 United
States
72 EliasHasketDerby
31.4 UnitedStates
73 MarkHopkins 30.9 United
States
74 EdwardClark 30.2 UnitedStates
75PrinceAl-WaleedbinTalal
29.5 SaudiArabia
Doyouknowwhat’sinterestingaboutthatlist?Oftheseventy-fivenames,anastonishingfourteenareAmericansbornwithinnineyearsofoneanotherinthe
mid-nineteenthcentury.Thinkaboutthatforamoment.HistoriansstartwithCleopatraandthepharaohsandcombthrougheveryyearinhumanhistoryeversince,lookingineverycorneroftheworldforevidenceofextraordinarywealth,andalmost20percentofthenamestheyendupwithcomefromasinglegenerationinasinglecountry.
Here’sthelistofthoseAmericansandtheirbirthyears:
1.JohnD.Rockefeller,18392.AndrewCarnegie,183528.FrederickWeyerhaeuser,183433.JayGould,183634.MarshallField,1834
35.GeorgeF.Baker,184036.HettyGreen,183444.JamesG.Fair,183154.HenryH.Rogers,184057.J.P.Morgan,183758.OliverH.Payne,183962.GeorgePullman,183164.PeterArrellBrownWidener,1834
65.PhilipDanforthArmour,1832
What’sgoingonhere?Theanswerbecomesobviousifyouthinkaboutit.Inthe1860sand1870s,theAmericaneconomywentthroughperhapsthegreatesttransformationinitshistory.Thiswaswhentherailroadswerebeingbuiltandwhen
WallStreetemerged.Itwaswhenindustrialmanufacturingstartedinearnest.Itwaswhenalltherulesbywhichthetraditionaleconomyhadfunctionedwerebrokenandremade.Whatthislistsaysisthatitreallymattershowoldyouwerewhenthattransformationhappened.
Ifyouwereborninthelate1840syoumissedit.You
weretooyoungtotakeadvantageofthatmoment.Ifyouwereborninthe1820syouweretooold:yourmind-setwasshapedbythepre–CivilWarparadigm.Buttherewasaparticular,narrownine-yearwindowthatwasjustperfectforseeingthepotentialthatthefutureheld.Allofthefourteenmenandwomenonthelistabovehadvisionandtalent.Butthey
alsoweregivenanextraordinaryopportunity,inthesamewaythathockeyandsoccerplayersborninJanuary,February,andMarcharegivenanextraordinaryopportunity.*
Nowlet’sdothesamekindofanalysisforpeoplelikeBillJoyandBillGates.
IfyoutalktoveteransofSiliconValley,they’lltellyouthatthemostimportant
dateinthehistoryofthepersonalcomputerrevolutionwasJanuary1975.ThatwaswhenthemagazinePopularElectronicsranacoverstoryonanextraordinarymachinecalledtheAltair8800.TheAltaircost$397.Itwasado-it-yourselfcontraptionthatyoucouldassembleathome.Theheadlineonthestoryread:“PROJECTBREAKTHROUGH!
World’sFirstMinicomputerKittoRivalCommercialModels.”
TothereadersofPopularElectronics,inthosedaysthebibleofthefledglingsoftwareandcomputerworld,thatheadlinewasarevelation.Computersuptothatpointhadbeenthemassive,expensivemainframesofthesortsittinginthewhiteexpanseofthe
MichiganComputerCenter.Foryears,everyhackerandelectronicswhizhaddreamtofthedaywhenacomputerwouldcomealongthatwassmallandinexpensiveenoughforanordinarypersontouseandown.Thatdayhadfinallyarrived.
IfJanuary1975wasthedawnofthepersonalcomputerage,thenwhowouldbeinthebestposition
totakeadvantageofit?ThesameprinciplesapplyherethatappliedtotheeraofJohnRockefellerandAndrewCarnegie.
“Ifyou’retoooldinnineteenseventy-five,thenyou’dalreadyhaveajobatIBMoutofcollege,andoncepeoplestartedatIBM,theyhadarealhardtimemakingthetransitiontothenewworld,”saysNathan
Myhrvold,whowasatopexecutiveatMicrosoftformanyyears.“Youhadthismultibillion-dollarcompanymakingmainframes,andifyouwerepartofthat,you’dthink,Whyscrewaroundwiththeselittlepatheticcomputers?Thatwasthecomputerindustrytothosepeople,andithadnothingtodowiththisnewrevolution.Theywereblindedbythat
beingtheonlyvisionofcomputing.Theymadeaniceliving.It’sjustthattherewasnoopportunitytobecomeazillionaireandmakeanimpactontheworld.”
Ifyouweremorethanafewyearsoutofcollegein1975,thenyoubelongedtotheoldparadigm.Youhadjustboughtahouse.You’remarried.Ababyisontheway.You’reinnopositionto
giveupagoodjobandpensionforsomepie-in-the-sky$397computerkit.Solet’sruleoutallthosebornbefore,say,1952.
Atthesametime,though,youdon’twanttobetooyoung.Youreallywanttogetinonthegroundfloor,rightin1975,andyoucan’tdothatifyou’restillinhighschool.Solet’salsoruleoutanyonebornafter,say,1958.The
perfectagetobein1975,inotherwords,isoldenoughtobeapartofthecomingrevolutionbutnotsooldthatyoumissedit.Ideally,youwanttobetwentyortwenty-one,whichistosay,bornin1954or1955.
Thereisaneasywaytotestthistheory.WhenwasBillGatesborn?
BillGates:October28,1955
That’stheperfectbirthdate!GatesisthehockeyplayerbornonJanuary1.Gates’sbestfriendatLakesidewasPaulAllen.HealsohungoutinthecomputerroomwithGatesandsharedthoselongeveningsatISIandC-Cubed.Allenwentontofound
MicrosoftwithBillGates.WhenwasPaulAllenborn?
PaulAllen:January21,1953
Thethird-richestmanatMicrosoftistheonewhohasbeenrunningthecompanyonaday-to-daybasissince2000,oneofthemostrespectedexecutivesinthesoftware
world,SteveBallmer.Ballmer’sbirthdate?
SteveBallmer:March24,1956
Let’snotforgetamaneverybitasfamousasGates:SteveJobs,thecofounderofAppleComputer.UnlikeGates,Jobswasn’tfromarichfamilyandhedidn’tgotoMichigan,like
Joy.Butitdoesn’ttakemuchinvestigationofhisupbringingtorealizethathehadhisHamburgtoo.HegrewupinMountainView,California,justsouthofSanFrancisco,whichistheabsoluteepicenterofSiliconValley.HisneighborhoodwasfilledwithengineersfromHewlett-Packard,thenasnowoneofthemostimportantelectronicsfirmsin
theworld.AsateenagerheprowledthefleamarketsofMountainView,whereelectronicshobbyistsandtinkererssoldspareparts.Jobscameofagebreathingtheairoftheverybusinesshewouldlaterdominate.
ThisparagraphfromAccidentalMillionaire,oneofthemanyJobsbiographies,givesusasenseofhowextraordinaryhischildhood
experienceswere.Jobs
attendedeveningtalksbyHewlett-Packardscientists.ThetalkswereaboutthelatestadvancesinelectronicsandJobs,exercisingastylethatwasatrademarkofhispersonality,collaredHewlett-Packard
engineersanddrewadditionalinformationfromthem.OnceheevencalledBillHewlett,oneofthecompany’sfounders,torequestparts.Jobsnotonlyreceivedthepartsheaskedfor,hemanagedtowrangleasummerjob.Jobsworkedonanassemblylinetobuildcomputers
andwassofascinatedthathetriedtodesignhisown…
Wait.BillHewlettgavehimspareparts?That’sonaparwithBillGatesgettingunlimitedaccesstoatime-shareterminalatagethirteen.It’sasifyouwereinterestedinfashionandyourneighborwhenyouweregrowingup
happenedtobeGiorgioArmani.AndwhenwasJobsborn?
SteveJobs:February24,1955
AnotherofthepioneersofthesoftwarerevolutionwasEricSchmidt.HeranNovell,oneofSiliconValley’smostimportantsoftwarefirms,and
in2001,hebecamethechiefexecutiveofficerofGoogle.Birthdate?
EricSchmidt:April27,1955
Idon’tmeantosuggest,ofcourse,thateverysoftwaretycooninSiliconValleywasbornin1955.Someweren’t,justasnoteverybusiness
titanintheUnitedStateswasborninthemid-1830s.Butthereareveryclearlypatternshere,andwhat’sstrikingishowlittleweseemtowanttoacknowledgethem.Wepretendthatsuccessisexclusivelyamatterofindividualmerit.Butthere’snothinginanyofthehistorieswe’velookedatsofartosuggestthingsarethatsimple.Thesearestories,instead,
aboutpeoplewhoweregivenaspecialopportunitytoworkreallyhardandseizedit,andwhohappenedtocomeofageatatimewhenthatextraordinaryeffortwasrewardedbytherestofsociety.Theirsuccesswasnotjustoftheirownmaking.Itwasaproductoftheworldinwhichtheygrewup.
Bytheway,let’snotforgetBillJoy.Hadhebeen
justalittlebitolderandhadhehadtofacethedrudgeryofprogrammingwithcomputercards,hesays,hewouldhavestudiedscience.BillJoythecomputerlegendwouldhavebeenBillJoythebiologist.Andhadhecomealongafewyearslater,thelittlewindowthatgavehimthechancetowritethesupportingcodefortheInternetwouldhaveclosed.Again,BillJoythe
computerlegendmightwellhavebeenBillJoythebiologist.WhenwasBillJoyborn?
BillJoy:November8,1954
Joywouldgoon,afterhisstintatBerkeley,tobecomeoneofthefourfoundersofSunMicrosystems,oneofthe
oldestandmostimportantofSiliconValley’ssoftwarecompanies.Andifyoustillthinkthataccidentsoftimeandplaceandbirthdon’tmatterallthatmuch,herearethebirthdaysofthethreeotherfoundersofSunMicrosystems:
ScottMcNealy:November13,1954
VinodKhosla:January28,1955AndyBechtolsheim:September30,1955
CHAPTERTHREE
TheTroublewithGeniuses,Part1
“KNOWLEDGEOFABOY’SIQISOFLITTLE
HELPIFYOUAREFACEDWITHAFORMFULOF
CLEVERBOYS.”
1.Inthefifthepisodeofthe
2008season,theAmericantelevisionquizshow1vs.100hadasitsspecialguestamannamedChristopherLangan.
Thetelevisionshow1vs.100isoneofmanythatsprangupinthewakeofthephenomenalsuccessofWhoWantstoBeaMillionaire.Itfeaturesapermanentgalleryofonehundredordinarypeoplewhoserveaswhatiscalledthe“mob.”Eachweek
theymatchwitswithaspecialinvitedguest.Atstakeisamilliondollars.Theguesthastobesmartenoughtoanswermorequestionscorrectlythanhisorheronehundredadversaries—andbythatstandard,fewhaveeverseemedassuperblyqualifiedasChristopherLangan.
“Tonightthemobtakesontheirfiercestcompetitionyet,”thevoice-overbegan.
“MeetChrisLangan,whomanycallthesmartestmaninAmerica.”Thecameradidaslowpanofastocky,muscularmaninhisfifties.“TheaveragepersonhasanIQofonehundred,”thevoice-overcontinued.“Einsteinonefifty.ChrishasanIQofoneninety-five.He’scurrentlywrappinghisbigbrainaroundatheoryoftheuniverse.Butwillhisking-
sizecraniumbeenoughtotakedownthemobforonemilliondollars?FindoutrightnowonOneversusOneHundred.”
OutstrodeLanganontothestageamidwildapplause.
“Youdon’tthinkyouneedtohaveahighintellecttodowellonOneversusOneHundred,doyou?”theshow’shost,BobSaget,askedhim.Sagetlookedat
Langanoddly,asifheweresomekindoflaboratoryspecimen.
“Actually,Ithinkitcouldbeahindrance,”Langanreplied.Hehadadeep,certainvoice.“TohaveahighIQ,youtendtospecialize,thinkdeepthoughts.Youavoidtrivia.ButnowthatIseethesepeople”—heglancedatthemob,theamusementinhiseyes
betrayingjusthowridiculoushefoundtheproceedings—“IthinkI’lldookay.”
Overthepastdecade,ChrisLanganhasachievedastrangekindoffame.HehasbecomethepublicfaceofgeniusinAmericanlife,acelebrityoutlier.Hegetsinvitedonnewsshowsandprofiledinmagazines,andhehasbeenthesubjectofadocumentarybythe
filmmakerErrolMorris,allbecauseofabrainthatappearstodefydescription.
Thetelevisionnewsshow20/20oncehiredaneuropsychologisttogiveLangananIQtest,andLangan’sscorewasliterallyoffthecharts—toohightobeaccuratelymeasured.Anothertime,LangantookanIQtestspeciallydesignedforpeopletoosmartforordinaryIQ
tests.Hegotallthequestionsrightexceptone.*Hewasspeakingatsixmonthsofage.Whenhewasthree,hewouldlistentotheradioonSundaysastheannouncerreadthecomicsaloud,andhewouldfollowalongonhisownuntilhehadtaughthimselftoread.Atfive,hebeganquestioninghisgrandfatherabouttheexistenceofGod—and
remembersbeingdisappointedintheanswershegot.
Inschool,Langancouldwalkintoatestinaforeign-languageclass,nothavingstudiedatall,andifthereweretwoorthreeminutesbeforetheinstructorarrived,hecouldskimthroughthetextbookandacethetest.Inhisearlyteenageyears,whileworkingasafarmhand,he
startedtoreadwidelyintheareaoftheoreticalphysics.Atsixteen,hemadehiswaythroughBertrandRussellandAlfredNorthWhitehead’sfamouslyabstrusemasterpiecePrincipiaMathematica.HegotaperfectscoreonhisSAT,eventhoughhefellasleepatonepointduringthetest.
“Hedidmathforanhour,”hisbrotherMarksays
ofLangan’ssummerroutineinhighschool.“ThenhedidFrenchforanhour.ThenhestudiedRussian.Thenhewouldreadphilosophy.Hedidthatreligiously,everyday.”
Anotherofhisbrothers,Jeff,says,“Youknow,whenChristopherwasfourteenorfifteen,hewoulddrawthingsjustasajoke,anditwouldbelikeaphotograph.Whenhe
wasfifteen,hecouldmatchJimiHendrixlickforlickonaguitar.Boom.Boom.Boom.Halfthetime,Christopherdidn’tattendschoolatall.Hewouldjustshowupfortestsandtherewasnothingtheycoulddoaboutit.Tous,itwashilarious.Hecouldbriefasemester’sworthoftextbooksintwodays,andtakecareofwhateverhehadtotakecare
of,andthengetbacktowhateverhewasdoinginthefirstplace.”*
Onthesetof1vs.100,Langanwaspoisedandconfident.Hisvoicewasdeep.Hiseyesweresmallandfiercelybright.Hedidnotcircleabouttopics,searchingfortherightphrase,ordoublebacktorestateaprevioussentence.Forthatmatter,hedidnotsayum,or
ah,oruseanyformofconversationalmitigation:hissentencescamemarchingout,oneafteranother,polishedandcrisp,likesoldiersonaparadeground.EveryquestionSagetthrewathim,hetossedaside,asifitwereatriviality.Whenhiswinningsreached$250,000,heappearedtomakeamentalcalculationthattherisksoflosingeverythingwereatthat
pointgreaterthanthepotentialbenefitsofstayingin.Abruptly,hestopped.“I’lltakethecash,”hesaid.HeshookSaget’shandfirmlyandwasfinished—exitingontopas,weliketothink,geniusesinvariablydo.
2.JustaftertheFirstWorldWar,LewisTerman,ayoung
professorofpsychologyatStanfordUniversity,metaremarkableboynamedHenryCowell.Cowellhadbeenraisedinpovertyandchaos.Becausehedidnotgetalongwithotherchildren,hehadbeenunschooledsincetheageofseven.Heworkedasajanitorataone-roomschoolhousenotfarfromtheStanfordcampus,andthroughouttheday,Cowell
wouldsneakawayfromhisjobandplaytheschoolpiano.Andthemusichemadewasbeautiful.
Terman’sspecialtywasintelligencetesting;thestandardIQtestthatmillionsofpeoplearoundtheworldwouldtakeduringthefollowingfiftyyears,theStanford-Binet,washiscreation.SohedecidedtotestCowell’sIQ.Theboymustbe
intelligent,hereasoned,andsureenough,hewas.HehadanIQofabove140,whichisneargeniuslevel.Termanwasfascinated.Howmanyotherdiamondsintheroughwerethere?hewondered.
Hebegantolookforothers.Hefoundagirlwhoknewthealphabetatnineteenmonths,andanotherwhowasreadingDickensandShakespearebythetimeshe
wasfour.Hefoundayoungmanwhohadbeenkickedoutoflawschoolbecausehisprofessorsdidnotbelievethatitwaspossibleforahumanbeingtopreciselyreproducelongpassagesoflegalopinionsfrommemory.
In1921,Termandecidedtomakethestudyofthegiftedhislifework.ArmedwithalargegrantfromtheCommonwealthFoundation,
heputtogetherateamoffieldworkersandsentthemoutintoCalifornia’selementaryschools.Teacherswereaskedtonominatethebrighteststudentsintheirclasses.Thosechildrenweregivenanintelligencetest.Thestudentswhoscoredinthetop10percentwerethengivenasecondIQtest,andthosewhoscoredabove130onthattestweregivenathird
IQtest,andfromthatsetofresultsTermanselectedthebestandthebrightest.BythetimeTermanwasfinished,hehadsortedthroughtherecordsofsome250,000elementaryandhighschoolstudents,andidentified1,470childrenwhoseIQsaveragedover140andrangedashighas200.Thatgroupofyounggeniusescametobeknownasthe“Termites,”andtheywere
thesubjectsofwhatwouldbecomeoneofthemostfamouspsychologicalstudiesinhistory.
Fortherestofhislife,Termanwatchedoverhischargeslikeamotherhen.Theyweretrackedandtested,measuredandanalyzed.Theireducationalattainmentswerenoted,marriagesfollowed,illnessestabulated,psychologicalhealthcharted,
andeverypromotionandjobchangedutifullyrecorded.Termanwrotehisrecruitslettersofrecommen-dationforjobsandgraduateschoolapplications.Hedoledoutaconstantstreamofadviceandcounsel,allthetimerecordinghisfindingsinthickredvolumesentitledGeneticStudiesofGenius.
“Thereisnothingaboutanindividualasimportantashis
IQ,exceptpossiblyhismorals,”Termanoncesaid.AnditwastothosewithaveryhighIQ,hebelieved,that“wemustlookforproductionofleaderswhoadvancescience,art,government,educationandsocialwelfaregenerally.”Ashissubjectsgrewolder,Termanissuedupdatesontheirprogress,chroniclingtheirextraordinary
achievements.“Itisalmostimpossible,”Termanwrotegiddily,whenhischargeswereinhighschool,“toreadanewspaperaccountofanysortofcompetitionoractivityinwhichCaliforniaboysandgirlsparticipatewithoutfindingamongthewinnersthenamesofoneormore…membersofourgiftedgroup.”Hetookwritingsamplesfromsomeofhis
mostartisticallymindedsubjectsandhadliterarycriticscomparethemtotheearlywritingsoffamousauthors.Theycouldfindnodifference.Allthesignspointed,hesaid,toagroupwiththepotentialfor“heroicstature.”TermanbelievedthathisTermitesweredestinedtobethefutureeliteoftheUnitedStates.
Today,manyofTerman’s
ideasremaincentraltothewaywethinkaboutsuccess.Schoolshaveprogramsforthe“gifted.”Eliteuniversitiesoftenrequirethatstudentstakeanintelligencetest(suchastheAmericanScholasticAptitudeTest)foradmission.High-techcompanieslikeGoogleorMicrosoftcarefullymeasurethecognitiveabilitiesofprospectiveemployeesoutofthesame
belief:theyareconvincedthatthoseattheverytopoftheIQscalehavethegreatestpotential.(AtMicrosoft,famously,jobapplicantsareaskedabatteryofquestionsdesignedtotesttheirsmarts,includingtheclassic“Whyaremanholecoversround?”Ifyoudon’tknowtheanswertothatquestion,you’renotsmartenoughtoworkatMicrosoft.*)
IfIhadmagicalpowersandofferedtoraiseyourIQby30points,you’dsayyes—right?You’dassumethatwouldhelpyougetfurtheraheadintheworld.AndwhenwehearaboutsomeonelikeChrisLangan,ourinstinctiveresponseisthesameasTerman’sinstinctiveresponsewhenhemetHenryCowellalmostacenturyago.Wefeelawe.Geniusesarethe
ultimateoutliers.Surelythereisnothingthatcanholdsomeonelikethatback.
Butisthattrue?SofarinOutliers,we’ve
seenthatextraordinaryachievementislessabouttalentthanitisaboutopportunity.Inthischapter,Iwanttotrytodigdeeperintowhythat’sthecasebylookingattheoutlierinitspurestandmostdistilledform
—thegenius.Foryears,we’vetakenourcuesfrompeoplelikeTermanwhenitcomestounderstandingthesignificanceofhighintelligence.But,asweshallsee,Termanmadeanerror.HewaswrongabouthisTermites,andhadhehappenedontheyoungChrisLanganworkinghiswaythroughPrincipiaMathematicaattheageof
sixteen,hewouldhavebeenwrongabouthimforthesamereason.Termandidn’tunderstandwhatarealoutlierwas,andthat’samistakewecontinuetomaketothisday.
3.OneofthemostwidelyusedintelligencetestsissomethingcalledRaven’sProgressiveMatrices.Itrequiresno
languageskillsorspecificbodyofacquiredknowledge.It’sameasureofabstractreasoningskills.AtypicalRaven’stestconsistsofforty-eightitems,eachoneharderthantheonebeforeit,andIQiscalculatedbasedonhowmanyitemsareansweredcorrectly.
Here’saquestion,typicalofthesortthatisaskedontheRaven’s.
Didyougetthat?I’m
guessingmostofyoudid.ThecorrectanswerisC.Butnowtrythisone.It’sthekindofreallyhardquestionthatcomesattheendoftheRaven’s.
ThecorrectanswerisA.I
havetoconfessIcouldn’tfigurethisoneout,andI’mguessingmostofyoucouldn’teither.ChrisLanganalmostcertainlycould,however.WhenwesaythatpeoplelikeLanganarereallybrilliant,whatwemeanisthattheyhavethekindofmindthatcanfigureoutpuzzleslikethatlastquestion.
Overtheyears,anenormousamountofresearch
hasbeendoneinanattempttodeterminehowaperson’sperformanceonanIQtestliketheRaven’stranslatestoreal-lifesuccess.Peopleatthebottomofthescale—withanIQbelow70—areconsideredmentallydisabled.Ascoreof100isaverage;youprobablyneedtobejustabovethatmarktobeabletohandlecollege.Togetintoandsucceedinareasonably
competitivegraduateprogram,meanwhile,youprobablyneedanIQofatleast115.Ingeneral,thehigheryourscore,themoreeducationyou’llget,themoremoneyyou’relikelytomake,and—believeitornot—thelongeryou’lllive.
Butthere’sacatch.TherelationshipbetweensuccessandIQworksonlyuptoapoint.Oncesomeonehas
reachedanIQofsomewherearound120,havingadditionalIQpointsdoesn’tseemtotranslateintoanymeasurablereal-worldadvantage.*
“ItisamplyprovedthatsomeonewithanIQof170ismorelikelytothinkwellthansomeonewhoseIQis70,”theBritishpsychologistLiamHudsonhaswritten,“andthisholdstruewherethecomparisonismuchcloser—
betweenIQsof,say,100and130.ButtherelationseemstobreakdownwhenoneismakingcomparisonsbetweentwopeoplebothofwhomhaveIQswhicharerelativelyhigh….AmaturescientistwithanadultIQof130isaslikelytowinaNobelPrizeasisonewhoseIQis180.”
WhatHudsonissayingisthatIQisalotlikeheightinbasketball.Doessomeone
whoisfivefootsixhavearealisticchanceofplayingprofessionalbasketball?Notreally.Youneedtobeatleastsixfootorsixonetoplayatthatlevel,and,allthingsbeingequal,it’sprobablybettertobesixtwothansixone,andbettertobesixthreethansixtwo.Butpastacertainpoint,heightstopsmatteringsomuch.Aplayerwhoissixfooteightisnot
automaticallybetterthansomeonetwoinchesshorter.(MichaelJordan,thegreatestplayerever,wassixsixafterall.)Abasketballplayeronlyhastobetallenough—andthesameistrueofintelligence.Intelligencehasathreshold.
Theintroductiontothe1vs.100episodepointedoutthatEinsteinhadanIQof150andLanganhasanIQof195.
Langan’sIQis30percenthigherthanEinstein’s.Butthatdoesn’tmeanLanganis30percentsmarterthanEinstein.That’sridiculous.Allwecansayisthatwhenitcomestothinkingaboutreallyhardthingslikephysics,theyarebothclearlysmartenough.
TheideathatIQhasathreshold,Irealize,goesagainstourintuition.We
thinkthat,say,NobelPrizewinnersinsciencemusthavethehighestIQscoresimaginable;thattheymustbethekindsofpeoplewhogotperfectscoresontheirentranceexaminationstocollege,woneveryscholarshipavailable,andhadsuchstellaracademicrecordsinhighschoolthattheywerescoopedupbythetopuniversitiesinthecountry.
Buttakealookatthefollowinglistofwherethelasttwenty-fiveAmericanstowintheNobelPrizeinMedicinegottheirundergraduatedegrees,startingin2007.
AntiochCollegeBrownUniversityUCBerkeleyUniversityof
WashingtonColumbiaUniversityCaseInstituteofTechnologyMITCaltechHarvardUniversityHamiltonCollegeColumbiaUniversityUniversityofNorthCarolinaDePauwUniversityUniversityof
PennsylvaniaUniversityofMinnesotaUniversityofNotreDameJohnsHopkinsUniversityYaleUniversityUnionCollege,KentuckyUniversityofIllinoisUniversityofTexasHolyCrossAmherstCollege
GettysburgCollegeHunterCollege
NoonewouldsaythatthislistrepresentsthecollegechoicesoftheabsolutebesthighschoolstudentsinAmerica.YaleandColumbiaandMITareonthelist,butsoareDePauw,HolyCross,andGettysburgCollege.It’salistofgoodschools.
Alongthesamelines,herearethecollegesofthelasttwenty-fiveAmericanNobellaureatesinChemistry:
CityCollegeofNewYorkCityCollegeofNewYorkStanfordUniversityUniversityofDayton,Ohio
RollinsCollege,FloridaMITGrinnellCollegeMITMcGillUniversityGeorgiaInstituteofTechnologyOhioWesleyanUniversityRiceUniversityHopeCollegeBrighamYoungUniversity
UniversityofTorontoUniversityofNebraskaDartmouthCollegeHarvardUniversityBereaCollegeAugsburgCollegeUniversityofMassachusettsWashingtonStateUniversityUniversityofFloridaUniversityofCalifornia,Riverside
HarvardUniversity
TobeaNobelPrizewinner,apparently,youhavetobesmartenoughtogetintoacollegeatleastasgoodasNotreDameortheUniversityofIllinois.That’sall.*
Thisisaradicalidea,isn’tit?Supposethatyourteenagedaughterfoundoutthatshehadbeenacceptedattwo
universities—HarvardUniversityandGeorgetownUniversity,inWashington,DC.Wherewouldyouwanthertogo?I’mguessingHarvard,becauseHarvardisa“better”school.Itsstudentsscoreagood10to15percenthigherontheirentranceexams.
Butgivenwhatwearelearningaboutintelligence,theideathatschoolscanbe
ranked,likerunnersinarace,makesnosense.Georgetown’sstudentsmaynotbeassmartonanabsolutescaleasthestudentsofHarvard.Buttheyareall,clearly,smartenough,andfutureNobelPrizewinnerscomefromschoolslikeGeorgetownaswellasfromschoolslikeHarvard.
ThepsychologistBarrySchwartzrecentlyproposed
thateliteschoolsgiveuptheircomplexadmissionsprocessandsimplyholdalotteryforeveryoneabovethethreshold.“Putpeopleintotwocategories,”Schwartzsays.“Goodenoughandnotgoodenough.Theoneswhoaregoodenoughgetputintoahat.Andthosewhoarenotgoodenoughgetrejected.”Schwartzconcedesthathisideahasvirtuallynochance
ofbeingaccepted.Buthe’sabsolutelyright.AsHudsonwrites(andkeepinmindthathedidhisresearchateliteall-maleEnglishboardingschoolsinthe1950sand1960s),“Knowledgeofaboy’sIQisoflittlehelpifyouarefacedwithaformfulofcleverboys.”*
Letmegiveyouanexampleofthethresholdeffectinaction.The
UniversityofMichiganlawschool,likemanyeliteUSeducationalinstitutions,usesapolicyofaffirmativeactionwhenitcomestoapplicantsfromdisadvantagedbackgrounds.Around10percentofthestudentsMichiganenrollseachfallaremembersofracialminorities,andifthelawschooldidnotsignificantlyrelaxitsentryrequirementsforthose
students—admittingthemwithlowerundergraduategradesandlowerstandardized-testscoresthaneveryoneelse—itestimatesthatpercentagewouldbelessthan3percent.Furthermore,ifwecomparethegradesthattheminorityandnonminoritystudentsgetinlawschool,weseethatthewhitestudentsdobetter.That’snotsurprising:ifonegrouphashigher
undergraduategradesandtestscoresthantheother,it’salmostcertainlygoingtohavehighergradesinlawschoolaswell.Thisisonereasonthataffirmativeactionprogramsaresocontroversial.Infact,anattackontheUniversityofMichigan’saffirmativeactionprogramrecentlywentallthewaytotheUSSupremeCourt.Formanypeopleitis
troublingthataneliteeducationalinstitutionletsinstudentswhoarelessqualifiedthantheirpeers.
Afewyearsago,however,theUniversityofMichigandecidedtolookcloselyathowthelawschool’sminoritystudentshadfaredaftertheygraduated.Howmuchmoneydidtheymake?Howfarupintheprofessiondidtheygo?Howsatisfied
weretheywiththeircareers?Whatkindofsocialandcommunitycontributionsdidtheymake?Whatkindofhonorshadtheywon?Theylookedateverythingthatcouldconceivablybeanindicationofreal-worldsuccess.Andwhattheyfoundsurprisedthem.
“Weknewthatourminoritystudents,alotofthem,weredoingwell,”says
RichardLempert,oneoftheauthorsoftheMichiganstudy.“Ithinkourexpectationwasthatwewouldfindahalf-ortwo-thirds-fullglass,thattheyhadnotdoneaswellasthewhitestudentsbutnonethelessalotwerequitesuccessful.Butwewerecompletelysurprised.Wefoundthattheyweredoingeverybitaswell.Therewasnoplacewesawany
seriousdiscrepancy.”WhatLempertissayingis
thatbytheonlymeasurethatalawschoolreallyoughttocareabout—howwellitsgraduatesdointherealworld—minoritystudentsaren’tlessqualified.They’rejustassuccessfulaswhitestudents.Andwhy?BecauseeventhoughtheacademiccredentialsofminoritystudentsatMichiganaren’tas
goodasthoseofwhitestudents,thequalityofstudentsatthelawschoolishighenoughthatthey’restillabovethethreshold.Theyaresmartenough.Knowledgeofalawstudent’stestscoresisoflittlehelpifyouarefacedwithaclassroomofcleverlawstudents.
4.
Let’stakethethresholdideaonestepfurther.Ifintelligencemattersonlyuptoapoint,thenpastthatpoint,otherthings—thingsthathavenothingtodowithintelligence—muststarttomattermore.It’slikebasketballagain:oncesomeoneistallenough,thenwestarttocareaboutspeedandcourtsenseandagilityandball-handlingskillsand
shootingtouch.So,whatmightsomeof
thoseotherthingsbe?Well,supposethatinsteadofmeasuringyourIQ,Igaveyouatotallydifferentkindoftest.
Writedownasmanydifferentusesthatyoucanthinkofforthefollowingobjects:
1. abrick2. ablanket
Thisisanexampleofwhat’scalleda“divergencetest”(asopposedtoatestliketheRaven’s,whichasksyoutosortthroughalistofpossibilitiesandconvergeontherightanswer).Itrequiresyoutouseyourimaginationandtakeyourmindinas
manydifferentdirectionsaspossible.Withadivergencetest,obviouslythereisn’tasinglerightanswer.Whatthetestgiverislookingforarethenumberandtheuniquenessofyourresponses.Andwhatthetestismeasuringisn’tanalyticalintelligencebutsomethingprofoundlydifferent—somethingmuchclosertocreativity.Divergencetests
areeverybitaschallengingasconvergencetests,andifyoudon’tbelievethat,Iencourageyoutopauseandtrythebrick-and-blankettestrightnow.
Here,forexample,areanswerstothe“usesofobjects”testcollectedbyLiamHudsonfromastudentnamedPooleatatopBritishhighschool:
(Brick).Touseinsmash-and-grabraids.Tohelpholdahousetogether.TouseinagameofRussianrouletteifyouwanttokeepfitatthesametime(bricksattenpaces,turnandthrow—noevasiveactionallowed).Toholdtheeiderdownonabedtieabrickateachcorner.
AsabreakerofemptyCoca-Colabottles.
(Blanket).Touseonabed.Asacoverforillicitsexinthewoods.Asatent.Tomakesmokesignalswith.Asasailforaboat,cartorsled.Asasubstituteforatowel.Asatargetforshootingpracticeforshort-sightedpeople.
Asathingtocatchpeoplejumpingoutofburningskyscrapers.
It’snothardtoreadPoole’sanswersandgetsomesenseofhowhismindworks.He’sfunny.He’salittlesubversiveandlibidinous.Hehastheflairforthedramatic.Hismindleapsfromviolentimagerytosextopeople
jumpingoutofburningskyscraperstoverypracticalissues,suchashowtogetaduvettostayonabed.Hegivesustheimpressionthatifwegavehimanothertenminutes,he’dcomeupwithanothertwentyuses.*
Now,forthesakeofcomparison,considertheanswersofanotherstudentfromHudson’ssample.HisnameisFlorence.Hudson
tellsusthatFlorenceisaprodigy,withoneofthehighestIQsinhisschool.
(Brick).Buildingthings,throwing.
(Blanket).Keepingwarm,smotheringfire,tyingtotreesandsleepingin(asahammock),improvised
stretcher.
WhereisFlorence’simagination?Heidentifiedthemostcommonandmostfunctionalusesforbricksandblanketsandsimplystopped.Florence’sIQishigherthanPoole’s.Butthatmeanslittle,sincebothstudentsareabovethethreshold.WhatismoreinterestingisthatPoole’s
mindcanleapfromviolentimagerytosextopeoplejumpingoutofbuildingswithoutmissingabeat,andFlorence’smindcan’t.Nowwhichofthesetwostudentsdoyouthinkisbettersuitedtodothekindofbrilliant,imaginativeworkthatwinsNobelPrizes?
That’sthesecondreasonNobelPrizewinnerscomefromHolyCrossaswellas
Harvard,becauseHarvardisn’tselectingitsstudentsonthebasisofhowwelltheydoonthe“usesofabrick”test—andmaybe“usesofabrick”isabetterpredictorofNobelPrizeability.It’salsothesecondreasonMichiganLawSchoolcouldn’tfindadifferencebetweenitsaffirmativeactiongraduatesandtherestofitsalumni.Beingasuccessfullawyeris
aboutalotmorethanIQ.ItinvolveshavingthekindoffertilemindthatPoolehad.AndjustbecauseMichigan’sminoritystudentshavelowerscoresonconvergencetestsdoesn’tmeantheydon’thavethatothercriticaltraitinabundance.
5.ThiswasTerman’serror.He
fellinlovewiththefactthathisTermiteswereattheabsolutepinnacleoftheintellectualscale—attheninety-ninthpercentileoftheninety-ninthpercentile—withoutrealizinghowlittlethatseeminglyextraordinaryfactmeant.
BythetimetheTermitesreachedadulthood,Terman’serrorwasplaintosee.Someofhischildgeniuseshad
grownuptopublishbooksandscholarlyarticlesandthriveinbusiness.Severalranforpublicoffice,andthereweretwosuperiorcourtjustices,onemunicipalcourtjudge,twomembersoftheCaliforniastatelegislature,andoneprominentstateofficial.Butfewofhisgeniuseswerenationallyknownfigures.Theytendedtoearngoodincomes—but
notthatgood.Themajorityhadcareersthatcouldonlybeconsideredordinary,andasurprisingnumberendedupwithcareersthatevenTermanconsideredfailures.NorwerethereanyNobelPrizewinnersinhisexhaustivelyselectedgroupofgeniuses.HisfieldworkersactuallytestedtwoelementarystudentswhowentontobeNobellaureates—William
ShockleyandLuisAlvarez—andrejectedthemboth.TheirIQsweren’thighenough.
Inadevastatingcritique,thesociologistPitirimSorokinonceshowedthatifTermanhadsimplyputtogetherarandomlyselectedgroupofchildrenfromthesamekindsoffamilybackgroundsastheTermites—anddispensedwithIQsaltogether—hewouldhave
endedupwithagroupdoingalmostasmanyimpressivethingsashispainstakinglyselectedgroupofgeniuses.“Bynostretchoftheimaginationorofstandardsofgenius,”Sorokinconcluded,“isthe‘giftedgroup’asawhole‘gifted.’”BythetimeTermancameoutwithhisfourthvolumeofGeneticStudiesofGenius,theword“genius”hadallbutvanished.
“Wehaveseen,”Termanconcluded,withmorethanatouchofdisappointment,“thatintellectandachievementarefarfromperfectlycorrelated.”
WhatItoldyouatthebeginningofthischapterabouttheextraordinaryintelligenceofChrisLangan,inotherwords,isoflittleuseifwewanttounderstandhischancesofbeingasuccessin
theworld.Yes,heisamanwithaone-in-a-millionmindandtheabilitytogetthroughPrincipiaMathematicaatsixteen.Andyes,hissentencescomemarchingoutoneafteranother,polishedandcrisplikesoldiersonaparadeground.Butsowhat?Ifwewanttounderstandthelikelihoodofhisbecomingatrueoutlier,wehavetoknowalotmoreabouthimthan
that.
CHAPTERFOUR
TheTroublewithGeniuses,Part2
“AFTERPROTRACTEDNEGOTIATIONS,ITWASAGREEDTHATROBERTWOULDBEPUTON
PROBATION.”
1.ChrisLangan’smotherwas
fromSanFranciscoandwasestrangedfromherfamily.Shehadfoursons,eachwithadifferentfather.Chriswastheeldest.HisfatherdisappearedbeforeChriswasborn;hewassaidtohavediedinMexico.Hismother’ssecondhusbandwasmurdered.Herthirdcommittedsuicide.HerfourthwasafailedjournalistnamedJackLangan.
“TothisdayIhaven’tmetanybodywhowasaspoorwhentheywerekidsasourfamilywas,”ChrisLangansays.“Wedidn’thaveapairofmatchedsocks.Ourshoeshadholesinthem.Ourpantshadholesinthem.Weonlyhadonesetofclothes.IremembermybrothersandIgoingintothebathroomandusingthebathtubtowashouronlysetofclothesandwe
werebare-assednakedwhenweweredoingthatbecausewedidn’thaveanythingtowear.”
JackLanganwouldgoondrinkingspreesanddisappear.Hewouldlockthekitchencabinetssotheboyscouldn’tgettothefood.Heusedabullwhiptokeeptheboysinline.Hewouldgetjobsandthenlosethem,movingthefamilyontothe
nexttown.OnesummerthefamilylivedonanIndianreservationinateepee,subsistingongovernment-surpluspeanutbutterandcornmeal.Foratime,theylivedinVirginiaCity,Nevada.“Therewasonlyonelawofficerintown,andwhentheHell’sAngelscametotown,hewouldcrouchdowninthebackofhisoffice,”MarkLanganremembers.
“Therewasabarthere,I’llalwaysremember.ItwascalledtheBucketofBloodSaloon.”
Whentheboyswereingradeschool,thefamilymovedtoBozeman,Montana.OneofChris’sbrothersspenttimeinafosterhome.Anotherwassenttoreformschool.
“Idon’tthinktheschooleverunderstoodjusthow
giftedChristopherwas,”hisbrotherJeffsays.“Hesureashelldidn’tplayitup.ThiswasBozeman.Itwasn’tlikeitistoday.Itwasasmallhicktownwhenweweregrowingup.Weweren’ttreatedwellthere.They’djustdecidedthatmyfamilywasabunchofdeadbeats.”Tostickupforhimselfandhisbrothers,Chrisstartedtoliftweights.Oneday,whenChriswas
fourteen,JackLangangotroughwiththeboys,ashesometimesdid,andChrisknockedhimoutcold.Jackleft,nevertoreturn.Upongraduationfromhighschool,Chriswasofferedtwofullscholarships,onetoReedCollegeinOregonandtheothertotheUniversityofChicago.HechoseReed.
“Itwasahugemistake,”Chrisrecalls.“Ihadareal
caseofcultureshock.Iwasacrew-cutkidwhohadbeenworkingasaranchhandinthesummersinMontana,andthereIwas,withawholebunchoflong-hairedcitykids,mostofthemfromNewYork.AndthesekidshadawholedifferentstylethanIwasusedto.Icouldn’tgetawordinedgewiseatclass.Theywereveryinquisitive.Askingquestionsallthetime.
Iwascrammedintoadormroom.Therewerefourofus,andtheotherthreeguyshadawholedifferentotherlifestyle.Theyweresmokingpot.Theywouldbringtheirgirlfriendsintotheroom.Ihadneversmokedpotbefore.SobasicallyItooktohidinginthelibrary.”
Hecontinued:“ThenIlostthatscholarship….Mymotherwassupposedtofill
outaparents’financialstatementfortherenewalofthatscholarship.Sheneglectedtodoso.Shewasconfusedbytherequirementsorwhatever.Atsomepoint,itcametomyattentionthatmyscholarshiphadnotbeenrenewed.SoIwenttotheofficetoaskwhy,andtheytoldme,Well,noonesentusthefinancialstatement,andweallocatedallthe
scholarshipmoneyandit’sallgone,soI’mafraidthatyoudon’thaveascholarshiphereanymore.Thatwasthestyleoftheplace.Theysimplydidn’tcare.Theydidn’tgiveashitabouttheirstudents.Therewasnocounseling,nomentoring,nothing.”
ChrisleftReedbeforethefinalsetofexams,leavinghimwitharowofFsonhistranscript.Inthefirst
semester,hehadearnedAs.HewentbacktoBozemanandworkedinconstructionandasaforestservicesfirefighterforayearandahalf.ThenheenrolledatMontanaStateUniversity.
“Iwastakingmathandphilosophyclasses,”herecalled.“Andtheninthewinterquarter,Iwaslivingthirteenmilesoutoftown,outonBeachHillRoad,and
thetransmissionfelloutofmycar.MybrothershaduseditwhenIwasgonethatsummer.Theywereworkingfortherailroadandhaddrivenitontherailroadtracks.Ididn’thavethemoneytorepairit.SoIwenttomyadviserandthedeaninsequenceandsaid,Ihaveaproblem.Thetransmissionfelloutofmycar,andyouhavemeinaseven-thirtya.m.
andeight-thirtya.m.class.Ifyoucouldpleasejusttransfermetotheafternoonsectionsoftheseclasses,Iwouldappreciateitbecauseofthiscarproblem.Therewasaneighborwhowasarancherwhowasgoingtotakemeinateleveno’clock.Myadviserwasthiscowboy-lookingguywithahandlebarmustache,dressedinatweedjacket.Hesaid,‘Well,son,afterlooking
atyourtranscriptatReedCollege,Iseethatyouhaveyettolearnthateveryonehastomakesacrificestogetaneducation.Requestdenied.’SothenIwenttothedean.Sametreatment.”
Hisvoicegrewtight.Hewasdescribingthingsthathadhappenedmorethanthirtyyearsago,butthememorystillmadehimangry.“AtthatpointIrealized,here
Iwas,knockingmyselfouttomakethemoneytomakemywaybacktoschool,andit’sthemiddleoftheMontanawinter.Iamwillingtohitchhikeintotowneveryday,dowhateverIhadtodo,justtogetintoschoolandback,andtheyareunwillingtodoanythingforme.Sobananas.AndthatwasthepointIdecidedIcoulddowithoutthehigher-education
system.EvenifIcouldn’tdowithoutit,itwassufficientlyrepugnanttomethatIwouldn’tdoitanymore.SoIdroppedoutofcollege,simpleasthat.”
ChrisLangan’sexperiencesatReedandMontanaStaterepresentedaturningpointinhislife.Asachild,hehaddreamtofbecominganacademic.HeshouldhavegottenaPhD;
universitiesareinstitutionsstructured,inlargepart,forpeoplewithhiskindofdeepintellectualinterestsandcuriosity.“Oncehegotintotheuniversityenvironment,Ithoughthewouldprosper,Ireallydid,”hisbrotherMarksays.“Ithoughthewouldsomehowfindaniche.Itmadeabsolutelynosensetomewhenheleftthat.”
Withoutadegree,Langan
floundered.Heworkedinconstruction.OnefrigidwinterheworkedonaclamboatonLongIsland.HetookfactoryjobsandminorcivilservicepositionsandeventuallybecameabouncerinabaronLongIsland,whichwashisprincipaloccupationformuchofhisadultyears.Throughitall,hecontinuedtoreaddeeplyinphilosophy,mathematics,and
physicsasheworkedonasprawlingtreatisehecallsthe“CTMU”—the“CognitiveTheoreticModeloftheUniverse.”Butwithoutacademiccredentials,hedespairsofevergettingpublishedinascholarlyjournal.
“Iamaguywhohasayearandahalfofcollege,”hesays,withashrug.“Andatsomepointthiswillcometo
theattentionoftheeditor,asheisgoingtotakethepaperandsenditofftothereferees,andtheserefereesaregoingtotryandlookmeup,andtheyarenotgoingtofindme.Andtheyaregoingtosay,Thisguyhasayearandahalfofcollege.Howcanheknowwhathe’stalkingabout?”
Itisaheartbreakingstory.AtonepointIaskedLangan—hypothetically—whether
hewouldtakeajobatHarvardUniversitywereitofferedtohim.“Well,that’sadifficultquestion,”hereplied.“Obviously,asafullprofessoratHarvardIwouldcount.MyideaswouldhaveweightandIcouldusemyposition,myaffiliationatHarvard,topromotemyideas.Aninstitutionlikethatisagreatsourceofintellectualenergy,andifI
wereataplacelikethat,Icouldabsorbthevibrationintheair.”Itwassuddenlyclearhowlonelyhislifehasbeen.Herehewas,amanwithaninsatiableappetiteforlearning,forcedformostofhisadultlifetoliveinintellectualisolation.“IevennoticedthatkindofintellectualenergyintheyearandahalfIwasincollege,”hesaid,almostwistfully.
“Ideasareintheairconstantly.It’ssuchastimulatingplacetobe.
“Ontheotherhand,”hewenton,“Harvardisbasicallyaglorifiedcorporation,operatingwithaprofitincentive.That’swhatmakesittick.Ithasanendowmentinthebillionsofdollars.Thepeoplerunningitarenotnecessarilysearchingfortruthandknowledge.
Theywanttobebigshots,andwhenyouacceptapaycheckfromthesepeople,itisgoingtocomedowntowhatyouwanttodoandwhatyoufeelisrightversuswhatthemansaysyoucandotoreceiveanotherpaycheck.Whenyou’rethere,theygotathumbrightonyou.Theyareouttomakesureyoudon’tstepoutofline.”
2.WhatdoesthestoryofChrisLangantellus?Hisexplanations,asheartbreakingastheyare,arealsoalittlestrange.Hismotherforgetstosignhisfinancialaidformand—justlikethat—noscholarship.Hetriestomovefromamorningtoanafternoonclass,somethingstudentsdoevery
day,andgetsstoppedcold.AndwhywereLangan’steachersatReedandMontanaStatesoindifferenttohisplight?Teacherstypicallydelightinmindsasbrilliantashis.LangantalksaboutdealingwithReedandMontanaStateasiftheyweresomekindofvastandunyieldinggovernmentbureaucracy.Butcolleges,particularlysmallliberalarts
collegeslikeReed,tendnottoberigidbureaucracies.Makingallowancesinthenameofhelpingsomeonestayinschooliswhatprofessorsdoallthetime.
EveninhisdiscussionofHarvard,it’sasifLanganhasnoconceptionofthecultureandparticularsoftheinstitutionhe’stalkingabout.Whenyouacceptapaycheckfromthesepeople,itisgoing
tocomedowntowhatyouwanttodoandwhatyoufeelisrightversuswhatthemansaysyoucandotoreceiveanotherpaycheck.What?Oneofthemainreasonscollegeprofessorsacceptalowerpaycheckthantheycouldgetinprivateindustryisthatuniversitylifegivesthemthefreedomtodowhattheywanttodoandwhattheyfeelisright.Langanhas
Harvardbackwards.WhenLangantoldmehis
lifestory,Icouldn’thelpthinkingofthelifeofRobertOppenheimer,thephysicistwhofamouslyheadedtheAmericanefforttodevelopthenuclearbombduringWorldWarII.Oppenheimer,byallaccounts,wasachildwithamindverymuchlikeChrisLangan’s.Hisparentsconsideredhimagenius.One
ofhisteachersrecalledthat“hereceivedeverynewideaasperfectlybeautiful.”Hewasdoinglabexperimentsbythethirdgradeandstudyingphysicsandchemistrybythefifthgrade.Whenhewasnine,heoncetoldoneofhiscousins,“AskmeaquestioninLatinandIwillansweryouinGreek.”
OppenheimerwenttoHarvardandthenonto
CambridgeUniversitytopursueadoctorateinphysics.There,Oppenheimer,whostruggledwithdepressionhisentirelife,grewdespondent.Hisgiftwasfortheoreticalphysics,andhistutor,amannamedPatrickBlackett(whowouldwinaNobelPrizein1948),wasforcinghimtoattendtotheminutiaeofexperimentalphysics,whichhehated.Hegrewmoreand
moreemotionallyunstable,andthen,inanactsostrangethattothisdaynoonehasproperlymadesenseofit,Oppenheimertooksomechemicalsfromthelaboratoryandtriedtopoisonhistutor.
Blackett,luckily,foundoutthatsomethingwasamiss.Theuniversitywasinformed.Oppenheimerwascalledonthecarpet.Andwhathappenednextiseverybitas
unbelievableasthecrimeitself.HereishowtheincidentisdescribedinAmericanPrometheus,KaiBirdandMartinSherwin’sbiographyofOppenheimer:“Afterprotractednegotiations,itwasagreedthatRobertwouldbeputonprobationandhaveregularsessionswithaprominentHarleyStreetpsychiatristinLondon.”
Onprobation?Herewehavetwovery
brilliantyoungstudents,eachofwhomrunsintoaproblemthatimperilshiscollegecareer.Langan’smotherhasmissedadeadlineforhisfinancialaid.Oppenheimerhastriedtopoisonhistutor.Tocontinueon,theyarerequiredtopleadtheircasestoauthority.Andwhathappens?Langangetshis
scholarshiptakenaway,andOppenheimergetssenttoapsychiatrist.OppenheimerandLanganmightbothbegeniuses,butinotherways,theycouldnotbemoredifferent.
ThestoryofOppenheimer’sappointmenttobescientificdirectoroftheManhattanProjecttwentyyearslaterisperhapsanevenbetterexampleofthis
difference.ThegeneralinchargeoftheManhattanProjectwasLeslieGroves,andhescouredthecountry,tryingtofindtherightpersontoleadtheatomic-bombeffort.Oppenheimer,byrights,wasalongshot.Hewasjustthirty-eight,andjuniortomanyofthepeoplewhomhewouldhavetomanage.Hewasatheorist,andthiswasajobthatcalled
forexperimentersandengineers.Hispoliticalaffiliationsweredodgy:hehadallkindsoffriendswhowereCommunists.Perhapsmorestriking,hehadneverhadanyadministrativeexperience.“Hewasaveryimpracticalfellow,”oneofOppenheimer’sfriendslatersaid.“Hewalkedaboutwithscuffedshoesandafunnyhat,and,moreimportant,he
didn’tknowanythingaboutequipment.”AsoneBerkeleyscientistputit,moresuccinctly:“Hecouldn’trunahamburgerstand.”
Oh,andbytheway,ingraduateschoolhetriedtokillhistutor.Thiswastherésuméofthemanwhowastryingoutforwhatmightbesaidtobe—withoutexaggeration—oneofthemostimportantjobsofthe
twentiethcentury.Andwhathappened?ThesamethingthathappenedtwentyyearsearlieratCambridge:hegottherestoftheworldtoseethingshisway.
HereareBirdandSherwinagain:“OppenheimerunderstoodthatGrovesguardedtheentrancetotheManhattanProject,andhethereforeturnedonallhischarmandbrilliance.Itwas
anirresistibleperformance.”Groveswassmitten.“‘He’sagenius,’Groveslatertoldareporter.‘Arealgenius.’”GroveswasanengineerbytrainingwithagraduatedegreefromMIT,andOppenheimer’sgreatinsightwastoappealtothatsideofGroves.BirdandSherwingoon:“OppenheimerwasthefirstscientistGroveshadmetonhistour[ofpotential
candidates]whograspedthatbuildinganatomicbombrequiredfindingpracticalsolutionstoavarietyofcross-disciplinaryproblems….[Groves]foundhimselfnoddinginagreementwhenOppenheimerpitchedthenotionofacentrallaboratorydevotedtothispurpose,where,ashelatertestified,‘wecouldbegintocometogripswithchemical,
metallurgical,engineeringandordnanceproblemsthathadsofarreceivednoconsideration.’”
WouldOppenheimerhavelosthisscholarshipatReed?Wouldhehavebeenunabletoconvincehisprofessorstomovehisclassestotheafternoon?Ofcoursenot.Andthat’snotbecausehewassmarterthanChrisLangan.It’sbecausehe
possessedthekindofsavvythatallowedhimtogetwhathewantedfromtheworld.
“Theyrequiredthateveryonetakeintroductorycalculus,”LangansaidofhisbriefstayatMontanaState.“AndIhappenedtogetaguywhotaughtitinaverydry,verytrivialway.Ididn’tunderstandwhyhewasteachingitthisway.SoIaskedhimquestions.I
actuallyhadtochasehimdowntohisoffice.Iaskedhim,‘Whyareyouteachingthisway?Whydoyouconsiderthispracticetoberelevanttocalculus?’Andthisguy,thistall,lankyguy,alwayshadsweatstainsunderhisarms,heturnedandlookedatmeandsaid,‘Youknow,thereissomethingyoushouldprobablygetstraight.Somepeoplejustdon’thave
theintellectualfirepowertobemathematicians.’”
Theretheyare,theprofessorandtheprodigy,andwhattheprodigyclearlywantsistobeengaged,atlonglast,withamindthatlovesmathematicsasmuchashedoes.Buthefails.Infact—andthisisthemostheartbreakingpartofall—hemanagestohaveanentireconversationwithhiscalculus
professorwithoutevercommunicatingtheonefactmostlikelytoappealtoacalculusprofessor.TheprofessorneverrealizesthatChrisLanganisgoodatcalculus.
3.Theparticularskillthatallowsyoutotalkyourwayoutofamurderrap,or
convinceyourprofessortomoveyoufromthemorningtotheafternoonsection,iswhatthepsychologistRobertSternbergcalls“practicalintelligence.”ToSternberg,practicalintelligenceincludesthingslike“knowingwhattosaytowhom,knowingwhentosayit,andknowinghowtosayitformaximumeffect.”Itisprocedural:itisaboutknowinghowtodo
somethingwithoutnecessarilyknowingwhyyouknowitorbeingabletoexplainit.It’spracticalinnature:thatis,it’snotknowledgeforitsownsake.It’sknowledgethathelpsyoureadsituationscorrectlyandgetwhatyouwant.And,critically,itisakindofintelligenceseparatefromthesortofanalyticalabilitymeasuredbyIQ.Tousethe
technicalterm,generalintelligenceandpracticalintelligenceare“orthogonal”:thepresenceofonedoesn’timplythepresenceoftheother.Youcanhavelotsofanalyticalintelligenceandverylittlepracticalintelligence,orlotsofpracticalintelligenceandnotmuchanalyticalintelligence,or—asintheluckycaseofsomeonelikeRobert
Oppenheimer—youcanhavelotsofboth.
Sowheredoessomethinglikepracticalintelligencecomefrom?Weknowwhereanalyticalintelligencecomesfrom.It’ssomething,atleastinpart,that’sinyourgenes.ChrisLanganstartedtalkingatsixmonths.Hetaughthimselftoreadatthreeyearsofage.Hewasbornsmart.IQisameasure,tosome
degree,ofinnateability.*Butsocialsavvyisknowledge.It’sasetofskillsthathavetobelearned.Ithastocomefromsomewhere,andtheplacewhereweseemtogetthesekindsofattitudesandskillsisfromourfamilies.
PerhapsthebestexplanationwehaveofthisprocesscomesfromthesociologistAnnetteLareau,whoafewyearsago
conductedafascinatingstudyofagroupofthirdgraders.Shepickedbothblacksandwhitesandchildrenfrombothwealthyhomesandpoorhomes,zeroingin,ultimately,ontwelvefamilies.Lareauandherteamvisitedeachfamilyatleasttwentytimes,forhoursatastretch.Sheandherassistantstoldtheirsubjectstotreatthemlike“thefamilydog,”andthey
followedthemtochurchandtosoccergamesandtodoctor’sappointments,withataperecorderinonehandandanotebookintheother.
Youmightexpectthatifyouspentsuchanextendedperiodintwelvedifferenthouseholds,whatyouwouldgatheristwelvedifferentideasabouthowtoraisechildren:therewouldbethestrictparentsandthelax
parentsandthehyperinvolvedparentsandthemellowparentsandonandon.WhatLareaufound,however,issomethingmuchdifferent.Therewereonlytwoparenting“philosophies,”andtheydividedalmostperfectlyalongclasslines.Thewealthierparentsraisedtheirkidsoneway,andthepoorerparentsraisedtheirkidsanotherway.
Thewealthierparentswereheavilyinvolvedintheirchildren’sfreetime,shuttlingthemfromoneactivitytothenext,quizzingthemabouttheirteachersandcoachesandteammates.Oneofthewell-offchildrenLareaufollowedplayedonabaseballteam,twosoccerteams,aswimteam,andabasketballteaminthesummer,aswellasplayinginanorchestraand
takingpianolessons.Thatkindofintensive
schedulingwasalmostentirelyabsentfromthelivesofthepoorchildren.Playforthemwasn’tsoccerpracticetwiceaweek.Itwasmakingupgamesoutsidewiththeirsiblingsandotherkidsintheneighborhood.Whatachilddidwasconsideredbyhisorherparentsassomethingseparatefromtheadultworld
andnotparticularlyconsequential.Onegirlfromaworking-classfamily—KatieBrindle—sanginachoirafterschool.Butshesignedupforitherselfandwalkedtochoirpracticeonherown.Lareauwrites:
WhatMrs.Brindledoesn’tdothatisroutineformiddle-
classmothersisviewherdaughter’sinterestinsingingasasignaltolookforotherwaystohelpherdevelopthatinterestintoaformaltalent.SimilarlyMrs.BrindledoesnotdiscussKatie’sinterestindramaorexpressregretthatshecannotaffordtocultivateherdaughter’stalent.
InsteadsheframesKatie’sskillsandinterestsascharactertraits—singingandactingarepartofwhatmakesKatie“Katie.”Sheseestheshowsherdaughterputsonas“cute”andasawayforKatieto“getattention.”
Themiddle-classparentstalkedthingsthroughwiththeirchildren,reasoningwiththem.Theydidn’tjustissuecommands.Theyexpectedtheirchildrentotalkbacktothem,tonegotiate,toquestionadultsinpositionsofauthority.Iftheirchildrenweredoingpoorlyatschool,thewealthierparentschallengedtheirteachers.Theyintervenedonbehalfof
theirkids.OnechildLareaufollowsjustmissesqualifyingforagiftedprogram.Hermotherarrangesforhertoberetestedprivately,petitionstheschool,andgetsherdaughteradmitted.Thepoorparents,bycontrast,areintimidatedbyauthority.Theyreactpassivelyandstayinthebackground.Lareauwritesofonelow-incomeparent:
Ataparent-teacherconference,forexample,Ms.McAllister(whoisahighschoolgraduate)seemssubdued.Thegregariousandoutgoingnatureshedisplaysathomeishiddeninthissetting.Shesitshunchedoverinthechairandshekeepsherjacketzipped
up.Sheisveryquiet.WhentheteacherreportsthatHaroldhasnotbeenturninginhishomework,Ms.McAllisterclearlyisflabbergasted,butallshesaysis,“Hediditathome.”ShedoesnotfollowupwiththeteacherorattempttointerveneonHarold’sbehalf.Inherview,it
isuptotheteacherstomanageherson’seducation.Thatistheirjob,nothers.
Lareaucallsthemiddle-classparentingstyle“concertedcultivation.”It’sanattempttoactively“fosterandassessachild’stalents,opinionsandskills.”Poorparentstendtofollow,by
contrast,astrategyof“accomplishmentofnaturalgrowth.”Theyseeastheirresponsibilitytocarefortheirchildrenbuttoletthemgrowanddevelopontheirown.
Lareaustressesthatonestyleisn’tmorallybetterthantheother.Thepoorerchildrenwere,tohermind,oftenbetterbehaved,lesswhiny,morecreativeinmakinguseoftheirowntime,andhada
well-developedsenseofindependence.Butinpracticalterms,concertedcultivationhasenormousadvantages.Theheavilyscheduledmiddle-classchildisexposedtoaconstantlyshiftingsetofexperiences.Shelearnsteamworkandhowtocopeinhighlystructuredsettings.Sheistaughthowtointeractcomfortablywithadults,andtospeakupwhen
sheneedsto.InLareau’swords,themiddle-classchildrenlearnasenseof“entitlement.”
Thatword,ofcourse,hasnegativeconnotationsthesedays.ButLareaumeansitinthebestsenseoftheterm:“Theyactedasthoughtheyhadarighttopursuetheirownindividualpreferencesandtoactivelymanageinteractionsininstitutional
settings.Theyappearedcomfortableinthosesettings;theywereopentosharinginformationandaskingforattention….Itwascommonpracticeamongmiddle-classchildrentoshiftinteractionstosuittheirpreferences.”Theyknewtherules.“Eveninfourthgrade,middle-classchildrenappearedtobeactingontheirownbehalftogainadvantages.Theymade
specialrequestsofteachersanddoctorstoadjustprocedurestoaccommodatetheirdesires.”
Bycontrast,theworking-classandpoorchildrenwerecharacterizedby“anemergingsenseofdistance,distrust,andconstraint.”Theydidn’tknowhowtogettheirway,orhowto“customize”—usingLareau’swonderfulterm—whatever
environmenttheywerein,fortheirbestpurposes.
Inonetellingscene,LareaudescribesavisittothedoctorbyAlexWilliams,anine-year-oldboy,andhismother,Christina.TheWilliamsesarewealthyprofessionals.
“Alex,youshouldbethinkingofquestionsyoumightwanttoaskthedoctor,”Christinasaysinthe
caronthewaytothedoctor’soffice.“Youcanaskhimanythingyouwant.Don’tbeshy.Youcanaskanything.”
Alexthinksforaminute,thensays,“Ihavesomebumpsundermyarmsfrommydeodorant.”Christina:“Really?Youmeanfromyournewdeodorant?”Alex:“Yes.”Christina:“Well,youshouldaskthedoctor.”
Alex’smother,Lareau
writes,“isteachingthathehastherighttospeakup”—thateventhoughhe’sgoingtobeinaroomwithanolderpersonandauthorityfigure,it’sperfectlyallrightforhimtoasserthimself.Theymeetthedoctor,agenialmaninhisearlyforties.HetellsAlexthatheisintheninety-fifthpercentileinheight.Alextheninterrupts:
ALEX:I’minthewhat?DOCTOR:Itmeansthat
you’retallerthanmorethanninety-fiveoutofahundredyoungmenwhenthey’re,uh,tenyearsold.
ALEX:I’mnotten.DOCTOR:Well,they
graphedyouatten.You’re—nineyearsandtenmonths.They—theyusuallytakethe
closestyeartothatgraph.
LookathoweasilyAlexinterruptsthedoctor—“I’mnotten.”That’sentitlement:hismotherpermitsthatcasualincivilitybecauseshewantshimtolearntoasserthimselfwithpeopleinpositionsofauthority.
THEDOCTORTURNSTOALEX:Well,nowthemostimportantquestion.DoyouhaveanyquestionsyouwanttoaskmebeforeIdoyourphysical?
ALEX:Um…onlyone.I’vebeengettingsomebumpsonmyarms,rightaroundhere(indicatesunderarm).
DOCTOR:Underneath?
ALEX:Yeah.DOCTOR:Okay.I’llhave
totakealookatthosewhenIcomeinclosertodothecheckup.AndI’llseewhattheyareandwhatIcando.Dotheyhurtoritch?
ALEX:No,they’rejustthere.
DOCTOR:Okay,I’lltakealookatthosebumpsforyou.
Thiskindofinteractionsimplydoesn’thappenwithlower-classchildren,Lareausays.Theywouldbequietandsubmissive,witheyesturnedaway.Alextakeschargeofthemoment.“Inrememberingtoraisethequestionhepreparedinadvance,hegainsthedoctor’sfullattentionandfocusesitonanissueofhischoosing,”Lareauwrites.
Insodoing,hesuccessfullyshiftsthebalanceofpowerawayfromtheadultsandtowardhimself.Thetransitiongoessmoothly.Alexisusedtobeingtreatedwithrespect.Heisseenasspecialandasapersonworthyofadultattentionandinterest.Thesearekey
characteristicsofthestrategyofconcertedcultivation.Alexisnotshowingoffduringhischeckup.Heisbehavingmuchashedoeswithhisparents—hereasons,negotiates,andjokeswithequalease.
Itisimportantto
understandwheretheparticularmasteryofthatmomentcomesfrom.It’snotgenetic.AlexWilliamsdidn’tinherittheskillstointeractwithauthorityfiguresfromhisparentsandgrandparentsthewayheinheritedthecolorofhiseyes.Norisitracial:it’snotapracticespecifictoeitherblackorwhitepeople.Asitturnsout,AlexWilliamsisblackandKatieBrindleis
white.It’saculturaladvantage.Alexhasthoseskillsbecauseoverthecourseofhisyounglife,hismotherandfather—inthemannerofeducatedfamilies—havepainstakinglytaughtthemtohim,nudgingandproddingandencouragingandshowinghimtherulesofthegame,rightdowntothatlittlerehearsalinthecaronthewaytothedoctor’soffice.
Whenwetalkabouttheadvantagesofclass,Lareauargues,thisisinlargepartwhatwemean.AlexWilliamsisbetteroffthanKatieBrindlebecausehe’swealthierandbecausehegoestoabetterschool,butalsobecause—andperhapsthisisevenmorecritical—thesenseofentitlementthathehasbeentaughtisanattitudeperfectlysuitedtosucceeding
inthemodernworld.
4.ThisistheadvantagethatOppenheimerhadandthatChrisLanganlacked.OppenheimerwasraisedinoneofthewealthiestneighborhoodsinManhattan,thesonofanartistandasuccessfulgarmentmanufacturer.Hischildhood
wastheembodimentofconcertedcultivation.Onweekends,theOppenheimerswouldgodrivinginthecountrysideinachauffeur-drivenPackard.SummershewouldbetakentoEuropetoseehisgrandfather.HeattendedtheEthicalCultureSchoolonCentralParkWest,perhapsthemostprogressiveschoolinthenation,where,hisbiographerswrite,
studentswere“infusedwiththenotionthattheywerebeinggroomedtoreformtheworld.”Whenhismathteacherrealizedhewasbored,shesenthimofftodoindependentwork.
Asachild,Oppenheimerwaspassionateaboutrockcollecting.Attheageoftwelve,hebegancorrespondingwithlocalgeologistsaboutrock
formationshehadseeninCentralPark,andhesoimpressedthemthattheyinvitedhimtogivealecturebeforetheNewYorkMineralogicalClub.AsSherwinandBirdwrite,Oppenheimer’sparentsrespondedtotheirson’shobbyinanalmosttextbookexampleofconcertedcultivation:
Dreadingthethoughtofhavingtotalktoanaudienceofadults,Robertbeggedhisfathertoexplainthattheyhadinvitedatwelve-year-old.Greatlyamused,Juliusencouragedhissontoacceptthishonor.Onthedesignatedevening,Robertshowedupattheclubwithhis
parents,whoproudlyintroducedtheirsonasJ.RobertOppenheimer.Thestartledaudienceofgeologistsandamateurrockcollectorsburstoutlaughingwhenhesteppeduptothepodium:awoodenboxhadtobefoundforhimtostandonsothattheaudiencecouldsee
morethantheshockofhiswiryblackhairstickingupabovethelectern.Shyandawkward,Robertneverthelessreadhispreparedremarksandwasgivenaheartyroundofapplause.
IsitanywonderOppenheimerhandledthe
challengesofhislifesobrilliantly?Ifyouaresomeonewhosefatherhasmadehiswayupinthebusinessworld,thenyou’veseen,firsthand,whatitmeanstonegotiateyourwayoutofatightspot.Ifyou’resomeonewhowassenttotheEthicalCultureSchool,thenyouaren’tgoingtobeintimidatedbyarowofCambridgedonsarrayedinjudgmentagainst
you.IfyoustudiedphysicsatHarvard,thenyouknowhowtotalktoanarmygeneralwhodidengineeringjustdowntheroadatMIT.
ChrisLangan,bycontrast,hadonlythebleaknessofBozeman,andahomedominatedbyanangry,drunkenstepfather.“[Jack]Langandidthistoallofus,”saidMark.“Weallhaveatrueresentmentofauthority.”
ThatwasthelessonLanganlearnedfromhischildhood:distrustauthorityandbeindependent.Heneverhadaparentteachhimonthewaytothedoctorhowtospeakupforhimself,orhowtoreasonandnegotiatewiththoseinpositionsofauthority.Hedidn’tlearnentitlement.Helearnedconstraint.Itmayseemlikeasmallthing,butitwasacripplinghandicapin
navigatingtheworldbeyondBozeman.
“Icouldn’tgetanyfinancialaideither,”Markwenton.“Wejusthadzeroknowledge,lessthanzeroknowledge,oftheprocess.Howtoapply.Theforms.Checkbooks.Itwasnotourenvironment.”
“IfChristopherhadbeenbornintoawealthyfamily,ifhewasthesonofadoctor
whowaswellconnectedinsomemajormarket,Iguaranteeyouhewouldhavebeenoneofthoseguysyoureadabout,knockingbackPhDsatseventeen,”hisbrotherJeffsays.“It’sthecultureyoufindyourselfinthatdeterminesthat.TheissuewithChrisisthathewasalwaystooboredtoactuallysitthereandlistentohisteachers.Ifsomeonehad
recognizedhisintelligenceandifhewasfromafamilywheretherewassomekindofvalueoneducation,theywouldhavemadesurehewasn’tbored.”
5.WhentheTermiteswereintotheiradulthood,Termanlookedattherecordsof730ofthemenanddividedthem
intothreegroups.Onehundredandfifty—thetop20percent—fellintowhatTermancalledtheAgroup.Theywerethetruesuccessstories,thestars—thelawyersandphysiciansandengineersandacademics.NinetypercentoftheAsgraduatedfromcollegeandamongthemhadearned98graduatedegrees.Themiddle60percentweretheBgroup,
thosewhoweredoing“satisfactorily.”Thebottom150weretheCs,theoneswhoTermanjudgedtohavedonetheleastwiththeirsuperiormentalability.Theywerethepostalworkersandthestrugglingbookkeepersandthemenlyingontheircouchesathomewithoutanyjobatall.
OnethirdoftheCswerecollegedropouts.Aquarter
onlyhadahighschooldiploma,andall150oftheCs—eachoneofwhom,atonepointinhislife,hadbeendubbedagenius—hadtogetherearnedagrandtotalofeightgraduatedegrees.
WhatwasthedifferencebetweentheAsandtheCs?Termanranthrougheveryconceivableexplanation.Helookedattheirphysicalandmentalhealth,their
“masculinity-femininityscores,”andtheirhobbiesandvocationalinterests.HecomparedtheageswhentheystartedwalkingandtalkingandwhattheirpreciseIQscoreswereinelementaryandhighschool.Intheend,onlyonethingmattered:familybackground.
TheAsoverwhelminglycamefromthemiddleandtheupperclass.Theirhomes
werefilledwithbooks.HalfthefathersoftheAgrouphadacollegedegreeorbeyond,andthisatatimewhenauniversityeducationwasararity.TheCs,ontheotherhand,werefromtheothersideofthetracks.Almostathirdofthemhadaparentwhohaddroppedoutofschoolbeforetheeighthgrade.
Atonepoint,Termanhad
hisfieldworkersgoandvisiteveryonefromtheAandCgroupsandratetheirpersonalitiesandmanner.Whattheyfoundiseverythingyouwouldexpecttofindifyouwerecomparingchildrenraisedinanatmosphereofconcertedcultivationwithchildrenraisedinanatmosphereofnaturalgrowth.TheAswerejudgedtobemuchmorealert,
poised,attractive,andwelldressed.Infact,thescoresonthosefourdimensionsaresodifferentastomakeyouthinkyouarelookingattwodifferentspeciesofhumans.Youaren’t,ofcourse.You’resimplyseeingthedifferencebetweenthoseschooledbytheirfamiliestopresenttheirbestfacetotheworld,andthosedeniedthatexperience.
TheTermanresultsare
deeplydistressing.Let’snotforgethowhighlygiftedtheCgroupwas.Ifyouhadmetthematfiveorsixyearsofage,youwouldhavebeenoverwhelmedbytheircuriosityandmentalagilityandsparkle.Theyweretrueoutliers.TheplaintruthoftheTermanstudy,however,isthatintheendalmostnoneofthegeniuschildrenfromthelowestsocialandeconomic
classendedupmakinganameforthemselves.
WhatdidtheCslack,though?Notsomethingexpensiveorimpossibletofind;notsomethingencodedinDNAorhardwiredintothecircuitsoftheirbrains.Theylackedsomethingthatcouldhavebeengiventothemifwe’donlyknowntheyneededit:acommunityaroundthemthatpreparedthemproperly
fortheworld.TheCsweresquanderedtalent.Buttheydidn’tneedtobe.
6.Today,ChrisLanganlivesinruralMissourionahorsefarm.Hemovedthereafewyearsago,afterhegotmarried.Heisinhisfiftiesbutlooksmanyyearsyounger.Hehasthebuildofa
linebacker,thickthroughthechest,withenormousbiceps.Hishairiscombedstraightbackfromhisforehead.Hehasaneat,grayingmoustacheandaviator-styleglasses.Ifyoulookintohiseyes,youcanseetheintelligenceburningbehindthem.
“Atypicaldayis,Igetupandmakecoffee.Igoinandsitinfrontofthecomputerandbeginworkingon
whateverIwasworkingonthenightbefore,”hetoldmenotlongago.“IfoundifIgotobedwithaquestiononmymind,allIhavetodoisconcentrateonthequestionbeforeIgotosleepandIvirtuallyalwayshavetheanswerinthemorning.SometimesIrealizewhattheanswerisbecauseIdreamttheanswerandIcanrememberit.OthertimesI
justfeeltheanswer,andIstarttypingandtheansweremergesontothepage.”
HehadjustbeenreadingtheworkofthelinguistNoamChomsky.Therewerepilesofbooksinhisstudy.Heorderedbooksfromthelibraryallthetime.“Ialwaysfeelthatthecloseryougettotheoriginalsources,thebetteroffyouare,”hesaid.
Langanseemedcontent.
Hehadfarmanimalstotakecareof,andbookstoread,andawifeheloved.Itwasamuchbetterlifethanbeingabouncer.
“Idon’tthinkthereisanyonesmarterthanmeoutthere,”hewenton.“Ihavenevermetanybodylikemeorneverseenevenanindicationthatthereissomebodywhoactuallyhasbetterpowersofcomprehension.Neverseenit
andIdon’tthinkIamgoingto.Icould—mymindisopentothepossibility.Ifanyoneshouldchallengeme—‘Oh,IthinkthatIamsmarterthanyouare’—IthinkIcouldhavethem.”
Whathesaidsoundedboastful,butitwasn’treally.Itwastheopposite—atouchdefensive.He’dbeenworkingfordecadesnowonaprojectofenormoussophistication—
butalmostnoneofwhathehaddonehadeverbeenpublishedmuchlessreadbythephysicistsandphilosophersandmathematicianswhomightbeabletojudgeitsvalue.Herehewas,amanwithaone-in-a-millionmind,andhehadyettohaveanyimpactontheworld.Hewasn’tholdingforthatacademicconferences.Hewasn’t
leadingagraduateseminaratsomeprestigiousuniversity.HewaslivingonaslightlytumbledownhorsefarminnorthernMissouri,sittingonthebackporchinjeansandacutoffT-shirt.Heknewhowitlooked:itwasthegreatparadoxofChrisLangan’sgenius.
“IhavenotpursuedmainstreampublishersashardasIshouldhave,”he
conceded.“Goingaround,queryingpublishers,tryingtofindanagent.Ihaven’tdoneit,andIamnotinterestedindoingit.”
Itwasanadmissionofdefeat.Everyexperiencehehadhadoutsideofhisownmindhadendedinfrustration.Heknewheneededtodoabetterjobofnavigatingtheworld,buthedidn’tknowhow.Hecouldn’teventalkto
hiscalculusteacher,forgoodness’sake.Thesewerethingsthatothers,withlesserminds,couldmastereasily.Butthat’sbecausethoseothershadhadhelpalongtheway,andChrisLanganneverhad.Itwasn’tanexcuse.Itwasafact.He’dhadtomakehiswayalone,andnoone—notrockstars,notprofessionalathletes,notsoftwarebillionaires,andnot
evengeniuses—evermakesitalone.
CHAPTERFIVE
TheThreeLessonsofJoeFlom
“MARYGOTAQUARTER.”
1.
JoeFlomisthelastliving“named”partnerofthelawfirmSkadden,Arps,Slate,MeagherandFlom.HehasacornerofficehighatoptheCondéNasttowerinManhattan.Heisshortandslightlyhunched.Hisheadislarge,framedbylongprominentears,andhisnarrowblueeyesarehiddenbyoversizeaviator-styleglasses.Heisslendernow,
butduringhisheyday,Flomwasextremelyoverweight.Hewaddleswhenhewalks.Hedoodleswhenhethinks.Hemumbleswhenhetalks,andwhenhemakeshiswaydownthehallsofSkadden,Arps,conversationsdroptoahush.
FlomgrewupintheDepressioninBrooklyn’sBoroughParkneighborhood.HisparentswereJewish
immigrantsfromEasternEurope.Hisfather,Isadore,wasaunionorganizerinthegarmentindustrywholaterwenttoworksewingshoulderpadsforladies’dresses.Hismotherworkedatwhatwascalledpiecework—doingappliquéathome.Theyweredesperatelypoor.Hisfamilymovednearlyeveryyearwhenhewasgrowingupbecausethecustominthose
dayswasforlandlordstogivenewtenantsamonth’sfreerent,andwithoutthat,hisfamilycouldnotgetby.
Injuniorhighschool,FlomtooktheentranceexamfortheeliteTownsendHarrispublichighschoolonLexingtonAvenueinManhattan,aschoolthatinjustfortyyearsofexistenceproducedthreeNobelPrizewinners,sixPulitzerPrize
winners,andoneSupremeCourtJustice,nottomentionGeorgeGershwinandJonasSalk,theinventorofthepoliovaccine.Hegotin.Hismotherwouldgivehimadimeinthemorningforbreakfast—threedonuts,orangejuice,andcoffeeatNedick’s.Afterschool,hepushedahandtruckinthegarmentdistrict.HedidtwoyearsofnightschoolatCity
CollegeinupperManhattan—workingduringthedaystomakeendsmeet—signedupforthearmy,servedhistime,andappliedtoHarvardLawSchool.
“IwantedtogetintothelawsinceIwassixyearsold,”Flomsays.Hedidn’thaveadegreefromcollege.Harvardtookhimanyway.“Why?IwrotethemaletteronwhyIwastheanswerto
slicedbread,”ishowFlomexplainsit,withcharacteristicbrevity.AtHarvard,inthelate1940s,henevertooknotes.“Allofusweregoingthroughthisfirstyearidiocyofwritingnotescarefullyintheclassroomanddoinganoutlineofthat,thenacondensationofthat,andthendoingitagainononionskinpaper,ontopofotherpaper,”remembersCharlesHaar,
whowasaclassmateofFlom’s.“Itwasaroutinizedwayoftryingtolearnthecases.NotJoe.Hewouldn’thaveanyofthat.Buthehadthatqualitywhichwealwaysvaguelysubsumedunder‘thinkinglikealawyer.’Hehadthegreatcapacityforjudgment.”
FlomwasnamedtotheLawReview—anhonorreservedfortheverytop
studentsintheclass.During“hiringseason,”theChristmasbreakofhissecondyear,hewentdowntoNewYorktointerviewwiththebigcorporatelawfirmsoftheday.“Iwasungainly,awkward,afatkid.Ididn’tfeelcomfortable,”Flomremembers.“Iwasoneoftwokidsinmyclassattheendofhiringseasonwhodidn’thaveajob.Thenoneday,oneof
myprofessorssaidthattherearetheseguysstartingafirm.Ihadavisitwiththem,andtheentiretimeImetwiththem,theyweretellingmewhattheriskswereofgoingwithafirmthatdidn’thaveaclient.Themoretheytalked,themoreIlikedthem.SoIsaid,Whatthehell,I’lltakeachance.Theyhadtoscrapetogetherthethirty-sixhundredayear,whichwas
thestartingsalary.”Inthebeginning,itwasjustMarshallSkadden,LeslieArps—bothofwhomhadjustbeenturneddownforpartneratamajorWallStreetlawfirm—andJohnSlate,whohadworkedforPanAmairlines.Flomwastheirassociate.TheyhadatinysuiteofofficesonthetopflooroftheLehmanBrothersBuildingonWallStreet.
“Whatkindoflawdidwedo?”Flomsays,laughing.“Whatevercameinthedoor!”
In1954,FlomtookoverasSkadden’smanagingpartner,andthefirmbegantogrowbyleapsandbounds.Soonithadonehundredlawyers.Thentwohundred.Whenithitthreehundred,oneofFlom’spartners—MorrisKramer—cametohimandsaidthathefeltguilty
aboutbringinginyounglawschoolgraduates.Skaddenwassobig,Kramersaid,thatitwashardtoimaginethefirmgrowingbeyondthatandbeingabletopromoteanyofthosehires.Flomtoldhim,“Ahhh,we’llgotoonethousand.”Flomneverlackedforambition.
TodaySkadden,Arpshasnearlytwothousandattorneysintwenty-threeofficesaround
theworldandearnswellover$1billionayear,makingitoneofthelargestandmostpowerfullawfirmsintheworld.Inhisoffice,FlomhaspicturesofhimselfwithGeorgeBushSr.andBillClinton.HelivesinasprawlingapartmentinaluxuriousbuildingonManhattan’sUpperEastSide.Foraperiodofalmostthirtyyears,ifyouwereaFortune
500companyabouttobetakenoverortryingtotakeoversomeoneelse,ormerelyabigshotinsomekindoffix,JosephFlomhasbeenyourattorneyandSkadden,Arpshasbeenyourlawfirm—andiftheyweren’t,youprobablywishedtheywere.
2.Ihopebynowthatyouare
skepticalofthiskindofstory.BrilliantimmigrantkidovercomespovertyandtheDepression,can’tgetajobatthestuffydowntownlawfirms,makesitonhisownthroughsheerhustleandability.It’sarags-to-richesstory,andeverythingwe’velearnedsofarfromhockeyplayersandsoftwarebillionairesandtheTermitessuggeststhatsuccessdoesn’t
happenthatway.Successfulpeopledon’tdoitalone.Wheretheycomefrommatters.They’reproductsofparticularplacesandenvironments.
Justaswedid,then,withBillJoyandChrisLangan,let’sstartoverwithJosephFlom,thistimeputtingtouseeverythingwe’velearnedfromthefirstfourchaptersofthisbook.Nomoretalkof
JoeFlom’sintelligence,orpersonality,orambition,thoughheobviouslyhasthesethreethingsinabundance.Noglowingquotationsfromhisclients,testifyingtohisgenius.NomorecolorfultalesfromthemeteoricriseofSkadden,Arps,Slate,MeagherandFlom.
Instead,I’mgoingtotellaseriesofstoriesfromtheNewYorkimmigrantworldthat
JoeFlomgrewupin—ofafellowlawstudent,afatherandsonnamedMauriceandMortJanklow,andanextraordinarycouplebythenameofLouisandReginaBorgenicht—inthehopesofansweringacriticalquestion.WhatwereJoeFlom’sopportunities?Sinceweknowthatoutliersalwayshavehelpalongtheway,canwesortthroughtheecologyofJoe
Flomandidentifytheconditionsthathelpedcreatehim?
Wetellrags-to-richesstoriesbecausewefindsomethingcaptivatingintheideaofaloneherobattlingoverwhelmingodds.ButthetruestoryofJoeFlom’slifeturnsouttobemuchmoreintriguingthanthemythologicalversionbecauseallthethingsinhislifethat
seemtohavebeendisadvantages—thathewasapoorchildofgarmentworkers;thathewasJewishatatimewhenJewswereheavilydiscriminatedagainst;thathegrewupintheDepression—turnout,unexpectedly,tohavebeenadvantages.JoeFlomisanoutlier.Buthe’snotanoutlierforthereasonsyoumightthink,andthestoryofhisrise
providesablueprintforunderstandingsuccessinhisprofession.Bytheendofthechapter,infact,we’llseethatitispossibletotakethelessonsofJoeFlom,applythemtothelegalworldofNewYorkCity,andpredictthefamilybackground,age,andoriginofthecity’smostpowerfulattorneys,withoutknowingasingleadditionalfactaboutthem.Butwe’re
gettingaheadofourselves.
LessonNumberOne:TheImportanceofBeingJewish
3.OneofJoeFlom’sclassmatesatHarvardLawSchoolwasamannamedAlexanderBickel.LikeFlom,BickelwasthesonofEasternEuropeanJewishimmigrants
wholivedintheBronx.LikeFlom,BickelhadgonetopublicschoolinNewYorkandthentoCityCollege.LikeFlom,Bickelwasastarinhislawschoolclass.Infact,beforehiscareerwascutshortbycancer,Bickelwouldbecomeperhapsthefinestconstitutionalscholarofhisgeneration.AndlikeFlomandtherestoftheirlawschoolclassmates,Bickel
wenttoManhattanduring“hiringseason”overChristmasof1947tofindhimselfajob.
HisfirststopwasatMudgeRose,downonWallStreet,astraditionalandstuffyasanyfirmofthatera.MudgeRosewasfoundedin1869.ItwaswhereRichardNixonpracticedintheyearsbeforehewonthepresidencyin1968.“We’relikethelady
whoonlywantshernameinthenewspapertwice—whenshe’sbornandwhenshedies,”oneoftheseniorpartnersfamouslysaid.Bickelwastakenaroundthefirmandinterviewedbyonepartnerafteranother,untilhewasledintothelibrarytomeetwiththefirm’sseniorpartner.Youcanimaginethescene:adark-paneledroom,anartfullyfrayedPersian
carpet,rowuponrowofleather-boundlegalvolumes,oilpaintingsofMr.MudgeandMr.Roseonthewall.
“Aftertheyputmethroughthewholeinterviewandeverything,”Bickelsaidmanyyearslater,“Iwasbroughtto[theseniorpartner],whotookituponhimselftotellmethatforaboyofmyantecedents”—andyoucanimaginehowBickel
musthavepausedbeforerepeatingthateuphemismforhisimmigrantbackground—“Icertainlyhadcomefar.ButIoughttounderstandhowlimitedthepossibilitiesofafirmlikehisweretohireaboyofmyantecedents.Andwhilehecongratulatedmeonmyprogress,Ishouldunderstandhecertainlycouldn’toffermeajob.Buttheyallenjoyedseeingme
andallthat.”Itisclearfromthe
transcriptofBickel’sreminiscencesthathisinterviewerdoesnotquiteknowwhattodowiththatinformation.Bickelwasbythetimeoftheinterviewattheheightofhisreputation.HehadarguedacasebeforetheSupremeCourt.Hehadwrittenbrilliantbooks.MudgeRosesayingnoto
Bickelbecauseofhis“antecedents”wasliketheChicagoBullsturningdownMichaelJordanbecausetheywereuncomfortablewithblackkidsfromNorthCarolina.Itdidn’tmakeanysense.
“Butforstars?”theinterviewerasked,meaning,Wouldn’ttheyhavemadeanexceptionforyou?
Bickel:“Stars,
schmars…”Inthe1940sand1950s,
theold-linelawfirmsofNewYorkoperatedlikeaprivateclub.TheywereallheadquarteredindowntownManhattan,inandaroundWallStreet,insomber,granite-facedbuildings.ThepartnersatthetopfirmsgraduatedfromthesameIvyLeagueschools,attendedthesamechurches,and
summeredinthesameoceansidetownsonLongIsland.Theyworeconservativegraysuits.Theirpartnershipswereknownas“white-shoe”firms—inapparentreferencetothewhitebucksfavoredatthecountrycluboracocktailparty,andtheywereveryparticularinwhomtheyhired.AsErwinSmigelwroteinTheWallStreetLawyer,
hisstudyoftheNewYorklegalestablishmentofthatera,theywerelookingfor:
lawyerswhoareNordic,havepleasingpersonalitiesand“clean-cut”appearances,aregraduatesofthe“rightschools,”havethe“right”social
backgroundandexperienceintheaffairsoftheworld,andareendowedwithtremendousstamina.Aformerlawschooldean,indiscussingthequalitiesstudentsneedtoobtainajob,offersasomewhatmorerealisticpicture:“Togetajob[students]shouldbelongenough
onfamilyconnections,longenoughonabilityorlongenoughonpersonality,oracombinationofthese.Somethingcalledacceptabilityismadeupofthesumofitsparts.Ifamanhasanyofthesethings,hecouldgetajob.Ifhehastwoofthem,hecanhaveachoiceof
jobs;ifhehasthree,hecouldgoanywhere.”
Bickel’shairwasnotfair.Hiseyeswerenotblue.Hespokewithanaccent,andhisfamilyconnectionsconsisted,principally,ofbeingthesonofSolomonandYettaBickelofBucharest,Romania,byway,mostrecently,ofBrooklyn.Flom’scredentials
werenobetter.Hesayshefelt“uncomfortable”whenhewentforhisinterviewsdowntown,andofcoursehedid:hewasshortandungainlyandJewishandtalkedwiththeflat,nasaltonesofhisnativeBrooklyn,andyoucanimaginehowhewouldhavebeenperceivedbysomesilver-hairedpatricianinthelibrary.Ifyouwerenotoftheright
backgroundandreligionandsocialclassandyoucameoutoflawschoolinthatera,youjoinedsomesmaller,second-rate,upstartlawfirmonarungbelowthebignamesdowntown,oryousimplywentintobusinessforyourselfandtook“whatevercameinthedoor”—thatis,whateverlegalworkthebigdowntownfirmsdidnotwantforthemselves.Thatseems
horriblyunfair,anditwas.Butasissooftenthecasewithoutliers,buriedinthatsetbackwasagoldenopportunity.
4.Theold-lineWallStreetlawfirmshadaveryspecificideaaboutwhatitwasthattheydid.Theywerecorporatelawyers.Theyrepresentedthe
country’slargestandmostprestigiouscompanies,and“represented”meanttheyhandledthetaxesandthelegalworkbehindtheissuingofstocksandbondsandmadesuretheirclientsdidnotrunafouloffederalregulators.Theydidnotdolitigation;thatis,veryfewofthemhadadivisiondedicatedtodefendingandfilinglawsuits.AsPaulCravath,oneofthe
foundersofCravath,SwaineandMoore,theverywhitestofthewhite-shoefirms,onceputit,thelawyer’sjobwastosettledisputesintheconferenceroom,notinthecourtroom.“AmongmyclassmatesatHarvard,thethingthatbrightyoungguysdidwassecuritiesworkortax,”anotherwhite-shoepartnerremembers.“Thosewerethedistinguishedfields.
Litigationwasforhams,notforseriouspeople.Corporationsjustdidn’tsueeachotherinthosedays.”
Whattheold-linefirmsalsodidnotdowasinvolvethemselvesinhostilecorporatetakeovers.It’shardtoimaginetoday,whencorporateraidersandprivate-equityfirmsareconstantlyswallowinguponecompanyafteranother,butuntilthe
1970s,itwasconsideredscandalousforonecompanytobuyanothercompanywithoutthetargetagreeingtobebought.PlaceslikeMudgeRoseandtheotherestablishmentfirmsonWallStreetwouldnottouchthosekindsofdeals.
“Theproblemwithhostiletakeoversisthattheywerehostile,”saysStevenBrill,whofoundedthetrade
magazineAmericanLawyer.“Itwasn’tgentlemanly.IfyourbestbuddyfromPrincetonistheCEOofCompanyX,andhe’sbeencoastingforalongtime,andsomecorporateraidershowsupandsaysthiscompanysucks,itmakesyouuncomfortable.Youthink,Ifhegoes,thenmaybeIgotoo.It’sthiswholenotionofnotupsettingthebasiccalmand
stableorderofthings.”*Theworkthat“camein
thedoor”tothegenerationofJewishlawyersfromtheBronxandBrooklyninthe1950sand1960s,then,wastheworkthewhite-shoefirmsdisdained:litigationand,moreimportant,“proxyfights,”whichwerethelegalmaneuversatthecenterofanyhostile-takeoverbid.Aninvestorwouldtakean
interestinacompany;hewoulddenouncethemanagementasincompetentandsendletterstoshareholders,tryingtogetthemtogivehimtheir“proxy”sohecouldvoteoutthefirm’sexecutives.Andtoruntheproxyfight,theonlylawyertheinvestorcouldgetwassomeonelikeJoeFlom.
InSkadden,thelegalhistorianLincolnCaplan
describesthatearlyworldoftakeovers:
Thewinnerofaproxycontestwasdeterminedinthesnakepit.(Officially,itwascalledthecountingroom.)Lawyersforeachsidemetwithinspectorsofelections,whosejobitwasto
approveoreliminatequestionableproxies.Theeventwasofteninformal,contentiousandunruly.AdversariesweresometimesinT-shirts,eatingwatermelonorsharingabottleofscotch.Inrarecases,theresultsofthesnakepitcouldswingtheoutcomeofacontest
andturnonasingleballot.
Lawyersoccasionallytriedtofixanelectionbyengineeringtheappointmentofinspectorswhowerebeholdentothem;inspectorscommonlysmokedcigarsprovidedbyeachside.Management’slawyer
wouldcontesttheproxiesoftheinsurgents(“Ichallengethis!”)andviceversa….Lawyerswhoprevailedinthesnakepitexcelledatwingingit.Therewerelawyerswhoknewmoreabouttherulesofproxycontests,butnoonewasbetterinafightthanJoeFlom…
Flomwasfat(ahundredpoundsoverweightthen,onelawyersaid…),physicallyunattractive(toapartner,heresembledafrog),andindifferenttosocialniceties(hewouldfartinpublicorjabacigarclosetothefaceofsomeonehewastalkingto,without
apology).Butinthejudgmentofcolleaguesandofsomeadversaries,hiswilltowinwasunsurpassedandhewasoftenmasterful.
Thewhite-shoelawfirmswouldcallinFlomaswellwheneversomecorporateraidermadearunatoneof
theirestablishmentclients.Theywouldn’ttouchthecase.ButtheywerehappytooutsourceittoSkadden,Arps.“Flom’searlyspecialtywasproxyfights,andthatwasnotwhatwedid,justlikewedon’tdomatrimonialwork,”saidRobertRifkind,alongtimepartneratCravath,SwaineandMoore.“Andthereforewepurportednottoknowaboutit.Iremember
oncewehadanissueinvolvingaproxyfight,andoneofmyseniorcorporatepartnerssaid,Well,let’sgetJoein.Andhecametoaconferenceroom,andweallsataroundanddescribedtheproblemandhetolduswhattodoandheleft.AndIsaid,‘Wecandothattoo,youknow.’Andthepartnersaid,‘No,no,no,youcan’t.We’renotgoingtodothat.’Itwas
justthatwedidn’tdoit.”Thencamethe1970s.The
oldaversiontolawsuitsfellbythewayside.Itbecameeasiertoborrowmoney.Federalregulationswererelaxed.Marketsbecameinternationalized.Investorsbecamemoreaggressive,andtheresultwasaboominthenumberandsizeofcorporatetakeovers.“Innineteeneighty,ifyouwenttothe
BusinessRoundtable[theassociationofmajorAmericancorporateexecutives]andtooksurveysaboutwhetherhostiletakeoversshouldbeallowed,two-thirdswouldhavesaidno,”Flomsaid.“Now,thevotewouldbealmostunanimouslyyes.”Companiesneededtobedefendedagainstlawsuitsfromrivals.Hostilesuitors
neededtobebeatenback.Investorswhowantedtodevourunwillingtargetsneededhelpwiththeirlegalstrategy,andshareholdersneededformalrepresentation.Thedollarfiguresinvolvedwereenormous.Fromthemid-1970stotheendofthe1980s,theamountofmoneyinvolvedinmergersandacquisitionseveryyearonWallStreetincreased2,000
percent,peakingatalmostaquarterofatrilliondollars.
Allofasuddenthethingsthattheold-linelawfirmsdidn’twanttodo—hostiletakeoversandlitigation—werethethingsthateverylawfirmwantedtodo.Andwhowastheexpertinthesetwosuddenlycriticalareasoflaw?Theoncemarginal,second-tierlawfirmsstartedbythepeoplewhocouldn’t
getjobsatthedowntownfirmstenandfifteenyearsearlier.
“[Thewhite-shoefirms]thoughthostiletakeoverswerebeneathcontemptuntilrelativelylateinthegame,anduntiltheydecidedthat,hey,maybeweoughttobeinthatbusiness,theyleftmealone,”Flomsaid.“Andonceyougetthereputationfordoingthatkindofwork,the
businesscomestoyoufirst.”Thinkofhowsimilarthis
istothestoriesofBillJoyandBillGates.Bothofthemtoiledawayinarelativelyobscurefieldwithoutanygreathopesforworldlysuccess.Butthen—boom!—thepersonalcomputerrevolutionhappened,andtheyhadtheirtenthousandhoursin.Theywereready.Flomhadthesame
experience.FortwentyyearsheperfectedhiscraftatSkadden,Arps.Thentheworldchangedandhewasready.Hedidn’ttriumphoveradversity.Instead,whatstartedoutasadversityendedupbeinganopportunity.
“It’snotthatthoseguysweresmarterlawyersthananyoneelse,”Rifkindsays.“It’sthattheyhadaskillthattheyhadbeenworkingonfor
yearsthatwassuddenlyveryvaluable.”*
LessonNumberTwo:DemographicLuck
5.MauriceJanklowenrolledinBrooklynLawSchoolin1919.HewastheeldestsonofJewishimmigrantsfromRomania.Hehadseven
brothersandsisters.OneendeduprunningasmalldepartmentstoreinBrooklyn.Twootherswereinthehaberdasherybusiness,onehadagraphicdesignstudio,anothermadefeatherhats,andanotherworkedinthefinancedepartmentatTishmanRealty.
Maurice,however,wasthefamilyintellectual,theonlyonetogotocollege.He
gothislawdegreeandsetupapracticeonCourtStreetindowntownBrooklyn.HewasanelegantmanwhodressedinahomburgandBrooksBrotherssuits.Inthesummer,heworeastrawboater.HemarriedtheverybeautifulLillianLevantin,whowasthedaughterofaprominentTalmudist.Hedroveabigcar.HemovedtoQueens.Heandapartnerthentookovera
writing-paperbusinessthatgaveeveryindicationofmakingafortune.
Herewasamanwholooked,foralltheworld,likethekindofpersonwhoshouldthriveasalawyerinNewYorkCity.Hewasintelligentandeducated.Hecamefromafamilywellschooledintherulesofthesystem.Hewaslivinginthemosteconomicallyvibrant
cityintheworld.Buthereisthestrangething:itneverhappened.MauriceJanklow’scareerdidnottakeoffthewaythathe’dhoped.Inhismind,heneverreallymadeitbeyondCourtStreetinBrooklyn.Hestruggledandfloundered.
MauriceJanklowhadasonnamedMort,however,whobecamealawyeraswell,andtheson’sstoryisvery
differentfromthatofthefather.MortJanklowbuiltalawfirmfromscratchinthe1960s,thenputtogetheroneoftheveryearliestcabletelevisionfranchisesandsolditforafortunetoCoxBroadcasting.Hestartedaliteraryagencyinthe1970s,anditistodayoneofthemostprestigiousintheworld.*Hehashisownplane.Everydreamthateludedthefather
wasfulfilledbytheson.WhydidMortJanklow
succeedwhereMauriceJanklowdidnot?Thereare,ofcourse,ahundredpotentialanswerstothatquestion.Butlet’stakeapagefromtheanalysisofthebusinesstycoonsborninthe1830sandthesoftwareprogrammersbornin1955andlookatthedifferencesbetweenthetwoJanklowsintermsoftheir
generation.IsthereaperfecttimeforaNewYorkJewishlawyertobeborn?Itturnsoutthereis,andthissamefactthathelpsexplainMortJanklow’ssuccessisthesecondkeytoJoeFlom’ssuccessaswell.
6.LewisTerman’sgeniusstudy,asyouwillrecallfromthe
chapteraboutChrisLangan,wasaninvestigationintohowsomechildrenwithreallyhighIQswhowerebornbetween1903and1917turnedoutasadults.Andthestudyfoundthattherewasagroupofrealsuccessesandtherewasagroupofrealfailures,andthatthesuccesseswerefarmorelikelytohavecomefromwealthierfamilies.Inthat
sense,theTermanstudyunderscorestheargumentAnnetteLareaumakes,thatwhatyourparentsdoforaliving,andtheassumptionsthataccompanytheclassyourparentsbelongto,matter.
There’sanotherwaytobreakdowntheTermanresults,though,andthat’sbywhentheTermiteswereborn.IfyoudividetheTermitesintotwogroups,withthose
bornbetween1903and1911ononeside,andthosebetween1912and1917ontheother,itturnsoutthattheTermanfailuresarefarmorelikelytohavebeenbornintheearliergroup.
Theexplanationhastodowithtwoofthegreatcataclysmiceventsofthetwentiethcentury:theGreatDepressionandWorldWarII.Ifyouwerebornafter
1912—say,in1915—yougotoutofcollegeaftertheworstoftheDepressionwasover,andyouweredraftedatayoungenoughagethatgoingawaytowarforthreeorfouryearswasasmuchanopportunityasitwasadisruption(providedyouweren’tkilled,ofcourse).
TheTermitesbornbefore1911,though,graduatedfromcollegeattheheightofthe
Depression,whenjobopportunitieswerescarce,andtheywerealreadyintheirlatethirtieswhentheSecondWorldWarhit,meaningthatwhentheyweredrafted,theyhadtodisruptcareersandfamiliesandadultlivesthatwerealreadywellunderway.Tohavebeenbornbefore1911istohavebeendemographicallyunlucky.Themostdevastatingevents
ofthetwentiethcenturyhityouatexactlythewrongtime.
ThissamedemographiclogicappliestoJewishlawyersinNewYorklikeMauriceJanklow.Thedoorswereclosedtothematthebigdowntownlawfirms.Sotheywereoverwhelminglysolopractitioners,handlingwillsanddivorcesandcontractsandminordisputes,andinthe
Depressiontheworkofthesolopractitionerallbutdisappeared.“NearlyhalfofthemembersofthemetropolitanbarearnedlessthantheminimumsubsistencelevelforAmericanfamilies,”JeroldAuerbachwritesoftheDepressionyearsinNewYork.“Oneyearlater1,500lawyerswerepreparedtotakethepauper’soathtoqualify
forworkrelief.Jewishlawyers(approximatelyone-halfofthemetropolitanbar)discoveredthattheirpracticehadbecomea‘dignifiedroadtostarvation.’”Regardlessofthenumberofyearstheyhadspentinpractice,theirincomewas“strikinglyless”thanthatoftheirChristiancolleagues.MauriceJanklowwasbornin1902.WhentheDepressionstarted,hewasnewlymarried
andhadjustboughthisbigcar,movedtoQueens,andmadehisgreatgambleonthewriting-paperbusiness.Histimingcouldnothavebeenworse.
“Hewasgoingtomakeafortune,”MortJanklowsaysofhisfather.“ButtheDepressionkilledhimeconomically.Hedidn’thaveanyreserves,andhehadnofamilytofallbackon.And
fromthenon,hebecameverymuchascrivener-typelawyer.Hedidn’thavethecouragetotakerisksafterthat.Itwastoomuchforhim.Myfatherusedtoclosetitlesfortwenty-fivedollars.HehadafriendwhoworkedattheJamaicaSavingsBankwhowouldthrowhimsomebusiness.Hewouldkillhimselffortwenty-fivebucks,doingthewhole
closing,titlereports.Fortwenty-fivebucks!
“Icanremembermyfatherandmotherinthemorning,”Janklowcontinued.“Hewouldsaytoher,‘Igotadollarseventy-five.Ineedtencentsforthebus,tencentsforthesubway,aquarterforasandwich,’andhewouldgivehertherest.Theywerethatclosetotheedge.”
7.Nowcontrastthatexperiencewiththeexperienceofsomeonewho,likeMortJanklow,wasborninthe1930s.
Takealookatthefollowingchart,whichshowsthebirthratesintheUnitedStatesfrom1910to1950.In1915,therearealmostthreemillionbabies.In1935,that
numberdropsbyalmostsixhundredthousand,andthen,withinadecadeandahalf,thenumberisbackoverthreemillionagain.Toputitinmorepreciseterms,foreverythousandAmericans,therewere29.5babiesbornin1915;18.7babiesbornin1935;and24.1babiesbornin1950.Thedecadeofthe1930siswhatiscalleda“demographictrough.”In
responsetotheeconomichardshipoftheDepression,familiessimplystoppedhavingchildren,andasaresult,thegenerationbornduringthatdecadewasmarkedlysmallerthanboththegenerationthatprecededitandthegenerationthatimmediatelyfollowedit.
Year TotalBirths
1910 2,777,000
1915 2,965,0001920 2,950,0001925 2,909,0001930 2,618,0001935 2,377,0001940 2,559,0001945 2,858,0001950 3,632,000
HereiswhattheeconomistH.ScottGordononcewroteabouttheparticularbenefitsofbeingoneofthosepeopleborninasmallgeneration:
Whenheopenshiseyesforthefirsttime,itisinaspacioushospital,well-appointedtoservethewavethatprecededhim.Thestaffisgenerouswiththeirtime,sincetheyhavelittletodowhiletheyrideoutthebriefperiodofcalmuntilthenextwavehits.When
hecomestoschoolage,themagnificentbuildingsarealreadytheretoreceivehim;theamplestaffofteacherswelcomeshimwithopenarms.Inhighschool,thebasketballteamisnotasgoodasitwasbutthereisnoproblemgettingtimeonthegymnasiumfloor.The
universityisadelightfulplace;lotsofroomintheclassesandresidences,nocrowdinginthecafeteria,andtheprofessorsaresolicitous.Thenhehitsthejobmarket.Thesupplyofnewentrantsislow,andthedemandishigh,becausethereisalargewavecoming
behindhimprovidingastrongdemandforthegoodsandservicesofhispotentialemployers.
InNewYorkCity,theearly1930scohortwassosmallthatclasssizeswereatleasthalfofwhattheyhadbeentwenty-fiveyearsearlier.Theschoolswere
new,builtforthebiggenerationthathadcomebefore,andtheteachershadwhatintheDepressionwasconsideredahigh-statusjob.
“TheNewYorkCitypublicschoolsofthe1940swereconsideredthebestschoolsinthecountry,”saysDianeRavitch,aprofessoratNewYorkUniversitywhohaswrittenwidelyonthecity’seducationalhistory.
“Therewasthisgenerationofeducatorsinthethirtiesandfortieswhowouldhavebeeninanothertimeandplacecollegeprofessors.Theywerebrilliant,buttheycouldn’tgetthejobstheywanted,andpublicteachingwaswhattheydidbecauseitwassecurityandithadapensionandyoudidn’tgetlaidoff.”
Thesamedynamicbenefitedthemembersofthat
generationwhentheywentofftocollege.HereisTedFriedman,oneofthetoplitigatorsinNewYorkinthe1970sand1980s.LikeFlom,hegrewuppoor,thechildofstrugglingJewishimmigrants.
“MyoptionswereCityCollegeandtheUniversityofMichigan,”Friedmansaid.CityCollegewasfree,andMichigan—then,asnow,oneofthetopuniversitiesinthe
UnitedStates—was$450ayear.“Andthethingwas,afterthefirstyear,youcouldgetascholarshipifyourgradeswerehigh,”Friedmansaid.“SoitwasonlythefirstyearIhadtopaythat,ifIdidwell.”Friedman’sfirstinclinationwastostayinNewYork.“Well,IwenttoCityCollegeforoneday,Ididn’tlikeit.Ithought,Thisisgoingtobefourmoreyears
ofBronxScience[thehighschoolhehadattended],andcamehome,packedmybags,andhitchhikedtoAnnArbor.”Hewenton:
Ihadacoupleofhundreddollarsinmypocketfromthesummer.IwasworkingtheCatskillstomakeenoughmoney
topaythefour-hundred-fifty-dollartuition,andIhadsomeleftover.ThentherewasthisfancyrestaurantinAnnArborwhereIgotajobwaitingtables.IalsoworkedthenightshiftatRiverRouge,thebigFordplant.Thatwasrealmoney.Itwasn’tsohardtogetthatjob.
Thefactorieswerelookingforpeople.Ihadanotherjobtoo,whichpaidmethebestpayIeverhadbeforeIbecamealawyer,whichwasworkinginconstruction.Duringthesummer,inAnnArbor,webuilttheChryslerprovinggrounds.Iworkedthereafewsummers
duringlawschool.Thosejobswerereallyhighpaying,probablybecauseyouworkedsomuchovertime.
Thinkaboutthisstoryforamoment.ThefirstlessonisthatFriedmanwaswillingtoworkhard,takeresponsibilityforhimself,andputhimselfthroughschool.Butthe
second,perhapsmoreimportantlessonisthathehappenedtocomealongatatimeinAmericawhenifyouwerewillingtoworkhard,youcouldtakeresponsibilityforyourselfandputyourselfthroughschool.Friedmanwas,atthetime,whatwewouldtodaycall“economicallydisadvantaged.”Hewasaninner-citykidfromtheBronx,
neitherofwhoseparentswenttocollege.Butlookathoweasyitwasforhimtogetagoodeducation.HegraduatedfromhispublichighschoolinNewYorkatatimewhenNewYorkCitypublicschoolsweretheenvyoftheworld.Hisfirstoption,CityCollege,wasfree,andhissecondoption,theUniversityofMichigan,costjust$450—andtheadmissionsprocess
wascasualenough,apparently,thathecouldtryoneschoolonedayandtheotherthenext.
Andhowdidhegetthere?Hehitchhiked,withthemoneythathemadeinthesummerinhispocket,andwhenhearrived,heimmediatelygotaseriesofreallygoodjobstohelppayhisway,becausethefactorieswere“lookingforpeople.”
Andofcoursetheywere:theyhadtofeedtheneedsofthebiggenerationjustaheadofthoseborninthedemographictroughofthe1930s,andthebiggenerationofbabyboomerscomingupbehindthem.Thesenseofpossibilitysonecessaryforsuccesscomesnotjustfrominsideusorfromourparents.Itcomesfromourtime:fromtheparticularopportunities
thatourparticularplaceinhistorypresentsuswith.Forayoungwould-belawyer,beingbornintheearly1930swasamagictime,justasbeingbornin1955wasforasoftwareprogrammer,orbeingbornin1835wasforanentrepreneur.
Today,MortJanklowhasanofficehighaboveParkAvenuefilledwithgorgeousworksofmodernart—a
Dubuffet,anAnselmKiefer.Hetellshilariousstories.(“Mymotherhadtwosisters.Onelivedtobeninety-nineandtheotherdiedatninety.Theninety-nine-year-oldwasasmartwoman.ShemarriedmyUncleAl,whowasthechiefofsalesforMaidenform.OnceIsaidtohim,‘What’stherestofthecountrylike,UncleAl?’Andhesaid,‘Kiddo.Whenyou
leaveNewYork,everyplaceisBridgeport.’”)Hegivesthesensethattheworldishisforthetaking.“I’vealwaysbeenabigrisktaker,”hesays.“WhenIbuiltthecablecompany,intheearlystages,IwasmakingdealswhereIwouldhavebeenbankruptifIhadn’tpulleditoff.IhadconfidencethatIcouldmakeitwork.”
MortJanklowwentto
NewYorkCitypublicschoolswhentheywereattheirbest.MauriceJanklowwenttoNewYorkCitypublicschoolswhentheywereattheirmostovercrowded.MortJanklowwenttoColumbiaUniversityLawSchool,becausedemographictroughbabieshavetheirpickofselectiveschools.MauriceJanklowwenttoBrooklynLaw
School,whichwasasgoodasanimmigrantchildcoulddoin1919.MortJanklowsoldhiscablebusinessfortensofmillionsofdollars.MauriceJanklowclosedtitlesfortwenty-fivedollars.ThestoryoftheJanklowstellsusthatthemeteoricriseofJoeFlomcouldnothavehappenedatjustanytime.Eventhemostgiftedoflawyers,equippedwiththebestoffamily
lessons,cannotescapethelimitationsoftheirgeneration.
“Mymotherwascoherentuntilthelastfiveorsixmonthsofherlife,”MortJanklowsaid.“Andinherdeliriumshetalkedaboutthingsthatshe’dnevertalkedaboutbefore.Sheshedtearsoverherfriendsdyinginthe1918fluepidemic.Thatgeneration—myparents’
generation—livedthroughalot.Theylivedthroughthatepidemic,whichtook,what?tenpercentoftheworld’spopulation.Panicinthestreets.Friendsdying.AndthentheFirstWorldWar,thentheDepression,thentheSecondWorldWar.Theydidn’thavemuchofachance.Thatwasaverytoughperiod.Myfatherwouldhavebeenmuchmoresuccessfulina
differentkindofworld.”
LessonNumberThree:TheGarmentIndustryandMeaningfulWork
8.In1889,LouisandReginaBorgenichtboardedanoceanlinerinHamburgboundforAmerica.LouiswasfromGalacia,inwhatwasthen
Poland.ReginawasfromasmalltowninHungary.Theyhadbeenmarriedonlyafewyearsandhadonesmallchildandasecondontheway.Forthethirteen-dayjourney,theysleptonstrawmattressesonadeckabovetheengineroom,hangingtighttotheirbunkbedsastheshippitchedandrolled.TheyknewonepersoninNewYork:Borgenicht’ssister,Sallie,whohad
immigratedtenyearsbefore.Theyhadenoughmoneytolastafewweeks,atbest.LikesomanyotherimmigrantstoAmericainthoseyears,theirswasaleapoffaith.
LouisandReginafoundatinyapartmentonEldridgeStreet,onManhattan’sLowerEastSide,for$8amonth.Louisthentooktothestreets,lookingforwork.Hesawpeddlersandfruitsellersand
sidewalkscrammedwithpushcarts.ThenoiseandactivityandenergydwarfedwhathehadknownintheOldWorld.Hewasfirstoverwhelmed,theninvigorated.Hewenttohissister’sfishstoreonLudlowStreetandpersuadedhertogivehimaconsignmentofherringoncredit.Hesetupshoponthesidewalkwithtwobarrelsoffish,hopping
backandforthbetweenthemandchantinginGerman:
ForfryingForbakingForcookingGoodalsoforeatingHerringwilldoforeverymeal,Andforeveryclass!
Bytheendoftheweek,he
hadcleared$8.Bythesecondweek,$13.Thosewereconsiderablesums.ButLouisandReginacouldnotseehowsellingherringonthestreetwouldleadtoaconstructivebusiness.Louisthendecidedtotrybeingapushcartpeddler.Hesoldtowelsandtablecloths,withoutmuchluck.Heswitchedtonotebooks,thenbananas,thensocksandstockings.Was
therereallyafutureinpushcarts?Reginagavebirthtoasecondchild,adaughter,andLouis’surgencygrew.Henowhadfourmouthstofeed.
TheanswercametohimafterfivelongdaysofwalkingupanddownthestreetsoftheLowerEastSide,justashewasabouttogiveuphope.Hewassittingonanoverturnedbox,eatingalatelunchofthesandwiches
Reginahadmadeforhim.Itwasclothes.Everywherearoundhimstoreswereopening—suits,dresses,overalls,shirts,skirts,blouses,trousers,allmadeandreadytobeworn.Comingfromaworldwhereclothingwassewnathomebyhandormadetoorderbytailors,thiswasarevelation.
“Tomethegreatestwonderinthiswasnotthe
merequantityofgarments—althoughthatwasamiracleinitself—”Borgenichtwouldwriteyearslater,afterhebecameaprosperousmanufacturerofwomen’sandchildren’sclothing,“butthefactthatinAmericaevenpoorpeoplecouldsaveallthedreary,time-consuminglaborofmakingtheirownclothessimplybygoingintoastoreandwalkingoutwithwhat
theyneeded.Therewasafieldtogointo,afieldtothrillto.”
Borgenichttookoutasmallnotebook.Everywherehewent,hewrotedownwhatpeoplewerewearingandwhatwasforsale—menswear,women’swear,children’swear.Hewantedtofinda“novel”item,somethingthatpeoplewouldwearthatwasnotbeingsold
inthestores.Forfourmoredayshewalkedthestreets.Ontheeveningofthefinaldayashewalkedtowardhome,hesawahalfdozengirlsplayinghopscotch.Oneofthegirlswaswearingatinyembroideredapronoverherdress,cutlowinthefrontwithatieintheback,anditstruckhim,suddenly,thatinhispreviousdaysofrelentlesslyinventoryingthe
clothingshopsoftheLowerEastSide,hehadneverseenoneofthoseapronsforsale.
HecamehomeandtoldRegina.ShehadanancientsewingmachinethattheyhadboughtupontheirarrivalinAmerica.Thenextmorning,hewenttoadry-goodsstoreonHesterStreetandboughtahundredyardsofginghamandfiftyyardsofwhitecrossbar.Hecamebackto
theirtinyapartmentandlaidthegoodsoutonthediningroomtable.Reginabegantocutthegingham—smallsizesfortoddlers,largerforsmallchildren—untilshehadfortyaprons.Shebegantosew.Atmidnight,shewenttobedandLouistookupwhereshehadleftoff.Atdawn,sheroseandbegancuttingbuttonholesandaddingbuttons.Byteninthemorning,theapronswere
finished.LouisgatheredthemupoverhisarmandventuredoutontoHesterStreet.
“Children’saprons!Littlegirls’aprons!Coloredones,tencents.Whiteones,fifteencents!Littlegirls’aprons!”
Byoneo’clock,allfortyweregone.
“Ma,we’vegotourbusiness,”heshoutedouttoRegina,afterrunningallthewayhomefromHesterStreet.
Hegrabbedherbythewaistandbeganswingingheraroundandaround.
“You’vegottohelpme,”hecriedout.“We’llworktogether!Ma,thisisourbusiness.”
9.JewishimmigrantsliketheFlomsandtheBorgenichtsandtheJanklowswerenot
liketheotherimmigrantswhocametoAmericainthenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturies.TheIrishandtheItalianswerepeasants,tenantfarmersfromtheimpoverishedcountrysideofEurope.NotsotheJews.ForcenturiesinEurope,theyhadbeenforbiddentoownland,sotheyhadclusteredincitiesandtowns,takingupurbantradesandprofessions.
SeventypercentoftheEasternEuropeanJewswhocamethroughEllisIslandinthethirtyyearsorsobeforetheFirstWorldWarhadsomekindofoccupationalskill.Theyhadownedsmallgroceriesorjewelrystores.Theyhadbeenbookbindersorwatchmakers.Overwhelmingly,though,theirexperiencelayintheclothingtrade.Theywere
tailorsanddressmakers,hatandcapmakers,andfurriersandtanners.
LouisBorgenicht,forexample,lefttheimpoverishedhomeofhisparentsatagetwelvetoworkasasalesclerkinageneralstoreinthePolishtownofBrzesko.WhentheopportunitycametoworkinSchnittwarenHandlung(literally,thehandlingof
clothandfabricsor“piecegoods,”astheywereknown),hejumpedatit.“Inthosedays,thepiece-goodsmanwasclothiertotheworld,”hewrites,“andofthethreefundamentalsrequiredforlifeinthatsimplesociety,foodandshelterwerehumble.Clothingwasthearistocrat.Practitionersoftheclothingart,dealersinwonderfulclothsfromeverycornerof
Europe,traderswhovisitedthecentersofindustryontheirannualbuyingtours—thesewerethemerchantprincesofmyyouth.Theirvoiceswereheard,theirweightfelt.”
BorgenichtworkedinpiecegoodsforamannamedEpstein,thenmovedontoastoreinneighboringJaslowcalledBrandstatter’s.Itwastherethattheyoung
Borgenichtlearnedtheinsandoutsofallthedozensofdifferentvarietiesofcloth,tothepointwherehecouldrunhishandoverafabricandtellyouthethreadcount,thenameofthemanufacturer,anditsplaceoforigin.Afewyearslater,BorgenichtmovedtoHungaryandmetRegina.Shehadbeenrunningadressmakingbusinesssincetheageofsixteen.Together
theyopenedaseriesofsmallpiece-goodsstores,painstakinglylearningthedetailsofsmall-businessentrepreneurship.
Borgenicht’sgreatbrainstormthatdayontheupturnedbox,then,didnotcomefromnowhere.HewasaveteranofSchnittwarenHandlung,andhiswifewasaseasoneddressmaker.Thiswastheirfield.Andatthe
sametimeastheBorgenichtssetupshopinsidetheirtinyapartment,thousandsofotherJewishimmigrantsweredoingthesamething,puttingtheirsewinganddressmakingandtailoringskillstouse,tothepointwhereby1900,controlofthegarmentindustryhadpassedalmostentirelyintothehandsoftheEasternEuropeannewcomers.AsBorgenicht
putsit,theJews“bitdeepintothewelcominglandandworkedlikemadmenatwhattheyknew.”
Today,atatimewhenNewYorkisatthecenterofanenormousanddiversifiedmetropolitanarea,itiseasytoforgetthesignificanceofthesetofskillsthatimmigrantsliketheBorgenichtsbroughttotheNewWorld.Fromthelatenineteenthcentury
throughthemiddleofthetwentiethcentury,thegarmenttradewasthelargestandmosteconomicallyvibrantindustryinthecity.MorepeopleworkedmakingclothesinNewYorkthanatanythingelse,andmoreclothesweremanufacturedinNewYorkthaninanyothercityintheworld.Thedistinctivebuildingsthatstillstandonthelowerhalfof
BroadwayinManhattan—fromthebigten-andfifteen-storyindustrialwarehousesinthetwentyblocksbelowTimesSquaretothecast-ironloftsofSoHoandTribeca—werealmostallbuilttohousecoatmakersandhatmakersandlingeriemanufacturersandhugeroomsofmenandwomenhunchedoversewingmachines.TocometoNewYorkCityinthe1890switha
backgroundindressmakingorsewingorSchnittwarenHandlungwasastrokeofextraordinarygoodfortune.ItwaslikeshowingupinSiliconValleyin1986withtenthousandhoursofcomputerprogrammingalreadyunderyourbelt.
“ThereisnodoubtthatthoseJewishimmigrantsarrivedattheperfecttime,withtheperfectskills,”says
thesociologistStephenSteinberg.“Toexploitthatopportunity,youhadtohavecertainvirtues,andthoseimmigrantsworkedhard.Theysacrificed.Theyscrimpedandsavedandinvestedwisely.Butstill,youhavetorememberthatthegarmentindustryinthoseyearswasgrowingbyleapsandbounds.Theeconomywasdesperatefortheskills
thattheypossessed.”LouisandRegina
Borgenichtandthethousandsofotherswhocameoverontheboatswiththemweregivenagoldenopportunity.Andsoweretheirchildrenandgrandchildren,becausethelessonsthosegarmentworkersbroughthomewiththemintheeveningsturnedouttobecriticalforgettingaheadintheworld.
10.ThedayafterLouisandReginaBorgenichtsoldouttheirfirstlotoffortyaprons,LouismadehiswaytoH.B.ClaflinandCompany.Claflinwasadry-goods“commission”house,theequivalentofBrandstatter’sbackinPoland.There,BorgenichtaskedforasalesmanwhospokeGerman,
sincehisEnglishwasalmostnonexistent.HehadinhishandhisandRegina’slifesavings—$12—andwiththatmoney,heboughtenoughclothtomaketendozenaprons.Dayandnight,heandReginacutandsewed.Hesoldalltendozenintwodays.BackhewenttoClaflinforanotherround.Theysoldthosetoo.Beforelong,heandReginahiredanother
immigrantjustofftheboattohelpwiththechildrensoReginacouldsewfull-time,andthenanothertoserveasanapprentice.LouisventureduptownasfarasHarlem,sellingtothemothersinthetenements.HerentedastorefrontonSheriffStreet,withlivingquartersintheback.Hehiredthreemoregirls,andboughtsewingmachinesforallofthem.He
becameknownas“theapronman.”HeandReginaweresellingapronsasfastastheycouldmakethem.
Beforelong,theBorgenichtsdecidedtobranchout.Theystartedmakingadultaprons,thenpetticoats,thenwomen’sdresses.ByJanuaryof1892,theBorgenichtshadtwentypeopleworkingforthem,mostlyimmigrantJewslike
themselves.TheyhadtheirownfactoryontheLowerEastSideofManhattanandagrowinglistofcustomers,includingastoreuptownownedbyanotherJewishimmigrantfamily,theBloomingdalebrothers.KeepinmindtheBorgenichtshadbeeninthecountryforonlythreeyearsatthispoint.TheybarelyspokeEnglish.Andtheyweren’trichyetbyany
stretchoftheimagination.Whateverprofittheymadegotplowedbackintotheirbusiness,andBorgenichtsayshehadonly$200inthebank.Butalreadyhewasinchargeofhisowndestiny.
Thiswasthesecondgreatadvantageofthegarmentindustry.Itwasn’tjustthatitwasgrowingbyleapsandbounds.Itwasalsoexplicitlyentrepreneurial.Clothes
weren’tmadeinasinglebigfactory.Instead,anumberofestablishedfirmsdesignedpatternsandpreparedthefabric,andthenthecomplicatedstitchingandpressingandbuttonattachingwereallsentouttosmallcontractors.Andifacontractorgotbigenough,orambitiousenough,hestarteddesigninghisownpatternsandpreparinghisownfabric.
By1913,therewereapproximatelysixteenthousandseparatecompaniesinNewYorkCity’sgarmentbusiness,manyjustliketheBorgenichts’shoponSheriffStreet.
“Thethresholdforgettinginvolvedinthebusinesswasverylow.It’sbasicallyabusinessbuiltonthesewingmachine,andsewingmachinesdon’tcostthat
much,”saysDanielSoyer,ahistorianwhohaswrittenwidelyonthegarmentindustry.“Soyoudidn’tneedalotofcapital.Attheturnofthetwentiethcentury,itwasprobablyfiftydollarstobuyamachineortwo.Allyouhadtodotobeacontractorwastohaveacouplesewingmachines,someirons,andacoupleofworkers.Theprofitmarginswereverylowbut
youcouldmakesomemoney.”
ListentohowBorgenichtdescribeshisdecisiontoexpandbeyondaprons:
FrommystudyofthemarketIknewthatonlythreemenweremakingchildren’sdressesin1890.OnewasanEastSidetailor
nearme,whomadeonlytoorder,whiletheothertwoturnedoutanexpensiveproductwithwhichIhadnodesireatalltocompete.Iwantedtomake“popularprice”stuff—washdresses,silks,andwoolens.Itwasmygoaltoproducedressesthatthegreatmassofthepeople
couldafford,dressesthatwould—fromthebusinessangle—sellequallywelltobothlargeandsmall,cityandcountrystores.WithRegina’shelp—shealwayshadexcellenttaste,andjudgment—Imadeupalineofsamples.Displayingthemtoallmy“old”customers
andfriends,Ihammeredhomeeverypoint—mydresseswouldsavemothersendlesswork,thematerialsandsewingwereasgoodandprobablybetterthananythingthatcouldbedoneathome,thepricewasrightforquickdisposal.
Ononeoccasion,Borgenichtrealizedthathisonlychancetoundercutbiggerfirmswastoconvincethewholesalerstosellclothtohimdirectly,eliminatingthemiddleman.HewenttoseeaMr.BinghamatLawrenceandCompany,a“tall,gaunt,white-beardedYankeewithsteel-blueeyes.”Therethetwoofthemwere,theimmigrantfromrural
Poland,hiseyesringedwithfatigue,facingoffinhishaltingEnglishagainsttheimperiousYankee.Borgenichtsaidhewantedtobuyfortycasesofcashmere.Binghamhadneverbeforesoldtoanindividualcompany,letaloneashoestringoperationonSheriffStreet.
“Youhaveahellofacheekcominginhereand
askingmeforfavors!”Binghamthundered.Butheendedupsayingyes.
WhatBorgenichtwasgettinginhiseighteen-hourdayswasalessoninthemoderneconomy.Hewaslearningmarketresearch.Hewaslearningmanufacturing.HewaslearninghowtonegotiatewithimperiousYankees.Hewaslearninghowtoplughimselfinto
popularcultureinordertounderstandnewfashiontrends.
TheIrishandItalianimmigrantswhocametoNewYorkinthesameperioddidn’thavethatadvantage.Theydidn’thaveaskillspecifictotheurbaneconomy.Theywenttoworkasdaylaborersanddomesticsandconstructionworkers—jobswhereyoucouldshow
upforworkeverydayforthirtyyearsandneverlearnmarketresearchandmanufacturingandhowtonavigatethepopularcultureandhowtonegotiatewiththeYankees,whorantheworld.
OrconsiderthefateoftheMexicanswhoimmigratedtoCaliforniabetween1900andtheendofthe1920stoworkinthefieldsofthebigfruitandvegetablegrowers.They
simplyexchangedthelifeofafeudalpeasantinMexicoforthelifeofafeudalpeasantinCalifornia.“Theconditionsinthegarmentindustrywereeverybitasbad,”Soyergoeson.“Butasagarmentworker,youwereclosertothecenteroftheindustry.IfyouareworkinginafieldinCalifornia,youhavenocluewhat’shappeningtotheproducewhenitgetsonthe
truck.Ifyouareworkinginasmallgarmentshop,yourwagesarelow,andyourconditionsareterrible,andyourhoursarelong,butyoucanseeexactlywhatthesuccessfulpeoplearedoing,andyoucanseehowyoucansetupyourownjob.”*
WhenBorgenichtcamehomeatnighttohischildren,hemayhavebeentiredandpoorandoverwhelmed,but
hewasalive.Hewashisownboss.Hewasresponsibleforhisowndecisionsanddirection.Hisworkwascomplex:itengagedhismindandimagination.Andinhiswork,therewasarelationshipbetweeneffortandreward:thelongerheandReginastayedupatnightsewingaprons,themoremoneytheymadethenextdayonthestreets.
Thosethreethings—autonomy,complexity,andaconnectionbetweeneffortandreward—are,mostpeopleagree,thethreequalitiesthatworkhastohaveifitistobesatisfying.Itisnothowmuchmoneywemakethatultimatelymakesushappybetweennineandfive.It’swhetherourworkfulfillsus.IfIofferedyouachoicebetweenbeinganarchitect
for$75,000ayearandworkinginatollbootheverydayfortherestofyourlifefor$100,000ayear,whichwouldyoutake?I’mguessingtheformer,becausethereiscomplexity,autonomy,andarelationshipbetweeneffortandrewardindoingcreativework,andthat’sworthmoretomostofusthanmoney.
Workthatfulfillsthosethreecriteriaismeaningful.
Beingateacherismeaningful.Beingaphysicianismeaningful.Soisbeinganentrepreneur,andthemiracleofthegarmentindustry—ascutthroatandgrimasitwas—wasthatitallowedpeopleliketheBorgenichts,justofftheboat,tofindsomethingmeaningfultodoaswell.*WhenLouisBorgenichtcamehomeafterfirstseeingthatchild’sapron,
hedancedajig.Hehadn’tsoldanythingyet.Hewasstillpennilessanddesperate,andheknewthattomakesomethingofhisideawasgoingtorequireyearsofbackbreakinglabor.Buthewasecstatic,becausetheprospectofthoseendlessyearsofhardlabordidnotseemlikeaburdentohim.BillGateshadthatsamefeelingwhenhefirstsatdown
atthekeyboardatLakeside.AndtheBeatlesdidn’trecoilinhorrorwhentheyweretoldtheyhadtoplayeighthoursanight,sevendaysaweek.Theyjumpedatthechance.Hardworkisaprisonsentenceonlyifitdoesnothavemeaning.Onceitdoes,itbecomesthekindofthingthatmakesyougrabyourwifearoundthewaistanddanceajig.
Themostimportantconsequenceofthemiracleofthegarmentindustry,though,waswhathappenedtothechildrengrowingupinthosehomeswheremeaningfulworkwaspracticed.ImaginewhatitmusthavebeenliketowatchthemeteoricriseofReginaandLouisBorgenichtthroughtheeyesofoneoftheiroffspring.Theylearnedthesamelessonthatlittle
AlexWilliamswouldlearnnearlyacenturylater—alessoncrucialtothosewhowantedtotackletheupperreachesofaprofessionlikelawormedicine:ifyouworkhardenoughandassertyourself,anduseyourmindandimagination,youcanshapetheworldtoyourdesires.
11.In1982,asociologygraduatestudentnamedLouiseFarkaswenttovisitanumberofnursinghomesandresidentialhotelsinNewYorkCityandMiamiBeach.ShewaslookingforpeopleliketheBorgenichts,or,moreprecisely,thechildrenofpeopleliketheBorgenichts,whohadcometoNewYork
inthegreatwaveofJewishimmigrationattheturnofthelastcentury.Andforeachofthepeoplesheinterviewed,sheconstructedafamilytreeshowingwhatalineofparentsandchildrenandgrandchildrenand,insomecases,great-grandchildrendidforaliving.
Hereisheraccountof“subject#18”:
ARussiantailorartisancomestoAmerica,takestotheneedletrade,worksinasweatshopforasmallsalary.Latertakesgarmentstofinishathomewiththehelpofhiswifeandolderchildren.Inordertoincreasehissalaryheworksthroughthenight.Laterhemakesagarmentandsellsiton
NewYorkstreets.Heaccumulatessomecapitalandgoesintoabusinessventurewithhissons.Theyopenashoptocreatemen’sgarments.TheRussiantailorandhissonsbecomemen’ssuitmanufacturerssupplyingseveralmen’sstores….Thesonsandthefather
becomeprosperous….Thesons’childrenbecomeeducatedprofessionals.
Here’sanother.It’satannerwhoemigratedfromPolandinthelatenineteenthcentury.
Farkas’sJewishfamilytreesgoonforpages,eachvirtuallyidenticaltotheonebefore,untiltheconclusionbecomesinescapable:Jewishdoctorsandlawyersdidnotbecomeprofessionalsinspiteoftheirhumbleorigins.Theybecameprofessionalsbecauseoftheirhumbleorigins.
TedFriedman,theprominentlitigatorinthe1970sand1980s,remembersasachildgoingtoconcertswithhismotheratCarnegieHall.TheywerepoorandlivinginthefarthestcornersoftheBronx.Howdidtheyaffordtickets?“Marygotaquarter,”Friedmansays.“TherewasaMarywhowasatickettaker,andifyougaveMaryaquarter,shewouldlet
youstandinthesecondbalcony,withoutaticket.CarnegieHalldidn’tknowaboutit.ItwasjustbetweenyouandMary.Itwasabitofajourney,butwewouldgobackonceortwiceamonth.”*
Friedman’smotherwasaRussianimmigrant.ShebarelyspokeEnglish.Butshehadgonetoworkasaseamstressattheageoffifteenandhadbecomea
prominentgarmentunionorganizer,andwhatyoulearninthatworldisthatthroughyourownpowersofpersuasionandinitiative,youcantakeyourkidstoCarnegieHall.Thereisnobetterlessonforabuddinglawyerthanthat.Thegarmentindustrywasbootcampfortheprofessions.
WhatdidJoeFlom’sfatherdo?Hesewedshoulder
padsforwomen’sdresses.WhatdidRobertOppenheimer’sfatherdo?Hewasagarmentmanufacturer,likeLouisBorgenicht.OneflightupfromFlom’scornerofficeatSkadden,ArpsistheofficeofBarryGarfinkel,whohasbeenatSkadden,ArpsnearlyaslongasFlomandwhoformanyyearsheadedthefirm’slitigationdepartment.Whatdid
Garfinkel’smotherdo?Shewasamilliner.Shemadehatsathome.WhatdidtwoofLouisandReginaBorgenicht’ssonsdo?Theywenttolawschool,andnolessthannineoftheirgrandchildrenendedupasdoctorsandlawyersaswell.
HereisthemostremarkableofFarkas’sfamilytrees.ItbelongstoaJewishfamilyfromRomaniawho
hadasmallgrocerystoreintheOldCountryandthencametoNewYorkandopenedanother,ontheLowerEastSideofManhattan.ItisthemostelegantanswertothequestionofwherealltheJoeFlomscamefrom.
12.TenblocksnorthoftheSkadden,ArpsheadquartersinmidtownManhattanaretheofficesofJoeFlom’sgreatrival,thelawfirmgenerallyregardedasthefinestintheworld.
ItisheadquarteredintheprestigiousofficebuildingknownasBlackRock.Togethiredtheretakesasmall
miracle.UnlikeNewYork’sothermajorlawfirms,allofwhichhavehundredsofattorneysscatteredaroundthemajorcapitalsoftheworld,itoperatesonlyoutofthatsingleManhattanbuilding.Itturnsdownmuchmorebusinessthanitaccepts.Unlikeeveryoneofitscompetitors,itdoesnotbillbythehour.Itsimplynamesafee.Once,whiledefending
Kmartagainstatakeover,thefirmbilled$20millionfortwoweeks’work.Kmartpaid—happily.Ifitsattorneysdonotoutsmartyou,theywilloutworkyou,andiftheycan’toutworkyou,they’llwinthroughsheerintimidation.Thereisnofirmintheworldthathasmademoremoney,lawyerforlawyer,overthepasttwodecades.OnJoeFlom’swall,
nexttopicturesofFlomwithGeorgeBushSr.andBillClinton,thereisapictureofhimwiththerivalfirm’smanagingpartner.
NoonerisestothetopoftheNewYorklegalprofessionunlessheorsheissmartandambitiousandhardworking,andclearlythefourmenwhofoundedtheBlackRockfirmfitthatdescription.Butweknowfar
morethanthat,don’twe?Successisnotarandomact.Itarisesoutofapredictableandpowerfulsetofcircumstancesandopportunities,andatthispoint,afterexaminingthelivesofBillJoyandBillGates,prohockeyplayersandgeniuses,andJoeFlom,theJanklows,andtheBorgenichts,itshouldn’tbehardtofigureoutwherethe
perfectlawyercomesfrom.Thispersonwillhave
beenborninademographictrough,soastohavehadthebestofNewYork’spublicschoolsandtheeasiesttimeinthejobmarket.HewillbeJewish,ofcourse,andso,lockedoutoftheold-linedowntownlawfirmsonaccountofhis“antecedents.”Thisperson’sparentswillhavedonemeaningfulwork
inthegarmentbusiness,passingontotheirchildrenautonomyandcomplexityandtheconnectionbetweeneffortandreward.Agoodschool—althoughitdoesn’thavetobeagreatschool—willhavebeenattended.Heneednothavebeenthesmartestintheclass,onlysmartenough.
Infact,wecanbeevenmoreprecise.Justasthereis
aperfectbirthdateforanineteenth-centurybusinesstycoon,andaperfectbirthdateforasoftwaretycoon,thereisaperfectbirthdateforaNewYorkJewishlawyeraswell.It’s1930,becausethatwouldgivethelawyerthebenefitofablessedlysmallgeneration.Itwouldalsomakehimfortyyearsofagein1970,whentherevolutioninthelegalworldfirstbegan,
whichtranslatestoahealthyfifteen-yearHamburgperiodinthetakeoverbusinesswhilethewhite-shoelawyerslingered,oblivious,overtheirtwo-martinilunches.IfyouwanttobeagreatNewYorklawyer,itisanadvantagetobeanoutsider,anditisanadvantagetohaveparentswhodidmeaningfulwork,and,betterstill,itisanadvantagetohavebeenborn
intheearly1930s.Butifyouhaveallthreeadvantages—ontopofagooddoseofingenuityanddrive—thenthat’sanunstoppablecombination.That’slikebeingahockeyplayerbornonJanuary1.
TheBlackRocklawfirmisWachtell,Lipton,Rosen&Katz.Thefirm’sfirstpartnerwasHerbertWachtell.Hewasbornin1931.Hegrewup
intheAmalgamatedClothingWorkersunionhousingacrossfromVanCortlandtPark,intheBronx.HisparentswereJewishimmigrantsfromtheUkraine.Hisfatherwasintheladies’undergarmentbusinesswithhisbrothers,onthesixthfloorofwhatisnowafancyloftatBroadwayandSpringStreetinSoHo.HewenttoNewYorkCitypublicschoolsin
the1940s,thentoNewYorkUniversity,andthentoNewYorkUniversityLawSchool.
ThesecondpartnerwasMartinLipton.Hewasbornin1931.Hisfatherwasamanageratafactory.HewasadescendantofJewishimmigrants.HeattendedpublicschoolsinJerseyCity,thentheUniversityofPennsylvania,thenNewYorkUniversityLawSchool.
ThethirdpartnerwasLeonardRosen.Hewasbornin1930.HegrewuppoorintheBronx,nearYankeeStadium.HisparentswereJewishimmigrantsfromtheUkraine.HisfatherworkedinthegarmentdistrictinManhattanasapresser.HewenttoNewYorkCitypublicschoolsinthe1940s,thentoCityCollegeinupperManhattan,andthentoNew
YorkUniversityLawSchool.Thefourthpartnerwas
GeorgeKatz.Hewasbornin1931.Hegrewupinaone-bedroomfirst-floorapartmentintheBronx.HisparentswerethechildrenofJewishimmigrantsfromEasternEurope.Hisfathersoldinsurance.Hisgrandfather,wholivedafewblocksaway,wasasewerinthegarmenttrade,doingpieceworkoutof
hishouse.HewenttoNewYorkCitypublicschoolsinthe1940s,thentoCityCollegeinupperManhattan,andthentoNewYorkUniversityLawSchool.
Imaginethatwehadmetanyoneofthesefourfreshoutoflawschool,sittingintheelegantwaitingroomatMudgeRosenexttoablue-eyedNordictypefromthe“right”background.We’dall
havebetontheNordictype.Andwewouldhavebeenwrong,becausetheKatzesandtheRosensandtheLiptonsandtheWachtellsandtheFlomshadsomethingthattheNordictypedidnot.Theirworld—theircultureandgenerationandfamilyhistory—gavethemthegreatestofopportunities.
PARTTWO
LEGACY
CHAPTERSIX
Harlan,Kentucky
“DIELIKEAMAN,LIKEYOURBROTHERDID!”
1.Inthesoutheasterncornerof
Kentucky,inthestretchoftheAppalachianMountainsknownastheCumberlandPlateau,liesasmalltowncalledHarlan.
TheCumberlandPlateauisawildandmountainousregionofflat-toppedridges,mountainwallsfivehundredtoathousandfeethigh,andnarrowvalleys,somewideenoughonlyforaone-laneroadandacreek.Whenthe
areawasfirstsettled,theplateauwascoveredwithadenseprimevalforest.Gianttulippoplarsgrewinthecovesandatthefootofthehills,somewithtrunksaswideassevenoreightfeetindiameter.Alongsidethemwerewhiteoaks,beeches,maples,walnuts,sycamores,birches,willows,cedars,pines,andhemlocks,allenmeshedinalatticeofwild
grapevine,comprisingoneofthegreatestassortmentofforesttreesintheNorthernHemisphere.Onthegroundwerebearsandmountainlionsandrattlesnakes;inthetreetops,anastonishingarrayofsquirrels;andbeneaththesoil,onethickseamafteranotherofcoal.
HarlanCountywasfoundedin1819byeightimmigrantfamiliesfromthe
northernregionsoftheBritishIsles.TheyhadcometoVirginiaintheeighteenthcenturyandthenmovedwestintotheAppalachiansinsearchofland.Thecountywasneverwealthy.Foritsfirstonehundredyears,itwasthinlypopulated,rarelynumberingmorethantenthousandpeople.Thefirstsettlerskeptpigsandherdedsheeponthehillsides,
scratchingoutalivingonsmallfarmsinthevalleys.Theymadewhiskeyinbackyardstillsandfelledtrees,floatingthemdowntheCumberlandRiverinthespring,whenthewaterwashigh.Untilwellintothetwentiethcentury,gettingtothenearesttrainstationwasatwo-daywagontrip.TheonlywayoutoftownwasupPineMountain,whichwasnine
steepmilesonaroadthatturnedonoccasionintonomorethanamuddy,rockytrail.Harlanwasaremoteandstrangeplace,unknownbythelargersocietyaroundit,anditmightwellhaveremainedsobutforthefactthattwoofthetown’sfoundingfamilies—theHowardsandtheTurners—didnotgetalong.
Thepatriarchofthe
HowardclanwasSamuelHoward.Hebuiltthetowncourthouseandthejail.HiscounterpartwasWilliamTurner,whoownedatavernandtwogeneralstores.OnceastormblewdownthefencetotheTurnerproperty,andaneighbor’scowwanderedontotheirland.WilliamTurner’sgrandson,“DevilJim,”shotthecowdead.Theneighborwastooterrifiedto
presschargesandfledthecounty.Anothertime,amantriedtoopenacompetitortotheTurners’generalstore.TheTurnershadawordwithhim.HeclosedthestoreandmovedtoIndiana.Thesewerenotpleasantpeople.
OnenightWixHowardand“LittleBob”Turner—thegrandsonsofSamuelandWilliam,respectively—playedagainsteachotherina
gameofpoker.Eachaccusedtheotherofcheating.Theyfought.Thefollowingdaytheymetinthestreet,andafteraflurryofgunshots,LittleBobTurnerlaydeadwithashotgunblasttothechest.AgroupofTurnerswenttotheHowards’generalstoreandspokeroughlytoMrs.Howard.ShewasinsultedandtoldhersonWilseHoward,andthe
followingweekheexchangedgunfirewithanotherofTurner’sgrandsons,youngWillTurner,ontheroadtoHagan,Virginia.ThatnightoneoftheTurnersandafriendattackedtheHowardhome.ThetwofamiliesthenclashedoutsidetheHarlancourthouse.Inthegunfire,WillTurnerwasshotandkilled.AcontingentofHowardsthenwenttosee
Mrs.Turner,themotherofWillTurnerandLittleBob,toaskforatruce.Shedeclined:“Youcan’twipeoutthatblood,”shesaid,pointingtothedirtwherehersonhaddied.
Thingsquicklywentfrombadtoworse.WilseHowardraninto“LittleGeorge”TurnernearSulphurSpringsandshothimdead.TheHowardsambushedthree
friendsoftheTurners—theCawoods—killingallofthem.ApossewassentoutinsearchoftheHowards.Intheresultinggunfight,sixmorewerekilledorwounded.WilseHowardheardtheTurnerswereafterhim,andheandafriendrodeintoHarlanandattackedtheTurnerhome.Ridingback,theHowardswereambushed.Inthefighting,another
persondied.WilseHowardrodetoGeorgeTurner’shouseandfiredathimbutmissedandkilledanotherman.ApossesurroundedtheHowardhome.Therewasanothergunfight.Moredead.Thecountywasinanuproar.Ithinkyougetthepicture.Therewereplacesinnineteenth-centuryAmericawherepeoplelivedinharmony.Harlan,Kentucky,
wasnotoneofthem.“Stopthat!”WillTurner’s
mothersnappedathimwhenhestaggeredhome,howlinginpainafterbeingshotinthecourthousegunbattlewiththeHowards.“Dielikeaman,likeyourbrotherdid!”Shebelongedtoaworldsowellacquaintedwithfatalgunshotsthatshehadcertainexpectationsabouthowtheyoughttobeendured.Will
shuthismouth,andhedied.
2.SupposeyouweresenttoHarlaninthelatenineteenthcenturytoinvestigatethecausesoftheHoward-Turnerfeud.Youlinedupeverysurvivingparticipantandinterviewedthemascarefullyasyoucould.Yousubpoenaeddocumentsand
tookdepositionsandporedovercourtrecordsuntilyouhadputtogetheradetailedandpreciseaccountingofeachstageinthedeadlyquarrel.
Howmuchwouldyouknow?Theansweris,notmuch.You’dlearnthatthereweretwofamiliesinHarlanwhodidn’tmuchlikeeachother,andyou’dconfirmthatWilseHoward,whowas
responsibleforanawfullotoftheviolence,probablybelongedbehindbars.WhathappenedinHarlanwouldn’tbecomeclearuntilyoulookedattheviolencefromamuchbroaderperspective.
ThefirstcriticalfactaboutHarlanisthatatthesametimethattheHowardsandtheTurnerswerekillingoneanother,therewerealmostidenticalclashesinother
smalltownsupanddowntheAppalachians.InthefamousHatfield-McCoyfeudontheWestVirginia–KentuckybordernotfarfromHarlan,severaldozenpeoplewerekilledinacycleofviolencethatstretchedovertwentyyears.IntheFrench-EversolefeudinPerryCounty,Kentucky,twelvedied,sixofthemkilledby“BadTom”Smith(aman,JohnEdPearce
writesinDaysofDarkness,whowas“justdumbenoughtobefearless,justbrightenoughtobedangerous,andadeadshot”).TheMartin-Tolliverfeud,inRowanCounty,Kentucky,inthemid-1880sfeaturedthreegunfights,threeambushes,andtwohouseattacks,andendedinatwo-hourgunbattleinvolvingonehundredarmedmen.TheBaker-
HowardfeudinClayCounty,Kentucky,beganin1806,withanelk-huntingpartygonebad,anddidn’tenduntilthe1930s,whenacoupleofHowardskilledthreeBakersinanambush.
Andthesewerejustthewell-knownfeuds.TheKentuckylegislatorHarryCaudilloncelookedinacircuitcourtclerk’sofficeinoneCumberlandPlateautown
andfoundonethousandmurderindictmentsstretchingfromtheendoftheCivilWar,inthe1860s,tothebeginningofthetwentiethcentury—andthisforaregionthatnevernumberedmorethanfifteenthousandpeopleandwheremanyviolentactsneverevenmadeittotheindictmentstage.CaudillwritesofamurdertrialinBreathittCounty—or
“BloodyBreathitt,”asitcametobeknown—thatendedabruptlywhenthedefendant’sfather,“amanofaboutfiftywithhugehandlebarwhiskersandtwoimmensepistols,”walkeduptothejudgeandgrabbedhisgavel:
Thefeudistrappedthebenchandannounced,
“Court’soverandever’bodycango.Weain’tagoin’tohaveanycourtherethisterm,folks.”Thered-facedjudgehastilyacquiescedinthisextraordinaryorderandpromptlylefttown.Whencourtconvenedatthenexttermthecourtandsheriffwerebolstered
bysixtymilitiamen,butbythenthedefendantwasnotavailablefortrial.Hehadbeenslainfromambush.
Whenonefamilyfightswithanother,it’safeud.Whenlotsoffamiliesfightwithoneanotherinidenticallittletownsupanddownthe
samemountainrange,it’sapattern.
WhatwasthecauseoftheAppalachianpattern?Overtheyears,manypotentialexplanationshavebeenexaminedanddebated,andtheconsensusappearstobethatthatregionwasplaguedbyaparticularlyvirulentstrainofwhatsociologistscalla“cultureofhonor.”
Culturesofhonortendto
takerootinhighlandsandothermarginallyfertileareas,suchasSicilyorthemountainousBasqueregionsofSpain.Ifyouliveonsomerockymountainside,theexplanationgoes,youcan’tfarm.Youprobablyraisegoatsorsheep,andthekindofculturethatgrowsuparoundbeingaherdsmanisverydifferentfromtheculturethatgrowsuparound
growingcrops.Thesurvivalofafarmerdependsonthecooperationofothersinthecommunity.Butaherdsmanisoffbyhimself.Farmersalsodon’thavetoworrythattheirlivelihoodwillbestoleninthenight,becausecropscan’teasilybestolenunless,ofcourse,athiefwantstogotothetroubleofharvestinganentirefieldonhisown.Butaherdsmandoeshavetoworry.
He’sunderconstantthreatofruinthroughthelossofhisanimals.Sohehastobeaggressive:hehastomakeitclear,throughhiswordsanddeeds,thatheisnotweak.Hehastobewillingtofightinresponsetoeventheslightestchallengetohisreputation—andthat’swhata“cultureofhonor”means.It’saworldwhereaman’sreputationisatthecenterofhislivelihood
andself-worth.“Thecriticalmomentin
thedevelopmentoftheyoungshepherd’sreputationishisfirstquarrel,”theethnographerJ.K.CampbellwritesofoneherdingcultureinGreece.“Quarrelsarenecessarilypublic.Theymayoccurinthecoffeeshop,thevillagesquare,ormostfrequentlyonagrazingboundarywhereacurseora
stoneaimedatoneofhisstrayingsheepbyanothershepherdisaninsultwhichinevitablyrequiresaviolentresponse.”
SowhywasAppalachiathewayitwas?Itwasbecauseofwheretheoriginalinhabitantsoftheregioncamefrom.Theso-calledAmericanbackcountrystates—fromthePennsylvaniabordersouthandwest
throughVirginiaandWestVirginia,KentuckyandTennessee,NorthCarolinaandSouthCarolina,andthenorthernendofAlabamaandGeorgia—weresettledoverwhelminglybyimmigrantsfromoneoftheworld’smostferociousculturesofhonor.Theywere“Scotch-Irish”—thatis,fromthelowlandsofScotland,thenortherncountiesofEngland,
andUlsterinNorthernIreland.
Theborderlands—asthisregionwasknown—wereremoteandlawlessterritoriesthathadbeenfoughtoverforhundredsofyears.Thepeopleoftheregionweresteepedinviolence.Theywereherdsmen,scrapingoutalivingonrockyandinfertileland.Theywereclannish,respondingtotheharshness
andturmoiloftheirenvironmentbyformingtightfamilybondsandplacingloyaltytobloodaboveallelse.AndwhentheyimmigratedtoNorthAmerica,theymovedintotheAmericaninterior,toremote,lawless,rocky,andmarginallyfertileplaceslikeHarlanthatallowedthemtoreproduceintheNewWorldthecultureofhonortheyhad
createdintheOldWorld.“Tothefirstsettlers,the
Americanbackcountrywasadangerousenvironment,justastheBritishborderlandshadbeen,”thehistorianDavidHackettFischerwritesinAlbion’sSeed.
Muchofthesouthernhighlandswere“debatablelands”in
thebordersenseofacontestedterritorywithoutestablishedgovernmentortheruleoflaw.Theborderersweremoreathomethanothersinthisanarchicenvironment,whichwaswellsuitedtotheirfamilysystem,theirwarriorethic,theirfarmingandherdingeconomy,their
attitudestowardlandandwealthandtheirideasofworkandpower.Sowelladaptedwastheborderculturetothisenvironmentthatotherethnicgroupstendedtocopyit.TheethosoftheNorthBritishborderscametodominatethis“darkandbloodyground,”partlyby
forceofnumbers,butmainlybecauseitwasameansofsurvivalinarawanddangerousworld.*
ThetriumphofacultureofhonorhelpstoexplainwhythepatternofcriminalityintheAmericanSouthhasalwaysbeensodistinctive.Murderratesarehigherthere
thanintherestofthecountry.Butcrimesofpropertyand“stranger”crimes—likemuggings—arelower.AsthesociologistJohnSheltonReedhaswritten,“ThehomicidesinwhichtheSouthseemstospecializearethoseinwhichsomeoneisbeingkilledbysomeonehe(oroftenshe)knows,forreasonsbothkillerandvictimunderstand.”Reedadds:“Thestatisticsshow
thattheSouthernerwhocanavoidargumentsandadulteryisassafeasanyotherAmerican,andprobablysafer.”Inthebackcountry,violencewasn’tforeconomicgain.Itwaspersonal.Youfoughtoveryourhonor.
Manyyearsago,thesouthernnewspapermanHoddingCartertoldthestoryofhowasayoungmanheservedonajury.AsReed
describesit:
Thecasebeforethejuryinvolvedanirasciblegentlemanwholivednextdoortoafillingstation.Forseveralmonthshehadbeenthebuttofvariousjokesplayedbytheattendantsandthemiscellaneous
loaferswhohungaroundthestation,despitehiswarningsandhisnotoriousshorttemper.Onemorning,heemptiedbothbarrelsofhisshotgunathistormenters,killingone,maiminganotherpermanently,andwoundingathird….Whenthejurywaspolledbythe
incredulousjudge,Carterwastheonlyjurorwhorecordedhisvoteasguilty.Asoneoftheothersputit,“Hewouldn’tofbeenmuchofamanifhehadn’tshotthemfellows.”
Onlyinacultureofhonorwouldithaveoccurredtothe
irasciblegentlemanthatshootingsomeonewasanappropriateresponsetoapersonalinsult.Andonlyinacultureofhonorwouldithaveoccurredtoajurythatmurder—underthosecircumstances—wasnotacrime.
Irealizethatweareoftenwaryofmakingthesekindsofbroadgeneralizationsaboutdifferentcultural
groups—andwithgoodreason.Thisistheformthatracialandethnicstereotypestake.Wewanttobelievethatwearenotprisonersofourethnichistories.
ButthesimpletruthisthatifyouwanttounderstandwhathappenedinthosesmalltownsinKentuckyinthenineteenthcentury,youhavetogobackintothepast—andnotjustoneortwo
generations.Youhavetogobacktwoorthreeorfourhundredyears,toacountryontheothersideoftheocean,andlookcloselyatwhatexactlythepeopleinaveryspecificgeographicareaofthatcountrydidforaliving.The“cultureofhonor”hypothesissaysthatitmatterswhereyou’refrom,notjustintermsofwhereyougrewuporwhereyourparentsgrew
up,butintermsofwhereyourgreat-grandparentsandgreat-great-grandparentsgrewupandevenwhereyourgreat-great-great-grandparentsgrewup.Thatisastrangeandpowerfulfact.It’sjustthebeginning,though,becauseuponcloserexamination,culturallegaciesturnouttobeevenstrangerandmorepowerfulthanthat.
3.Intheearly1990s,twopsychologistsattheUniversityofMichigan—DovCohenandRichardNisbett—decidedtoconductanexperimentonthecultureofhonor.TheyknewthatwhathappenedinplaceslikeHarlaninthenineteenthcenturywas,inalllikelihood,aproductofpatternslaid
downintheEnglishborderlandscenturiesbefore.Buttheirinterestwasinthepresentday.Wasitpossibletofindremnantsofthecultureofhonorinthemodernera?Sotheydecidedtogathertogetheragroupofyoungmenandinsultthem.“Wesatdownandtriedtofigureoutwhatistheinsultthatwouldgototheheartofaneighteen-to-twenty-year-
old’sbrain,”Cohensays.“Itdidn’ttaketoolongtocomeupwith‘asshole.’”
Theexperimentwentlikethis.ThesocialsciencesbuildingattheUniversityofMichiganhasalong,narrowhallwayinthebasementlinedwithfilingcabinets.Theyoungmenwerecalledintoaclassroom,onebyone,andaskedtofilloutaquestionnaire.Thenthey
weretoldtodropoffthequestionnaireattheendofthehallwayandreturntotheclassroom—asimple,seeminglyinnocentacademicexercise.
Forhalftheyoungmen,thatwasit.Theywerethecontrolgroup.Fortheotherhalf,therewasacatch.Astheywalkeddownthehallwaywiththeirquestionnaire,aman—a
confederateoftheexperimenters—walkedpastthemandpulledoutadrawerinoneofthefilingcabinets.Thealreadynarrowhallwaynowbecameevennarrower.Astheyoungmentriedtosqueezeby,theconfederatelookedup,annoyed.Heslammedthefilingcabinetdrawershut,jostledtheyoungmenwithhisshoulder,and,inalowbutaudiblevoice,said
thetriggerword:“Asshole.”CohenandNisbettwanted
tomeasure,aspreciselyaspossible,whatbeingcalledthatwordmeant.Theylookedatthefacesoftheirsubjectsandratedhowmuchangertheysaw.Theyshooktheyoungmen’shandstoseeiftheirgripwasfirmerthanusual.Theytooksalivasamplesfromthestudents,bothbeforeandafterthe
insult,toseeifbeingcalledanassholecausedtheirlevelsoftestosteroneandcortisol—thehormonesthatdrivearousalandaggression—togoup.Finallytheyaskedthestudentstoreadthefollowingstoryandsupplyaconclusion:
Ithadonlybeenabouttwentyminutessince
theyhadarrivedatthepartywhenJillpulledSteveaside,obviouslybotheredaboutsomething.
“What’swrong?”askedSteve.
“It’sLarry.Imean,heknowsthatyouandIareengaged,buthe’salreadymadetwopassesatmetonight.”
Jillwalkedback
intothecrowd,andStevedecidedtokeephiseyeonLarry.Sureenough,withinfiveminutes,LarrywasreachingoverandtryingtokissJill.
Ifyou’vebeeninsulted,areyoumorelikelytoimagineStevedoingsomethingviolenttoLarry?
Theresultswereunequivocal.Therewerecleardifferencesinhowtheyoungmenrespondedtobeingcalledabadname.Forsome,theinsultchangedtheirbehavior.Forsomeitdidn’t.Thedecidingfactorinhowtheyreactedwasn’thowemotionallysecuretheywere,orwhethertheywereintellectualsorjocks,orwhethertheywerephysically
imposingornot.Whatmattered—andIthinkyoucanguesswherethisisheaded—waswheretheywerefrom.MostoftheyoungmenfromthenorthernpartoftheUnitedStatestreatedtheincidentwithamusement.Theylaugheditoff.Theirhandshakeswereunchanged.Theirlevelsofcortisolactuallywentdown,asiftheywereunconsciouslytryingto
defusetheirownanger.OnlyafewofthemhadStevegetviolentwithLarry.
Butthesoutherners?Oh,my.Theywereangry.Theircortisolandtestosteronejumped.Theirhandshakesgotfirm.StevewasalloverLarry.
“Weevenplayedthisgameofchicken,”Cohensaid.“Wesentthestudentsbackdownthehallways,and
aroundthecornercomesanotherconfederate.Thehallwayisblocked,sothere’sonlyroomforoneofthemtopass.Theguyweusedwassixthree,twohundredfiftypounds.Heusedtoplaycollegefootball.Hewasnowworkingasabouncerinacollegebar.Hewaswalkingdownthehallinbusinessmode—thewayyouwalkthroughabarwhenyouare
tryingtobreakupafight.Thequestionwas:howclosedotheygettothebouncerbeforetheygetoutoftheway?Andbelieveme,theyalwaysgetoutoftheway.”
Forthenortherners,therewasalmostnoeffect.Theygotoutofthewayfiveorsixfeetbeforehand,whethertheyhadbeeninsultedornot.Thesoutherners,bycontrast,weredownrightdeferentialin
normalcircumstances,steppingasidewithmorethanninefeettogo.Butiftheyhadjustbeeninsulted?Lessthantwofeet.Callasoutherneranasshole,andhe’sitchingforafight.WhatCohenandNisbettwereseeinginthatlonghallwasthecultureofhonorinaction:thesouthernerswerereactinglikeWixHowarddidwhenLittleBobTurneraccused
himofcheatingatpoker.
4.Thatstudyisstrange,isn’tit?It’sonethingtoconcludethatgroupsofpeoplelivingincircumstancesprettysimilartotheirancestors’actalotliketheirancestors.Butthosesouthernersinthehallwaystudyweren’tlivingincircumstancessimilartotheir
Britishancestors.Theydidn’tevennecessarilyhaveBritishancestors.TheyjusthappenedtohavegrownupintheSouth.Noneofthemwereherdsmen.Norweretheirparentsherdsmen.Theywerelivinginthelatetwentiethcentury,notthelatenineteenthcentury.TheywerestudentsattheUniversityofMichigan,inoneofthenorthernmoststates
inAmerica,whichmeanttheyweresufficientlycosmopolitantotravelhundredsofmilesfromthesouthtogotocollege.Andnoneofthatmattered.Theystillactedliketheywerelivinginnineteenth-centuryHarlan,Kentucky.
“Yourmedianstudentinthosestudiescomesfromafamilymakingoverahundredthousanddollars,and
that’sinnineteenninetydollars,”Cohensays.“Thesouthernersweseethiseffectwitharen’tkidswhocomefromthehillsofAppalachia.Theyaremorelikelytobethesonsofupper-middlemanagementCoca-ColaexecutivesinAtlanta.Andthat’sthebigquestion.Whyshouldwegetthiseffectwiththem?Whyshouldonegetithundredsofyearslater?Why
arethesesuburban-Atlantakidsactingouttheethosofthefrontier?”*
***
Culturallegaciesarepowerfulforces.Theyhavedeeprootsandlonglives.Theypersist,generationaftergeneration,virtuallyintact,evenastheeconomicandsocialanddemographicconditionsthatspawnedthemhavevanished,
andtheyplaysucharoleindirectingattitudesandbehaviorthatwecannotmakesenseofourworldwithoutthem.*
SofarinOutlierswe’veseenthatsuccessarisesoutofthesteadyaccumulationofadvantages:whenandwhereyouareborn,whatyourparentsdidforaliving,andwhatthecircumstancesofyourupbringingwereall
makeasignificantdifferenceinhowwellyoudointheworld.ThequestionforthesecondpartofOutliersiswhetherthetraditionsandattitudesweinheritfromourforebearscanplaythesamerole.Canwelearnsomethingaboutwhypeoplesucceedandhowtomakepeoplebetteratwhattheydobytakingculturallegaciesseriously?Ithinkwecan.
CHAPTERSEVEN
TheEthnicTheoryofPlaneCrashes
“CAPTAIN,THEWEATHERRADARHASHELPEDUSALOT.”
1.
OnthemorningofAugust5,1997,thecaptainofKoreanAirflight801wokeatsix.Hisfamilywouldlatertellinvestigatorsthathewenttothegymforanhour,thencamehomeandstudiedtheflightplanforthatevening’sjourneytoGuam.Henappedandatelunch.Atthreeintheafternoon,heleftforSeoul,departingearlyenough,hiswifesaid,tocontinuehis
preparationsatKimpoInternationalAirport.HehadbeenapilotwithKoreanAirforalmostfouryearsaftercomingoverfromtheKoreanAirForce.Hehadeighty-ninehundredhoursofflighttime,includingthirty-twohundredhoursofexperienceinjumbojets.Afewmonthsearlier,hehadbeengivenaflightsafetyawardbyhisairlineforsuccessfullyhandlinga
jumbo-jetenginefailureatlowaltitude.Hewasforty-twoyearsoldandinexcellenthealth,withtheexceptionofaboutofbronchitisthathadbeendiagnosedtendaysbefore.
Atsevenp.m.,thecaptain,hisfirstofficer,andtheflightengineermetandcollectedthetrip’spaperwork.TheywouldbeflyingaBoeing747—themodelknowninthe
aviationworldasthe“classic.”Theaircraftwasinperfectworkingorder.IthadoncebeentheKoreanpresidentialplane.Flight801departedthegateatten-thirtyintheeveningandwasairbornetwentyminuteslater.Takeoffwaswithoutincident.Justbeforeone-thirtyinthemorning,theplanebrokeoutoftheclouds,andtheflightcrewglimpsedlightsoffin
thedistance.“IsitGuam?”theflight
engineerasked.Then,afterapause,hesaid,“It’sGuam,Guam.”
Thecaptainchuckled.“Good!”
ThefirstofficerreportedtoAirTrafficControl(ATC)thattheairplanewas“clearofCharlieBravo[cumulonimbusclouds]”andrequested“radarvectorsfor
runwaysixleft.”Theplanebeganits
descenttowardGuamairport.Theywouldmakeavisualapproach,thecaptainsaid.HehadflownintoGuamairportfromKimpoeighttimespreviously,mostrecentlyamonthago,andheknewtheairportandthesurroundingterrainwell.Thelandinggearwentdown.Theflapswereextendedtendegrees.At
01:41and48seconds,thecaptainsaid,“Wiperon,”andtheflightengineerturnedthemon.Itwasraining.Thefirstofficerthensaid,“Notinsight?”Hewaslookingfortherunway.Hecouldn’tseeit.Onesecondlater,theGroundProximityWarningSystemcalledoutinitselectronicvoice:“Fivehundred[feet].”Theplanewasfivehundredfeetoffthe
ground.Buthowcouldthatbeiftheycouldn’tseetherunway?Twosecondspassed.Theflightengineersaid,“Eh?”inanastonishedtoneofvoice.
At01:42and19seconds,thefirstofficersaid,“Let’smakeamissedapproach,”meaning,Let’spullupandmakealargecircleandtrythelandingagain.
Onesecondlater,the
flightengineersaid,“Notinsight.”Thefirstofficeradded,“Notinsight,missedapproach.”
At01:42and22seconds,theflightengineersaidagain,“Goaround.”
At01:42and23seconds,thecaptainrepeated,“Goaround,”buthewasslowtopulltheplaneoutofitsdescent.
At01:42and26seconds,
theplanehitthesideofNimitzHill,adenselyvegetatedmountainthreemilessouthwestoftheairport—$60millionand212,000kilogramsofsteelslammingintorockygroundatonehundredmilesperhour.Theplaneskiddedfortwothousandfeet,severinganoilpipelineandsnappingpinetrees,beforefallingintoaravineandburstinginto
flames.Bythetimerescueworkersreachedthecrashsite,228ofthe254peopleonboardweredead.
2.TwentyyearsbeforethecrashofKAL801,aKoreanAirBoeing707wanderedintoRussianairspaceandwasshotdownbyaSovietmilitaryjetovertheBarents
Sea.Itwasanaccident,meaningthekindofrareandcatastrophiceventthat,butforthegraceofGod,couldhappentoanyairline.Itwasinvestigatedandanalyzed.Lessonswerelearned.Reportswerefiled.
Then,twoyearslater,aKoreanAirBoeing747crashedinSeoul.Twoaccidentsintwoyearsisnotagoodsign.Threeyearsafter
that,theairlinelostanother747nearSakhalinIsland,inRussia,followedbyaBoeing707thatwentdownovertheAndamanSeain1987,twomorecrashesin1989inTripoliandSeoul,andthenanotherin1994inCheju,SouthKorea.*
Toputthatrecordinperspective,the“loss”rateforanairlineliketheAmericancarrierUnited
Airlinesintheperiod1988to1998was.27permilliondepartures,whichmeansthattheylostaplaneinanaccidentaboutonceineveryfourmillionflights.ThelossrateforKoreanAir,inthesameperiod,was4.79permilliondepartures—morethanseventeentimeshigher.
KoreanAir’splaneswerecrashingsooftenthatwhentheNationalTransportation
SafetyBoard(NTSB)—theUSagencyresponsibleforinvestigatingplanecrasheswithinAmericanjurisdiction—diditsreportontheGuamcrash,itwasforcedtoincludeanaddendumlistingallthenewKoreanAiraccidentsthathadhappenedjustsinceitsinvestigationbegan:theKoreanAir747thatcrash-landedatKimpoinSeoul,almostayeartothedayafter
Guam;thejetlinerthatoverranarunwayatKorea’sUlsanAirporteightweeksafterthat;theKoreanAirMcDonnellDouglas83thatrammedintoanembankmentatPohangAirportthefollowingMarch;andthen,amonthafterthat,theKoreanAirpassengerjetthatcrashedinaresidentialareaofShanghai.HadtheNTSBwaitedjustafewmore
months,itcouldhaveaddedanother:theKoreanAircargoplanethatcrashedjustaftertakeofffromLondon’sStanstedairport,despitethefactthatawarningbellwentoffinthecockpitnofewerthanfourteentimes.
InApril1999,DeltaAirLinesandAirFrancesuspendedtheirflyingpartnershipwithKoreanAir.Inshortorder,theUSArmy,
whichmaintainsthousandsoftroopsinSouthKorea,forbadeitspersonnelfromflyingwiththeairline.SouthKorea’ssafetyratingwasdowngradedbytheUSFederalAviationAdministration,andCanadianofficialsinformedKoreanAir’smanagementthattheywereconsideringrevokingthecompany’soverflightandlandingprivilegesin
Canadianairspace.Inthemidstofthe
controversy,anoutsideauditofKoreanAir’soperationswasleakedtothepublic.Theforty-pagereportwasquicklydenouncedbyKoreanAirofficialsassensationalizedandunrepresentative,butbythatpoint,itwastoolatetosavethecompany’sreputation.Theauditdetailedinstancesofflightcrews
smokingcigarettesonthetarmacduringrefuelingandinthefreightarea;andwhentheplanewasintheair.“Crewreadnewspapersthroughouttheflight,”theauditstated,“oftenwithnewspapersheldupinsuchawaythatifawarninglightcameon,itwouldnotbenoticed.”Thereportdetailedbadmorale,numerousproceduralviolations,andthe
alarmingconclusionthattrainingstandardsforthe747“classic”weresopoorthat“thereissomeconcernastowhetherFirstOfficersontheClassicfleetcouldlandtheaircraftiftheCaptainbecametotallyincapacitated.”
BythetimeoftheShanghaicrash,theKoreanpresident,KimDae-jung,feltcompelledtospeakup.“TheissueofKoreanAirisnota
matterofanindividualcompanybutamatterofthewholecountry,”hesaid.“Ourcountry’scredibilityisatstake.”KimthenswitchedthepresidentialplanefromKoreanAirtoitsnewerrival,Asiana.
Butthenasmallmiraclehappened.KoreanAirturneditselfaround.Today,theairlineisamemberingoodstandingoftheprestigious
SkyTeamalliance.Itssafetyrecordsince1999isspotless.In2006,KoreanAirwasgiventhePhoenixAwardbyAirTransportWorldinrecognitionofitstransformation.AviationexpertswilltellyouthatKoreanAirisnowassafeasanyairlineintheworld.
Inthischapter,we’regoingtoconductacrashinvestigation:listentothe
“blackbox”cockpitrecorder;examinetheflightrecords;lookattheweatherandtheterrainandtheairportconditions;andcomparetheGuamcrashwithotherverysimilarplanecrashes,allinanattempttounderstandpreciselyhowthecompanytransformeditselffromtheworstkindofoutlierintooneoftheworld’sbestairlines.Itisacomplexandsometimes
strangestory.Butitturnsonaverysimplefact,thesamefactthatrunsthroughthetangledhistoryofHarlanandtheMichiganstudents.KoreanAirdidnotsucceed—itdidnotrightitself—untilitacknowledgedtheimportanceofitsculturallegacy.
3.Planecrashesrarelyhappen
inreallifethesamewaytheyhappeninthemovies.Someenginepartdoesnotexplodeinafierybang.Therudderdoesn’tsuddenlysnapundertheforceoftakeoff.Thecaptaindoesn’tgasp,“DearGod,”ashe’sthrownbackagainsthisseat.Thetypicalcommercialjetliner—atthispointinitsstageofdevelopment—isaboutasdependableasatoaster.Plane
crashesaremuchmorelikelytobetheresultofanaccumulationofminordifficultiesandseeminglytrivialmalfunctions.*
Inatypicalcrash,forexample,theweatherispoor—notterrible,necessarily,butbadenoughthatthepilotfeelsalittlebitmorestressedthanusual.Inanoverwhelmingnumberofcrashes,theplaneisbehind
schedule,sothepilotsarehurrying.In52percentofcrashes,thepilotatthetimeoftheaccidenthasbeenawakefortwelvehoursormore,meaningthatheistiredandnotthinkingsharply.And44percentofthetime,thetwopilotshaveneverflowntogetherbefore,sothey’renotcomfortablewitheachother.Thentheerrorsstart—andit’snotjustoneerror.Thetypical
accidentinvolvessevenconsecutivehumanerrors.Oneofthepilotsdoessomethingwrongthatbyitselfisnotaproblem.Thenoneofthemmakesanothererrorontopofthat,whichcombinedwiththefirsterrorstilldoesnotamounttocatastrophe.Butthentheymakeathirderrorontopofthat,andthenanotherandanotherandanotherand
another,anditisthecombinationofallthoseerrorsthatleadstodisaster.
Thesesevenerrors,furthermore,arerarelyproblemsofknowledgeorflyingskill.It’snotthatthepilothastonegotiatesomecriticaltechnicalmaneuverandfails.Thekindsoferrorsthatcauseplanecrashesareinvariablyerrorsofteamworkandcommunication.One
pilotknowssomethingimportantandsomehowdoesn’ttelltheotherpilot.Onepilotdoessomethingwrong,andtheotherpilotdoesn’tcatchtheerror.Atrickysituationneedstoberesolvedthroughacomplexseriesofsteps—andsomehowthepilotsfailtocoordinateandmissoneofthem.
“Thewholeflight-deck
designisintendedtobeoperatedbytwopeople,andthatoperationworksbestwhenyouhaveonepersoncheckingtheother,orbothpeoplewillingtoparticipate,”saysEarlWeener,whowasformanyyearschiefengineerforsafetyatBoeing.“Airplanesareveryunforgivingifyoudon’tdothingsright.Andforalongtimeit’sbeenclearthatifyou
havetwopeopleoperatingtheairplanecooperatively,youwillhaveasaferoperationthanifyouhaveasinglepilotflyingtheplaneandanotherpersonwhoissimplytheretotakeoverifthepilotisincapacitated.”
Consider,forexample,thefamous(inaviationcircles,anyway)crashoftheColombianairlinerAviancaflight052inJanuaryof1990.
TheAviancaaccidentsoperfectlyillustratesthecharacteristicsofthe“modern”planecrashthatitisstudiedinflightschools.Infact,whathappenedtothatflightissosimilartowhatwouldhappensevenyearslaterinGuamthatit’sagoodplacetostartourinvestigationintothemysteryofKoreanAir’splanecrashproblem.
ThecaptainoftheplanewasLaureanoCaviedes.HisfirstofficerwasMauricioKlotz.TheywereenroutefromMedellin,Colombia,toNewYorkCity’sKennedyAirport.Theweatherthateveningwaspoor.Therewasanor’easterupanddowntheEastCoast,bringingwithitdensefogandhighwinds.Twohundredandthreeflightsweredelayedat
NewarkAirport.TwohundredflightsweredelayedatLaGuardiaAirport,161atPhiladelphia,53atBoston’sLoganAirport,and99atKennedy.Becauseoftheweather,AviancawasheldupbyAirTrafficControlthreetimesonitswaytoNewYork.TheplanecircledoverNorfolk,Virginia,fornineteenminutes,aboveAtlanticCityfortwenty-nine
minutes,andfortymilessouthofKennedyAirportforanothertwenty-nineminutes.
Afteranhourandaquarterofdelay,Aviancawasclearedforlanding.Astheplanecameinonitsfinalapproach,thepilotsencounteredseverewindshear.Onemomenttheywereflyingintoastrongheadwind,forcingthemtoaddextrapowertomaintaintheir
momentumontheglidedown.Thenextmoment,withoutwarning,theheadwinddroppeddramatically,andtheyweretravelingmuchtoofasttomaketherunway.Typically,theplanewouldhavebeenflyingonautopilotinthatsituation,reactingimmediatelyandappropriatelytowindshear.Buttheautopilotontheplane
wasmalfunctioning,andithadbeenswitchedoff.Atthelastmoment,thepilotpulledup,andexecuteda“go-around.”TheplanedidawidecircleoverLongIsland,andreapproachedKennedyAirport.Suddenly,oneoftheplane’senginesfailed.Secondslater,asecondenginefailed.“Showmetherunway!”thepilotcriedout,hopingdesperatelythathe
wascloseenoughtoKennedytosomehowglidehiscrippledplanetoasafelanding.ButKennedywassixteenmilesaway.
The707slammedintotheestateownedbythefatherofthetennischampionJohnMcEnroe,intheposhLongIslandtownofOysterBay.Seventy-threeofthe158passengersaboarddied.Ittooklessthanadayforthe
causeofthecrashtobedetermined:“fuelexhaustion.”Therewasnothingwrongwiththeaircraft.Therewasnothingwrongwiththeairport.Thepilotsweren’tdrunkorhigh.Theplanehadrunoutofgas.
4.“It’saclassiccase,”saidSurenRatwatte,aveteran
pilotwhohasbeeninvolvedforyearsin“humanfactors”research,whichistheanalysisofhowhumanbeingsinteractwithcomplexsystemslikenuclearpowerplantsandairplanes.RatwatteisSriLankan,alivelymaninhisfortieswhohasbeenflyingcommercialjetshisentireadultlife.WeweresittinginthelobbyoftheSheratonHotelinManhattan.
He’djustlandedajumbojetatKennedyAirportafteralongflightfromDubai.RatwatteknewtheAviancacasewell.Hebegantotickoffthetypicalcrashpreconditions.Thenor’easter.Thedelayedflight.Theminortechnicalmalfunctionwiththeautopilot.Thethreelongholdingpatterns—whichmeantnotonlyeightyminutesofextraflyingtime
butextraflyingatlowaltitudes,whereaplaneburnsfarmorefuelthanitdoesinthethinairhighabovetheclouds.
“Theywereflyingaseven-oh-seven,whichisanolderairplaneandisverychallengingtofly,”Ratwattesaid.“Thatthingisalotofwork.Theflightcontrolsarenothydraulicallypowered.Theyareconnectedbya
seriesofpulleysandpullrodstothephysicalmetalsurfacesoftheairplane.Youhavetobequitestrongtoflythatairplane.Youheaveitaroundthesky.It’sasmuchphysicaleffortasrowingaboat.MycurrentairplaneIflywithmyfingertips.Iuseajoystick.Myinstrumentsarehuge.Theirswerethesizeofcoffeecups.Andhisautopilotwasgone.Sothecaptainhadto
keeplookingaroundthesenineinstruments,eachthesizeofacoffeecup,whilehisrighthandwascontrollingthespeed,andhislefthandwasflyingtheairplane.Hewasmaxedout.Hehadnoresourceslefttodoanythingelse.That’swhathappenswhenyou’retired.Yourdecision-makingskillserode.Youstartmissingthings—thingsthatyouwouldpickup
onanyotherday.”Intheblackboxrecovered
fromthecrashsite,CaptainCaviedesinthefinalhouroftheflightisheardtorepeatedlyaskforthedirectionsfromATCtobetranslatedintoSpanish,asifhenolongerhadtheenergytomakeuseofhisEnglish.Onnineoccasions,healsoaskedfordirectionstoberepeated.“Tellmethings
louder,”hesaidrightneartheend.“I’mnothearingthem.”WhentheplanewascirclingforfortyminutesjustsoutheastofKennedy—wheneveryoneontheflightdeckclearlyknewtheywererunningoutoffuel—thepilotcouldeasilyhaveaskedtolandatPhiladelphia,whichwasjustsixty-fivemilesaway.Buthedidn’t:itwasasifhehadlockedinonNew
York.Ontheabortedlanding,theplane’sGroundProximityWarningSystemwentoffnofewerthanfifteentimes,tellingthecaptainthathewasbringingintheplanetoolow.Heseemedoblivious.Whenheabortedthelanding,heshouldhavecircledbackaroundimmediately,andhedidn’t.Hewasexhausted.
Throughitall,thecockpitwasfilledwithaheavy
silence.SittingnexttoCaviedeswashisfirstofficer,MauricioKlotz,andintheflightrecorder,therearelongstretchesofnothingbutrustlingandenginenoise.ItwasKlotz’sresponsibilitytoconductallcommunicationwithATC,whichmeantthathisrolethatnightwasabsolutelycritical.Buthisbehaviorwasoddlypassive.Itwasn’tuntilthethird
holdingpatternsouthwestofKennedyAirportthatKlotztoldATCthathedidn’tthinktheplanehadenoughfueltoreachanalternativeairport.ThenextthingthecrewheardfromATCwas“Juststandby”and,followingthat,“ClearedtotheKennedyairport.”InvestigatorslatersurmisedthattheAviancapilotsmusthaveassumedthatATCwasjumpingthemto
theheadofthequeue,infrontofthedozensofotherplanescirclingKennedy.Infact,theyweren’t.Theywerejustbeingaddedtotheendoftheline.Itwasacrucialmisunderstanding,uponwhichthefateoftheplanewouldultimatelyrest.Butdidthepilotsraisetheissueagain,lookingforclarification?No.Nordidtheybringuptheissueoffuel
againforanotherthirty-eightminutes.
5.ToRatwatte,thesilenceinthecockpitmadenosense.Andasawayofexplainingwhy,RatwattebegantotalkaboutwhathadhappenedtohimthatmorningonthewayoverfromDubai.“Wehadthisladyintheback,”hesaid.
“Wereckonshewashavingastroke.Seizing.Vomiting.Inbadshape.ShewasanIndianladywhosedaughterlivesintheStates.HerhusbandspokenoEnglish,noHindi,onlyPunjabi.Noonecouldcommunicatewithhim.HelookedlikehehadjustwalkedoffavillageinthePunjab,andtheyhadabsolutelynomoney.IwasactuallyoverMoscowwhen
ithappened,butIknewwecouldn’tgotoMoscow.Ididn’tknowwhatwouldhappentothesepeopleifwedid.Isaidtothefirstofficer,‘Youflytheplane.WehavetogotoHelsinki.’”
TheimmediateproblemRatwattefacedwasthattheywerelessthanhalfwaythroughaverylongflight,whichmeantthattheyhadfarmorefuelintheirtanksthan
theyusuallydowhenitcomestimetoland.“Weweresixtytonsovermaximumlandingweight,”hesaid.“SonowIhadtomakeachoice.Icoulddumpthefuel.Butcountrieshateitwhenyoudumpfuel.It’smessystuffandtheywouldhaveroutedmesomewhereovertheBalticSea,anditwouldhavetakenmefortyminutesandthelady
probablywouldhavedied.SoIdecidedtolandanyway.Mychoice.”
Thatmeanttheplanewas“landingheavy.”Theycouldn’tusetheautomatedlandingsystembecauseitwasn’tsetuptohandleaplanewiththatmuchweight.
“Atthatstage,Itookoverthecontrols,”hewenton.“Ihadtoensurethattheairplanetoucheddownverysoftly;
otherwise,therewouldhavebeentheriskofstructuraldamage.Itcouldhavebeenarealmess.Therearealsoperformanceissueswithbeingheavy.Ifyoucleartherunwayandhavetogoaround,youmaynothaveenoughthrusttoclimbbackup.
“Itwasalotofwork.You’rejugglingalotofballs.You’vegottogetitright.
Becauseitwasalongflight,thereweretwootherpilots.SoIgotthemup,andtheygotinvolvedindoingeverythingaswell.Wehadfourpeopleupthere,whichreallyhelpedincoordinatingeverything.I’dneverbeentoHelsinkibefore.Ihadnoideahowtheairportwas,noideawhethertherunwayswerelongenough.Ihadtofindanapproach,figureoutifwe
couldlandthere,figureouttheperformanceparameters,andtellthecompanywhatweweredoing.AtonepointIwastalkingtothreedifferentpeople—talkingtoDubai,talkingtoMedLink,whichisaserviceinArizonawheretheyputadoctoroncall,andIwastalkingtothetwodoctorswhowereattendingtotheladyintheback.Itwasnonstopforfortyminutes.
“WewereluckytheweatherwasverygoodinHelsinki,”hesaid.“Tryingtodoanapproachinbadweather,plusaheavyplane,plusanunfamiliarairport,that’snotgood.BecauseitwasFinland,afirst-worldcountry,theywerewellsetup,veryflexible.Isaidtothem,‘I’mheavy.Iwouldliketolandintothewind.’Youwanttoslowyourself
downinthatsituation.Theysaid,Noproblem.Theylandedusintheoppositedirectionthantheynormallyuse.Wecameinoverthecity,whichtheyusuallyavoidfornoisereasons.”
ThinkaboutwhatwasrequiredofRatwatte.Hehadtobeagoodpilot.Thatmuchgoeswithoutsaying:hehadtohavethetechnicalskilltolandheavy.Butalmost
everythingelseRatwattedidthatmadethatemergencylandingasuccessfelloutsidethestrictdefinitionofpilotingskills.
Hehadtoweightheriskofdamaginghisplaneagainsttherisktothewoman’slife,andthen,oncethatchoicewasmade,hehadtothinkthroughtheimplicationsofHelsinkiversusMoscowforthesickpassengerinthe
back.Hehadtoeducatehimself,quickly,ontheparametersofanairporthehadneverseenbefore:couldithandleoneofthebiggestjetsinthesky,atsixtytonsoveritsnormallandingweight?Butmostofall,hehadtotalk—tothepassengers,tothedoctors,tohiscopilot,tothesecondcrewhewokeupfromtheirnap,tohissuperiorsback
homeinDubai,toATCatHelsinki.Itissafetosaythatinthefortyminutesthatpassedbetweenthepassenger’sstrokeandthelandinginHelsinki,therewerenomorethanahandfulofsecondsofsilenceinthecockpit.WhatwasrequiredofRatwattewasthathecommunicate,andcommunicatenotjustinthesenseofissuingcommands
butalsointhesenseofencouragingandcajolingandcalmingandnegotiatingandsharinginformationintheclearestandmosttransparentmannerpossible.
6.Here,bycontrast,isthetranscriptfromAvianca052,astheplaneisgoinginforitsabortivefirstlanding.The
issueistheweather.ThefogissothickthatKlotzandCaviedescannotfigureoutwheretheyare.Paycloseattention,though,nottothecontentoftheirconversationbuttotheform.Inparticular,notethelengthofthesilencesbetweenutterancesandtothetoneofKlotz’sremarks.
CAVIEDES:Therunway,whereisit?Idon’tsee
it.Idon’tseeit.
Theytakeupthelandinggear.ThecaptaintellsKlotztoaskforanothertrafficpattern.Tensecondspass.
CAVIEDES[SEEMINGLYTOHIMSELF]:Wedon’thavefuel…
Seventeensecondspassas
thepilotsgivetechnicalinstructionstoeachother.
CAVIEDES:Idon’tknowwhathappenedwiththerunway.Ididn’tseeit.
KLOTZ:Ididn’tseeit.
AirTrafficControlcomesinandtellsthemtomakealeftturn.
CAVIEDES:Tellthemweareinanemergency!
KLOTZ[TOATC]:That’srighttoone-eight-zeroontheheadingand,ah,we’lltryonceagain.We’rerunningoutoffuel.
Imaginethesceneinthecockpit.Theplaneisdangerouslylowonfuel.Theyhavejustblowntheir
firstshotatalanding.Theyhavenoideahowmuchlongertheplaneiscapableofflying.Thecaptainisdesperate:“Tellthemweareinanemergency!”AndwhatdoesKlotzsay?That’srighttoone-eight-zeroontheheadingand,ah,we’lltryonceagain.We’rerunningoutoffuel.
Tobeginwith,thephrase“runningoutoffuel”hasno
meaninginAirTrafficControlterminology.Allplanes,astheyapproachtheirdestination,arebydefinitionrunningoutoffuel.DidKlotzmeanthat052nolongerhadenoughfueltomakeittoanother,alternativeairport?Didhemeanthattheywerebeginningtogetworriedabouttheirfuel?Next,considerthestructureofthecriticalsentence.Klotzbegins
witharoutineacknowledgmentoftheinstructionsfromATCanddoesn’tmentionhisconcernaboutfueluntilthesecondhalfofthesentence.It’sasifheweretosayinarestaurant,“Yes,I’llhavesomemorecoffeeand,ah,I’mchokingonachickenbone.”Howseriouslywouldthewaitertakehim?TheairtrafficcontrollerwithwhomKlotz
wasspeakingtestifiedlaterthathe“justtookitasapassingcomment.”Onstormynights,airtrafficcontrollershearpilotstalkingaboutrunningoutoffuelallthetime.Eventhe“ah”thatKlotzinsertsbetweenthetwohalvesofhissentenceservestoundercuttheimportanceofwhatheissaying.Accordingtoanotherofthecontrollerswhohandled052thatnight,
Klotzspoke“inaverynonchalantmanner….Therewasnourgencyinthevoice.”
7.ThetermusedbylinguiststodescribewhatKlotzwasengagingininthatmomentis“mitigatedspeech,”whichreferstoanyattempttodownplayorsugarcoatthemeaningofwhatisbeing
said.Wemitigatewhenwe’rebeingpolite,orwhenwe’reashamedorembarrassed,orwhenwe’rebeingdeferentialtoauthority.Ifyouwantyourbosstodoyouafavor,youdon’tsay,“I’llneedthisbyMonday.”Youmitigate.Yousay,“Don’tbother,ifit’stoomuchtrouble,butifyouhaveachancetolookatthisovertheweekend,thatwouldbewonderful.”Inasituationlike
that,mitigationisentirelyappropriate.Inothersituations,however—likeacockpitonastormynight—it’saproblem.
ThelinguistsUteFischerandJudithOrasanuoncegavethefollowinghypotheticalscenariotoagroupofcaptainsandfirstofficersandaskedthemhowtheywouldrespond:
Younoticeontheweatherradaranareaofheavyprecipitation25milesahead.[Thepilot]ismaintaininghispresentcourseatMach.73,eventhoughembeddedthunderstormshavebeenreportedinyourareaandyouencountermoderateturbulence.Youwanttoensure
thatyouraircraftwillnotpenetratethisarea.
Question:whatdoyousaytothepilot?
InFischer’sandOrasanu’sminds,therewereatleastsixwaystotrytopersuadethepilottochangecourseandavoidthebadweather,eachwithadifferentlevelofmitigation.
1. Command:“Turnthirtydegreesright.”That’sthemostdirectandexplicitwayofmakingapointimaginable.It’szeromitigation.
2. CrewObligationStatement:“Ithinkweneedtodeviaterightaboutnow.”Noticetheuseof“we”andthefactthattherequestisnowmuchlessspecific.
That’salittlesofter.3. CrewSuggestion:“Let’s
goaroundtheweather.”Implicitinthatstatementis“we’reinthistogether.”
4. Query:“Whichdirectionwouldyouliketodeviate?”That’sevensofterthanacrewsuggestion,becausethespeakerisconcedingthathe’snotincharge.
5. Preference:“Ithinkitwouldbewisetoturnleftorright.”
6. Hint:“Thatreturnattwenty-fivemileslooksmean.”Thisisthemostmitigatedstatementofall.
FischerandOrasanufoundthatcaptainsoverwhelminglysaidthey
wouldissueacommandinthatsituation:“Turnthirtydegreesright.”Theyweretalkingtoasubordinate.Theyhadnofearofbeingblunt.Thefirstofficers,ontheotherhand,weretalkingtotheirboss,andsotheyoverwhelminglychosethemostmitigatedalternative.Theyhinted.
It’shardtoreadFischerandOrasanu’sstudyandnot
bejustalittlebitalarmed,becauseahintisthehardestkindofrequesttodecodeandtheeasiesttorefuse.Inthe1982AirFloridacrashoutsideWashington,DC,thefirstofficertriedthreetimestotellthecaptainthattheplanehadadangerousamountoficeonitswings.Butlistentohowhesaysit.It’sallhints:
FIRSTOFFICER:Lookhowtheiceisjusthangingonhis,ah,back,backthere,seethat?
Then:
FIRSTOFFICER:Seeallthoseiciclesonthebackthereandeverything?
Andthen:
FIRSTOFFICER:Boy,thisisa,thisisalosingbattlehereontryingtode-icethosethings,it[gives]youafalsefeelingofsecurity,that’sallthatdoes.
Finally,astheygetclearancefortakeoff,thefirst
officerupgradestwonotchestoacrewsuggestion:
FIRSTOFFICER:Let’scheckthose[wing]topsagain,sincewe’vebeensettinghereawhile.
CAPTAIN:Ithinkwegettogohereinaminute.
Thelastthingthefirst
officersaystothecaptain,justbeforetheplaneplungesintothePotomacRiver,isnotahint,asuggestion,oracommand.It’sasimplestatementoffact—andthistimethecaptainagreeswithhim.
FIRSTOFFICER:Larry,we’regoingdown,Larry.
CAPTAIN:Iknowit.
Mitigationexplainsoneofthegreatanomaliesofplanecrashes.Incommercialairlines,captainsandfirstofficerssplittheflyingdutiesequally.Buthistorically,crasheshavebeenfarmorelikelytohappenwhenthecaptainisinthe“flyingseat.”Atfirstthatseemstomakenosense,sincethecaptainisalmostalwaysthepilotwiththemostexperience.But
thinkabouttheAirFloridacrash.Ifthefirstofficerhadbeenthecaptain,wouldhehavehintedthreetimes?No,hewouldhavecommanded—andtheplanewouldn’thavecrashed.Planesaresaferwhentheleastexperiencedpilotisflying,becauseitmeansthesecondpilotisn’tgoingtobeafraidtospeakup.
Combatingmitigationhas
becomeoneofthegreatcrusadesincommercialaviationinthepastfifteenyears.Everymajorairlinenowhaswhatiscalled“CrewResourceManagement”training,whichisdesignedtoteachjuniorcrewmembershowtocommunicateclearlyandassertively.Forexample,manyairlinesteachastandardizedprocedureforcopilotstochallengethepilot
ifheorshethinkssomethinghasgoneterriblyawry.(“Captain,I’mconcernedabout…”Then,“Captain,I’muncomfortablewith…”Andifthecaptainstilldoesn’trespond,“Captain,Ibelievethesituationisunsafe.”Andifthatfails,thefirstofficerisrequiredtotakeovertheairplane.)Aviationexpertswilltellyouthatitisthesuccessofthiswaron
mitigationasmuchasanythingelsethataccountsfortheextraordinarydeclineinairlineaccidentsinrecentyears.
“Onaverysimplelevel,oneofthethingsweinsistuponatmyairlineisthatthefirstofficerandthecaptaincalleachotherbytheirfirstnames,”Ratwattesaid.“Wethinkthathelps.It’sjusthardertosay,‘Captain,
you’redoingsomethingwrong,’thantouseaname.”Ratwattetookmitigationveryseriously.Youcouldn’tbeastudentoftheAviancacrashandnotfeelthatway.Hewenton:“OnethingIpersonallytrytodois,Itrytoputmyselfalittledown.Isaytomycopilots,‘Idon’tflyveryoften.Threeorfourtimesamonth.Youflyalotmore.Ifyouseemedoing
somethingstupid,it’sbecauseIdon’tflyveryoften.Sotellme.Helpmeout.’Hopefully,thathelpsthemspeakup.”
8.BacktothecockpitofAvianca052.TheplaneisnowturningawayfromKennedy,aftertheabortedfirstattemptatlanding.Klotzhasjustbeenontheradio
withATC,tryingtofigureoutwhentheycantrytolandagain.Caviedesturnstohim.
CAVIEDES:Whatdidhesay?
KLOTZ:Ialreadyadvisehimthatwearegoingtoattemptagainbecausewenowwecan’t…”
Foursecondsofsilencepass.
CAVIEDES:Advisehimweareinemergency.
Fourmoresecondsofsilencepass.Thecaptaintriesagain.
CAVIEDES:Didyoutellhim?
KLOTZ:Yes,sir.Ialreadyadvisehim.
KlotzstartstalkingtoATC—goingoverroutinedetails.
KLOTZ:One-five-zeromaintainingtwothousandAviancazero-five-twoheavy.
Thecaptainisclearlyattheedgeofpanic.
CAVIEDES:Advisehimwedon’thavefuel.
KlotzgetsbackontheradiowithATC.
KLOTZ:Climbandmaintainthreethousandand,ah,
we’rerunningoutoffuel,sir.
Thereitisagain.Nomentionofthemagicword“emergency,”whichiswhatairtrafficcontrollersaretrainedtolistenfor.Just“runningoutoffuel,sir”attheendofasentence,precededbythemitigating“ah.”Ifyou’recountingerrors,theAviancacrewis
nowindoubledigits.
CAVIEDES:Didyoualreadyadvisethatwedon’thavefuel?
KLOTZ:Yes,sir.Ialreadyadvisehim…
CAVIEDES:Bueno.
Ifitwerenotthepreludetoatragedy,theirback-and-forthwouldresembleanAbbott
andCostellocomedyroutine.Alittleoveraminute
passes.
ATC:AndAviancazero-five-twoheavy,ah,I’mgonnabringyouaboutfifteenmilesnortheastandthenturnyoubackontotheapproach.Isthatokaywithyouandyourfuel?
KLOTZ:Iguessso.Thankyouverymuch.
Iguessso.Thankyouverymuch.Theyareabouttocrash!Oneoftheflightattendantsentersthecockpittofindouthowseriousthesituationis.Theflightengineerpointstotheemptyfuelgauge,andmakesathroat-cuttinggesturewithhisfinger.*Buthesaysnothing.
Nordoesanyoneelseforthenextfiveminutes.There’sradiochatterandroutinebusiness,andthentheflightengineercriesout,“Flameoutonenginenumberfour!”
Caviedessays,“Showmetherunway,”buttherunwayissixteenmilesaway.
Thirty-sixsecondsofsilencepass.Theplane’sairtrafficcontrollercallsoutonelasttime.
ATC:Youhave,ah,youhaveenoughfueltomakeittotheairport?
Thetranscriptends.
9.“Thethingyouhavetounderstandaboutthatcrash,”Ratwattesaid,“isthatNewYorkairtrafficcontrollersare
famousforbeingrude,aggressive,andbullying.Theyarealsoverygood.Theyhandleaphenomenalamountoftrafficinaveryconstrainedenvironment.ThereisafamousstoryaboutapilotwhogotlosttraffickingaroundJFK.YouhavenoideahoweasythatistodoatJFKonceyou’reontheground.It’samaze.Anyway,afemalecontroller
gotmadathim,andsaid,‘Stop.Don’tdoanything.DonottalktomeuntilItalktoyou.’Andshejustlefthimthere.Finallythepilotpicksupthemicrophoneandsays,‘Madam.WasImarriedtoyouinaformerlife?’
“Theyareunbelievable.Thewaytheylookatit,it’s‘I’mincontrol.ShutupanddowhatIsay.’Theywillsnapatyou.Andifyoudon’t
likewhattheytellyoutodo,youhavetosnapback.Andthenthey’llsay,‘Allright,then.’Butifyoudon’t,they’llrailroadyou.IrememberaBritishAirwaysflightwasgoingintoNewYork.TheywerebeingstuffedaroundbyNewYorkAirTrafficControl.TheBritishpilotssaid,‘YoupeopleshouldgotoHeathrowandlearnhowtocontrolanairplane.’It’sallin
thespirit.Ifyouarenotusedtothatsortofgive-and-take,NewYorkATCcanbevery,veryintimidating.AndthoseAviancaguyswerejustintimidatedbytherapidfire.”
ItisimpossibletoimagineRatwattenotmakinghiscasetoKennedyATC—notbecauseheisobnoxiousorpushyorhasanenormousego,butbecauseheseestheworlddifferently.Ifhe
neededhelpinthecockpit,hewouldwakeupthesecondcrew.IfhethoughtMoscowwaswrong,well,hewouldjustgotoHelsinki,andifHelsinkiwasgoingtobringhiminwiththewind,well,hewasgoingtotalkthemintobringinghiminagainstthewind.Thatmorning,whentheywereleavingHelsinki,hehadlineduptheplaneonthewrongrunway—andhis
firstofficerhadquicklypointedouttheerror.ThememorymadeRatwattelaugh.“MasaisSwiss.Hewasveryhappytocorrectme.Hewasgivingmeshitthewholewayback.”
Ratwattecontinued:“Alltheguyshadtodowastellthecontroller,‘Wedon’thavethefueltocomplywithwhatyouaretryingtodo.’Alltheyhadtodowassay,‘Wecan’t
dothat.Wehavetolandinthenexttenminutes.’Theyweren’tabletoputthatacrosstothecontroller.”
ItwasatthispointthatRatwattebegantospeakcarefully,becausehewasabouttomakethekindofculturalgeneralizationthatoftenleavesusuncomfortable.ButwhathappenedwithAviancawasjustsostrange—soseemingly
inexplicable—thatitdemandedamorecompleteexplanationthansimplythatKlotzwasincompetentandthecaptainwastired.Therewassomethingmoreprofound—morestructural—goingoninthatcockpit.Whatiftherewassomethingaboutthepilots’beingColombianthatledtothatcrash?“Look,noAmericanpilotwouldputupwiththat.
That’sthething,”Ratwattesaid.“Theywouldsay,‘Listen,buddy.Ihavetoland.’”
10.Inthe1960sand1970s,theDutchpsychologistGeertHofstedewasworkingforthehumanresourcesdepartmentofIBM’sEuropeanheadquarters.Hofstede’sjob
wastotraveltheglobeandinterviewemployees,askingaboutsuchthingsashowpeoplesolvedproblemsandhowtheyworkedtogetherandwhattheirattitudesweretoauthority.Thequestionnaireswerelongandinvolved,andovertimeHofstedewasabletodevelopanenormousdatabaseforanalyzingthewaysinwhichculturesdifferfromone
another.Today“Hofstede’sDimensions”areamongthemostwidelyusedparadigmsincrossculturalpsychology.
Hofstedeargued,forexample,thatculturescanbeusefullydistinguishedaccordingtohowmuchtheyexpectindividualstolookafterthemselves.Hecalledthatmeasurementthe“individualism-collectivismscale.”Thecountrythat
scoreshighestontheindividualismendofthatscaleistheUnitedStates.Notsurprisingly,theUnitedStatesisalsotheonlyindustrializedcountryintheworldthatdoesnotprovideitscitizenswithuniversalhealthcare.AttheoppositeendofthescaleisGuatemala.
AnotherofHofstede’sdimensionsis“uncertaintyavoidance.”Howwelldoesa
culturetolerateambiguity?Herearethetopfive“uncertaintyavoidance”countries,accordingtoHofstede’sdatabase—thatis,thecountriesmostreliantonrulesandplansandmostlikelytosticktoprocedureregardlessofcircumstances:
1. Greece2. Portugal
3. Guatemala4. Uruguay5. Belgium
Thebottomfive—thatis,theculturesbestabletotolerateambiguity—are:
49.HongKong50.Sweden51.Denmark52.Jamaica
53.Singapore
ItisimportanttonotethatHofstedewasn’tsuggestingthattherewasarightplaceorawrongplacetobeonanyoneofthesescales.Norwashesayingthataculture’spositionononeofhisdimensionswasanironcladpredictorofhowsomeonefromthatcountrybehaves:
it’snotimpossible,forexample,forsomeonefromGuatemalatobehighlyindividualistic.
Whathewassaying,instead,wassomethingverysimilartowhatNisbettandCohenarguedaftertheirhallwaystudiesattheUniversityofMichigan.Eachofushashisorherowndistinctpersonality.Butoverlaidontopofthatare
tendenciesandassumptionsandreflexeshandeddowntousbythehistoryofthecommunitywegrewupin,andthosedifferencesareextraordinarilyspecific.
BelgiumandDenmarkareonlyanhourorsoapartbyairplane,forexample.DaneslookalotlikeBelgians,andifyouweredroppedonastreetcornerinCopenhagen,youwouldn’tfinditallthat
differentfromastreetcornerinBrussels.Butwhenitcomestouncertaintyavoidance,thetwonationscouldnotbefurtherapart.Infact,DaneshavemoreincommonwithJamaicanswhenitcomestotoleratingambiguitythantheydowithsomeoftheirEuropeanpeers.DenmarkandBelgiummayshareinakindofbroadEuropeanliberal-democratic
tradition,buttheyhavedifferenthistories,differentpoliticalstructures,differentreligioustraditions,anddifferentlanguagesandfoodandarchitectureandliterature—goingbackhundredsandhundredsofyears.Andthesumtotalofallthosedifferencesisthatincertainkindsofsituationsthatrequiredealingwithriskanduncertainty,Danestendto
reactinaverydifferentwayfromBelgians.
OfallofHofstede’sDimensions,though,perhapsthemostinterestingiswhathecalledthe“PowerDistanceIndex”(PDI).Powerdistanceisconcernedwithattitudestowardhierarchy,specificallywithhowmuchaparticularculturevaluesandrespectsauthority.Tomeasureit,Hofstedeaskedquestionslike
“Howfrequently,inyourexperience,doesthefollowingproblemoccur:employeesbeingafraidtoexpressdisagreementwiththeirmanagers?”Towhatextentdothe“lesspowerfulmembersoforganizationsandinstitutionsacceptandexpectthatpowerisdistributedunequally?”Howmuchareolderpeoplerespectedandfeared?Arepowerholders
entitledtospecialprivileges?“Inlow–powerdistance
indexcountries,”HofstedewroteinhisclassictextCulture’sConsequences:
powerissomethingofwhichpowerholdersarealmostashamedandtheywilltrytounderplay.IonceheardaSwedish(low
PDI)universityofficialstatethatinordertoexercisepowerhetriednottolookpowerful.Leadersmayenhancetheirinformalstatusbyrenouncingformalsymbols.In(lowPDI)Austria,PrimeMinisterBrunoKreiskywasknowntosometimestakethestreetcartowork.In
1974,IactuallysawtheDutch(lowPDI)primeminister,JoopdenUyl,onvacationwithhismotorhomeatacampingsiteinPortugal.Suchbehaviorofthepowerfulwouldbeveryunlikelyinhigh-PDIBelgiumorFrance.*
YoucanimaginetheeffectthatHofstede’sfindingshadonpeopleintheaviationindustry.Whatwastheirgreatbattleovermitigatedspeechandteamworkallabout,afterall?Itwasanattempttoreducepowerdistanceinthecockpit.Hofstede’squestionaboutpowerdistance—“Howfrequently,inyourexperience,doesthe
followingproblemoccur:employeesbeingafraidtoexpressdisagreementwiththeirmanagers?”—wastheveryquestionaviationexpertswereaskingfirstofficersintheirdealingswithcaptains.AndHofstede’sworksuggestedsomethingthathadnotoccurredtoanyoneintheaviationworld:thatthetaskofconvincingfirstofficerstoassertthemselveswasgoing
todependanawfullotontheirculture’spowerdistancerating.
That’swhatRatwattemeantwhenhesaidthatnoAmericanwouldhavebeensofatallyintimidatedbythecontrollersatKennedyAirport.Americaisaclassiclow–powerdistanceculture.Whenpushcomestoshove,AmericansfallbackontheirAmerican-ness,andthat
American-nessmeansthattheairtrafficcontrolleristhoughtofasanequal.Butwhatcountryisattheotherendofthepowerdistancescale?Colombia.
InthewakeoftheAviancacrash,thepsychologistRobertHelmreich,whohasdonemorethananyonetoarguefortheroleofcultureinexplainingpilotbehavior,
wroteabrilliantanalysisoftheaccidentinwhichhearguedthatyoucouldn’tunderstandKlotz’sbehaviorwithouttakingintoaccounthisnationality,thathispredicamentthatdaywasuniquelythepredicamentofsomeonewhohadadeepandabidingrespectforauthority.Helmreichwrote:
Thehigh–powerdistanceofColombianscouldhavecreatedfrustrationonthepartofthefirstofficerbecausethecaptainfailedtoshowthekindofclear(ifnotautocratic)decisionmakingexpectedinhigh–powerdistancecultures.Thefirstand
secondofficersmayhavebeenwaitingforthecaptaintomakedecisions,butstillmayhavebeenunwillingtoposealternatives.
Klotzseeshimselfasasubordinate.It’snothisjobtosolvethecrisis.It’sthecaptain’s—andthecaptainisexhaustedandisn’tsaying
anything.Thenthere’sthedomineeringKennedyAirportairtrafficcontrollersorderingtheplanesaround.Klotzistryingtotellthemhe’sintrouble.Buthe’susinghisownculturallanguage,speakingasasubordinatewouldtoasuperior.Thecontrollers,though,aren’tColombian.They’relow–powerdistanceNewYorkers.Theydon’tseeany
hierarchicalgapbetweenthemselvesandthepilotsintheair,andtothem,mitigatedspeechfromapilotdoesn’tmeanthespeakerisbeingappropriatelydeferentialtoasuperior.Itmeansthepilotdoesn’thaveaproblem.
ThereisapointinthetranscriptwheretheculturalmiscommunicationbetweenthecontrollersandKlotzbecomessoevidentthatitis
almostpainfultoread.It’sthelastexchangebetweenAviancaandthecontroltower,justminutesbeforethecrash.Klotzhasjustsaid,“Iguessso.Thankyouverymuch”inresponsetothecontroller’squestionabouttheirfuelstate.CaptainCaviedesthenturnstoKlotz.
CAVIEDES:Whatdidhesay?
KLOTZ:Theguyisangry.
Angry!Klotz’sfeelingsarehurt!Hisplaneismomentsfromdisaster.Buthecannotescapethedynamicdictatedtohimbyhiscultureinwhichsubordinatesmustrespectthedictatesoftheirsuperiors.Inhismind,hehastriedandfailedtocommunicatehisplight,andhisonlyconclusionisthathemust
havesomehowoffendedhissuperiorsinthecontroltower.
IntheaftermathoftheKennedycrash,themanagementofAviancaairlinesheldapostmortem.Aviancahadjusthadfouraccidentsinquicksuccession—Barranquilla,Cucuta,Madrid,andNewYork—andallfourcases,theairlineconcluded,“hadtodowithairplanesinperfectflight
condition,aircrewwithoutphysicallimitationsandconsideredofaverageorabove-averageflightability,andstilltheaccidentshappened.”(italicsmine)
Inthecompany’sMadridcrash,thereportwenton,thecopilottriedtowarnthecaptainabouthowdangerousthesituationwas:
Thecopilotwasright.Buttheydiedbecause…whenthecopilotaskedquestions,hisimpliedsuggestionswereveryweak.Thecaptain’sreplywastoignorehimtotally.Perhapsthecopilotdidnotwanttoappearrebellious,questioningthejudgmentofthe
captain,orhedidnotwanttoplaythefoolbecauseheknewthatthepilothadagreatdealofexperienceflyinginthatarea.Thecopilotshouldhaveadvocatedforhisownopinionsinastrongerway…
Ourabilitytosucceedat
whatwedoispowerfullyboundupwithwherewe’refrom,andbeingagoodpilotandcomingfromahigh–powerdistancecultureisadifficultmix.ColombiabynomeanshasthehighestPDI,bytheway.Helmreichandacolleague,AshleighMerritt,oncemeasuredthePDIofpilotsfromaroundtheworld.NumberonewasBrazil.NumbertwowasSouth
Korea.*
11.TheNationalTransportationSafetyBoard,theUSagencyresponsibleforinvestigatingplanecrashes,isheadquarteredinasquat,seventies-eraofficebuildingonthebanksofthePotomacRiverinWashington,DC.
Offtheagency’slonghallwaysarelaboratoriesfilledwithairplanewreckage:amangledpieceofanengineturbine,aproblematicpieceofahelicopterrotor.Onashelfinoneofthelaboratoriesisthecockpitvoiceanddatarecorder—theso-calledblackbox—fromthedevastatingValuJetcrashinFloridain1996,inwhich110peoplewerekilled.The
recorderisencasedinashoebox–sizehousingmadeoutofthickhardenedsteel,andononeendoftheboxisajaggedhole,asifsomeone—or,rather,something—haddrivenastakeintoitwithtremendousforce.SomeoftheNTSBinvestigatorsareengineers,whoreconstructcrashesfromthematerialevidence.Othersarepilots.Asurprisingnumberofthem,
however,arepsychologists,whosejobitistolistentothecockpitrecorderandreconstructwhatwassaidanddonebytheflightcrewinthefinalminutesbeforeacrash.OneoftheNTSB’sleadingblack-boxspecialistsisaganglyfiftyishPhDpsychologistnamedMalcolmBrenner,andBrennerwasoneoftheinvestigatorsintotheKoreanAircrashin
Guam.“Normallythatapproach
intoGuamisnotdifficult,”Brennerbegan.Guamairporthaswhatiscalledaglidescope,whichislikeagiantbeamoflightstretchingupintotheskyfromtheairport,andthepilotsimplyfollowsthebeamallthewaydowntotherunway.Butonthisparticularnight,theglideslopewasdown.“Itwasout
ofservice,”Brennersaid.“Ithadbeensenttoanotherislandtoberepaired.Sotherewasanoticetoairmenthattheglideslopewasnotoperating.”
Inthegrandschemeofthings,thisshouldnothavebeenabigproblem.Inthemonththeglidescopehadbeenunderrepair,therehadbeenaboutfifteenhundredsafelandingsatGuamairport.
Itwasjustasmallthing—aninconvenience,really—thatmadethetaskoflandingaplanejustalittlebitmoredifficult.
“Thesecondcomplicationwastheweather,”Brennercontinued.“NormallyintheSouthPacific,you’vegotthesebriefweathersituations.Buttheygobyquickly.Youdon’thavestorms.It’satropicalparadise.Butthat
night,thereweresomelittlecells,anditjusthappensthatthatevening,theyweregoingtobeflyingintooneofthoselittlecells,afewmilesfromtheairport.Sothecaptainhastodecide,Whatexactlyismyprocedureforlanding?Well,theywereclearedforwhat’scalledaVOR/DMEapproach.It’scomplicated.It’sapainintheass.Ittakesalotofcoordinationtosetit
up.Youhavetocomedowninsteps.Butthen,asithappens,frommilesout,thecaptainseesthelightsofGuam.Soherelaxes.Andhesays,‘We’redoingavisualapproach.’”
TheVORisabeaconthatsendsoutasignalthatallowspilotstocalculatetheiraltitudeastheyapproachanairport.It’swhatpilotsreliedonbeforetheinventionofthe
glidescope.Thecaptain’sstrategywastousetheVORtogettheplanecloseandthen,oncehecouldseethelightsoftherunway,tolandtheplanevisually.Itseemedtomakesense.Pilotsdovisuallandingsallthetime.Buteverytimeapilotchoosesaplan,heissupposedtoprepareabackupincasethingsgoawry.Andthiscaptaindidn’t.
“Theyshouldhavebeencoordinating.Heshouldhavebeenbriefingforthe[DME]step-downs,”Brennerwenton.“Buthedoesn’ttalkaboutthat.Thestormcellsareallaroundthem,andwhatthecaptainseemstobedoingisassumingthatatsomepointhe’sgoingtobreakoutofthecloudsandseetheairport,andifhedoesn’tseeitbyfivehundredsixtyfeet,he’lljust
goaround.Now,thatwouldwork,exceptforonemorething.TheVORonwhichhe’sbasingthisstrategyisnotattheairport.It’stwo-point-fivemilesawayonNimitzHill.There’sanumberofairportsintheworldwherethisistrue.SometimesyoucanfollowtheVORdownandittakesyoustraighttotheairport.HereifyoufollowtheVORdown,ittakesyou
straighttoNimitzHill.”Thepilotknewaboutthe
VOR.Itwasclearlystatedintheairport’snavigationalcharts.He’dflownintoGuameighttimesbefore,andinfact,hehadspecificallymentioneditinthebriefinghegavebeforetakeoff.Butthenagain,itwasoneinthemorning,andhe’dbeenupsincesixa.m.thepreviousday.
“Webelievethatfatiguewasinvolved,”Brennerwenton.“It’saback-of-the-clockflight.Youflyinandarriveatoneinthemorning,Koreantime.Thenyouspendafewhoursontheground,andyouflybackasthesuniscomingup.Thecaptainhasflownitamonthbefore.Inthatcase,hesleptonthefirst-classseat.Nowhe’sflyinginandsayshe’sreallytired.”
Sotheretheyare,threeclassicpreconditionsofaplanecrash,thesamethreethatsetthestageforAvianca052:aminortechnicalmalfunction;badweather;andatiredpilot.Byitself,noneofthesewouldbesufficientforanaccident.Butallthreeincombinationrequirethecombinedeffortsofeveryoneinthecockpit.Andthat’swhereKoreanAir
801ranintotrouble.
12.HereistheflightrecordertranscriptofthefinalthirtyminutesofKALflight801:Itbeginswiththecaptaincomplainingofexhaustion.
0120:01.CAPTAIN:Ifthisround-tripismorethan
anine-hourtrip,wemightgetalittlesomething.Witheighthours,wegetnothing.Eighthoursdonothelpusatall….Theymakeusworktomaximum,uptomaximum.Probablythisway…hotelexpenseswillbesavedforcabincrews,andmaximizetheflight
hours.Anyway,theymakeus…worktomaximum.
Thereisthesoundofamanshiftinginhisseat.Aminutepasses.
0121:13.CAPTAIN:Eh…really…sleepy.[unintelligiblewords]
FIRSTOFFICER:Ofcourse.
Thencomesoneofthemostcriticalmomentsintheflight.Thefirstofficerdecidestospeakup:
FIRSTOFFICER:Don’tyouthinkitrainsmore?Inthisarea,here?
Thefirstofficermusthavethoughtlongandhardbeforemakingthatcomment.He
wasnotflyingintheeasycollegialityofSurenRatwatte’scockpit.AmongKoreanAirflightcrews,theexpectationonlayoversusedtobethatthejuniorofficerswouldattendtothecaptaintothepointofmakinghimdinnerorpurchasinghimgifts.AsoneformerKoreanAirpilotputsit,thesensibilityinmanyoftheairline’scockpitswasthat
“thecaptainisinchargeanddoeswhathewants,whenhelikes,howhelikes,andeveryoneelsesitsquietlyanddoesnothing.”IntheDeltareportonKoreanAirthatwaspostedanonymouslyontheInternet,oneoftheauditorstellsastoryofsittinginonaKoreanAirflightwherethefirstofficergotconfusedwhilelisteningtoAirTrafficControlandmistakenlyput
theplaneonacourseintendedforanotherplane.“TheFlightEngineerpickedupsomethingwaswrongbutsaidnothing.FirstOfficerwasalsonothappybutsaidnothing….Despite[good]visualconditions,crewdidnotlookoutandseethatcurrentheadingwouldnotbringthemtotheairfield.”Finallytheplane’sradarpicksupthemistake,and
thencomesthekeysentence:“CaptainhitFirstOfficerwiththebackofhishandformakingtheerror.”
Hithimwiththebackofhishand?
WhenthethreepilotsallmetthateveningatKimpofortheirpreflightpreparation,thefirstofficerandtheengineerwouldhavebowedtothecaptain.Theywouldallhavethenshakenhands.“Cheo
eomboebseomnida,”thecopilotmighthavesaid,respectfully.“Itisfirsttimetomeetyou.”TheKoreanlanguagehasnofewerthansixdifferentlevelsofconversationaladdress,dependingontherelationshipbetweentheaddresseeandtheaddresser:formaldeference,informaldeference,blunt,familiar,intimate,andplain.Thefirst
officerwouldnothavedaredtouseoneofthemoreintimateorfamiliarformswhenheaddressedthecaptain.Thisisacultureinwhichenormousattentionispaidtotherelativestandingofanytwopeopleinaconversation.
TheKoreanlinguistHo-minSohnwrites:
Atadinnertable,alower-rankingpersonmustwaituntilahigher-rankingpersonsitsdownandstartseating,whilethereversedoesnotholdtrue;onedoesnotsmokeinthepresenceofasocialsuperior;whendrinkingwithasocialsuperior,thesubordinatehideshis
glassandturnsawayfromthesuperior;…ingreetingasocialsuperior(thoughnotaninferior)aKoreanmustbow;aKoreanmustrisewhenanobvioussocialsuperiorappearsonthescene,andhecannotpassinfrontofanobvioussocialsuperior.Allsocialbehaviorandactions
areconductedintheorderofseniorityorranking;asthesayinggoes,chanmultowialaykaita,thereisordereventodrinkingcoldwater.
So,whenthefirstofficersays,“Don’tyouthinkitrainsmore?Inthisarea,here?”weknowwhathemeansbythat:
Captain.Youhavecommittedustovisualapproach,withnobackupplan,andtheweatheroutsideisterrible.Youthinkthatwewillbreakoutofthecloudsintimetoseetherunway.Butwhatifwedon’t?It’spitch-blackoutsideandpouringrainandtheglidescopeisdown.
Buthecan’tsaythat.Hehints,andinhismindhe’ssaidasmuchashecantoa
superior.Thefirstofficerwillnotmentiontheweatheragain.
Itisjustafterthatmomentthattheplane,briefly,breaksoutoftheclouds,andoffinthedistancethepilotsseelights.
“IsitGuam?”theflightengineerasks.Then,afterapause,hesays,“It’sGuam,Guam.”
Thecaptainchuckles.
“Good!”Butitisn’tgood.It’san
illusion.They’vecomeoutofthecloudsforamoment.Buttheyarestilltwentymilesfromtheairport,andthereisanenormousamountofbadweatherstillaheadofthem.Theflightengineerknowsthis,becauseitishisresponsibilitytotracktheweather,sonowhedecidestospeakup.
“Captain,theweatherradarhashelpedusalot,”hesays.
Theweatherradarhashelpedusalot?Asecondhintfromtheflightdeck.Whattheengineermeansisjustwhatthefirstofficermeant.Thisisn’tanightwhereyoucanrelyonjustyoureyestolandtheplane.Lookatwhattheweatherradaristellingus:there’s
troubleahead.ToWesternears,itseems
strangethattheflightengineerwouldbringupthissubjectjustonce.Westerncommunicationhaswhatlinguistscalla“transmitterorientation”—thatis,itisconsideredtheresponsibilityofthespeakertocommunicateideasclearlyandunambiguously.EveninthetragiccaseoftheAir
Floridacrash,wherethefirstofficerneverdoesmorethanhintaboutthedangerposedbytheice,hestillhintsfourtimes,phrasinghiscommentsfourdifferentways,inanattempttomakehismeaningclear.Hemayhavebeenconstrainedbythepowerdistancebetweenhimselfandthecaptain,buthewasstilloperatingwithinaWesternculturalcontext,whichholds
thatifthereisconfusion,itisthefaultofthespeaker.
ButKorea,likemanyAsiancountries,isreceiveroriented.Itisuptothelistenertomakesenseofwhatisbeingsaid.Intheengineer’smind,hehassaidalot.
Sohngivesthefollowingconversationasanillustration,anexchangebetweenanemployee(Mr.
Kim)andhisboss,adivisionchief(kwachang).
KWACHANG:It’scoldandI’mkindofhungry.
[MEANING:Whydon’tyoubuyadrinkorsomethingtoeat?]
MR.KIM:Howabouthavingaglassofliquor?
[MEANING:Iwillbuyliquorforyou.]
KWACHANG:It’sokay.Don’tbother.
[MEANING:Iwillacceptyourofferifyourepeatit.]
MR.KIM:Youmustbehungry.Howaboutgoingout?
[MEANING:Iinsistupontreatingyou.]
KWACHANG:ShallIdoso?[MEANING:Iaccept.]
Thereissomethingbeautifulinthesubtletyofthatexchange,intheattentionthateachpartymustpaytothemotivationsanddesiresoftheother.Itiscivilized,inthetruestsenseofthatword:itdoesnotpermitinsensitivityorindifference.
Buthigh–powerdistancecommunicationworksonlywhenthelisteneriscapableofpayingcloseattention,and
itworksonlyifthetwopartiesinaconversationhavetheluxuryoftime,inordertounwindeachother’smeanings.Itdoesn’tworkinanairplanecockpitonastormynightwithanexhaustedpilottryingtolandatanairportwithabrokenglidescope.
13.
In2000,KoreanAirfinallyacted,bringinginanoutsiderfromDeltaAirLines,DavidGreenberg,toruntheirflightoperations.
Greenberg’sfirststepwassomethingthatwouldmakenosenseifyoudidnotunderstandthetruerootsofKoreanAir’sproblems.HeevaluatedtheEnglishlanguageskillsofalloftheairline’sflightcrews.“Some
ofthemwerefineandsomeofthemweren’t,”heremembers.“SowesetupaprogramtoassistandimprovetheproficiencyofaviationEnglish.”HissecondstepwastobringinaWesternfirm—asubsidiaryofBoeingcalledAlteon—totakeoverthecompany’strainingandinstructionprograms.“AlteonconductedtheirtraininginEnglish,”
Greenbergsays.“Theydidn’tspeakKorean.”Greenberg’srulewassimple.ThenewlanguageofKoreanAirwasEnglish,andifyouwantedtoremainapilotatthecompany,youhadtobefluentinthatlanguage.“Thiswasnotapurge,”hesays.“Everyonehadthesameopportunity,andthosewhofoundthelanguageissuechallengingwereallowedto
gooutandstudyontheirownnickel.Butlanguagewasthefilter.Ican’trecallthatanyonewasfiredforflyingproficiencyshortcomings.”
Greenberg’srationalewasthatEnglishwasthelanguageoftheaviationworld.Whenthepilotssatinthecockpitandworkedtheirwaythroughthewrittencheckliststhatflightcrewsfollowoneverysignificantpointof
procedure,thosechecklistswereinEnglish.WhentheytalkedtoAirTrafficControlanywhereintheworld,thoseconversationswouldbeinEnglish.
“IfyouaretryingtolandatJFKatrushhour,thereisnononverbalcommunication,”Greenbergsays.“It’speopletalkingtopeople,soyouneedtobedarnsureyouunderstand
what’sgoingon.YoucansaythattwoKoreanssidebysidedon’tneedtospeakEnglish.ButiftheyarearguingaboutwhattheguysoutsidesaidinEnglish,thenlanguageisimportant.”
Greenbergwantedtogivehispilotsanalternateidentity.Theirproblemwasthattheyweretrappedinrolesdictatedbytheheavyweightoftheircountry’sculturallegacy.
Theyneededanopportunitytostepoutsidethoseroleswhentheysatinthecockpit,andlanguagewasthekeytothattransformation.InEnglish,theywouldbefreeofthesharplydefinedgradientsofKoreanhierarchy:formaldeference,informaldeference,blunt,familiar,intimate,andplain.Instead,thepilotscouldparticipateinacultureand
languagewithaverydifferentlegacy.
ThecrucialpartofGreenberg’sreform,however,iswhathedidn’tdo.Hedidn’tthrowuphishandsindespair.Hedidn’tfireallofhisKoreanpilotsandstartagainwithpilotsfromalow–powerdistanceculture.Heknewthatculturallegaciesmatter—thattheyarepowerfulandpervasiveand
thattheypersist,longaftertheiroriginalusefulnesshaspassed.Buthedidn’tassumethatlegaciesareanindeliblepartofwhoweare.HebelievedthatiftheKoreanswerehonestaboutwheretheycamefromandwerewillingtoconfrontthoseaspectsoftheirheritagethatdidnotsuittheaviationworld,theycouldchange.Heofferedhispilotswhateveryonefromhockey
playerstosoftwaretycoonstotakeoverlawyershasbeenofferedonthewaytosuccess:anopportunitytotransformtheirrelationshiptotheirwork.
AfterleavingKoreanAir,GreenberghelpedstartupafreightairlinecalledCargo360,andhetookanumberofKoreanpilotswithhim.Theywereallflightengineers,whohadbeennumberthree,after
thecaptainandfirstofficer,inthestricthierarchyoftheoriginalKoreanAir.“ThesewereguyswhohadperformedintheoldenvironmentatKoreanAirforasmuchasfifteentoeighteenyears,”hesaid.“Theyhadacceptedthatsubservientrole.Theyhadbeenatthebottomoftheladder.WeretrainedthemandputthemwithWestern
crew.They’vebeenagreatsuccess.Theyallchangedtheirstyle.Theytakeinitiative.Theypulltheirshareoftheload.Theydon’twaitforsomeonetodirectthem.Theseareseniorpeople,intheirfifties,withalonghistoryinonecontext,whohavebeenretrainedandarenowsuccessfuldoingtheirjobinaWesterncockpit.Wetookthemoutof
theircultureandre-normedthem.”
Thatisanextraordinarilyliberatingexample.Whenweunderstandwhatitreallymeanstobeagoodpilot—whenweunderstandhowmuchcultureandhistoryandtheworldoutsideoftheindividualmattertoprofessionalsuccess—thenwedon’thavetothrowupourhandsindespairatan
airlinewherepilotscrashplanesintothesidesofmountains.Wehaveawaytomakesuccessesoutoftheunsuccessful.
Butfirstwehavetobefrankaboutasubjectthatwewouldalltoooftenratherignore.In1994,whenBoeingfirstpublishedsafetydatashowingaclearcorrelationbetweenacountry’splanecrashesanditsscoreon
Hofstede’sDimensions,thecompany’sresearcherspracticallytiedthemselvesinknotstryingnottocauseoffense.“We’renotsayingthere’sanythinghere,butwethinkthere’ssomethingthere”ishowBoeing’schiefengineerforairplanesafetyputit.Whyarewesosqueamish?Whyisthefactthateachofuscomesfromaculturewithitsown
distinctivemixofstrengthsandweaknesses,tendenciesandpredispositions,sodifficulttoacknowledge?Whowearecannotbeseparatedfromwherewe’refrom—andwhenweignorethatfact,planescrash.
14.Backtothecockpit.
“Captain,theweather
radarhashelpedusalot.”Nopilotwouldsaythatnow.Butthiswasin1997,beforeKoreanAirtookitspowerdistanceissuesseriously.Thecaptainwastired,andtheengineer’struemeaningsailedoverthecaptain’shead.
“Yes,”thecaptainsaysinresponse.“Theyareveryuseful.”Heisn’tlistening.
TheplaneisflyingtowardtheVORbeaconandthe
VORisonthesideofamountain.Theweatherhasn’tbroken.Sothepilotscan’tseeanything.Thecaptainputsthelandinggeardownandextendstheflaps.
At1:41:48,thecaptainsays,“Wiperon,”andtheflightengineerturnsthewiperson.It’srainingnow.
At1:41:59,thefirstofficerasks,“Notinsight?”He’slookingfortherunway.
Hecan’tseeit.He’shadasinkingfeelinginhisstomachforsometimenow.Onesecondlater,theGroundProximityWarningSystemcallsoutinitstonelesselectronicvoice,“Fivehundred[feet].”Theplaneisfivehundredfeetofftheground.ThegroundinthiscaseisthesideofNimitzHill.Butthecrewisconfusedbecausetheythinkthatthe
groundmeanstherunway,andhowcanthatbeiftheycan’tseetherunway?Theflightengineersays,“Eh?”inanastonishedtoneofvoice.Youcanimaginethemallthinkingfuriously,tryingtosquaretheirassumptionofwheretheplaneiswithwhattheirinstrumentsaretellingthem.
At1:42:19,thefirstofficersays,“Let’smakea
missedapproach.”Hehasfinallyupgradedfromahinttoacrewobligation:hewantstoabortthelanding.Later,inthecrashinvestigation,itwasdeterminedthatifhehadseizedcontroloftheplaneinthatmoment,therewouldhavebeenenoughtimetopullupthenoseandclearNimitzHill.Thatiswhatfirstofficersaretrainedtodowhentheybelieveacaptainis
clearlyinthewrong.Butitisonethingtolearnthatinaclassroom,andquiteanothertoactuallydoitintheair,withsomeonewhomightrapyouwiththebackofhishandifyoumakeamistake.
1:42:20.FLIGHTENGINEER:Notinsight.
Withdisasterstaringthem
intheface,boththefirstofficerandtheengineerhavefinallyspokenup.Theywantthecaptaintogoaround,topullupandstartthelandingoveragain.Butit’stoolate.
1:42:21.FIRSTOFFICER:Notinsight,missedapproach.
1:42:22.FLIGHTENGINEER:Goaround.
1:42:23.CAPTAIN:Go
around.1:42:24:05.GROUND
PROXIMITYWARNINGSYSTEM(GPWS):Onehundred.
1:42:24:84.GPWS:Fifty.1:42:25:19.GPWS:Forty.1:42:25:50.GPWS:
Thirty.1:42:25:78.GPWS:
Twenty.1:42:25:78.[soundof
initialimpact]
1:42:28:65.[soundoftone]
1:42:28:91.[soundofgroans]
1:42:30:54.[soundoftone]
ENDOFRECORDING
CHAPTEREIGHT
RicePaddiesandMathTests
“NOONEWHOCANRISEBEFOREDAWNTHREE
HUNDREDSIXTYDAYSAYEARFAILSTOMAKEHISFAMILYRICH.”
1.ThegatewaytotheindustrialheartlandofSouthernChinarunsupthroughthewide,verdantswathofthePearlRiverDelta.Thelandiscoveredbyathick,smoggyhaze.Thefreewaysarecrammedwithtractortrailers.Powerlinescrisscrossthelandscape.Factoriesmakingcameras,computers,watches,
umbrellas,andT-shirtsstandcheekbyjowlwithdenselypackedblocksofapartmentbuildingsandfieldsofbananaandmangotrees,sugarcane,papaya,andpineappledestinedfortheexportmarket.Fewlandscapesintheworldhavechangedsomuchinsoshortatime.Agenerationago,theskieswouldhavebeenclearandtheroadwouldhavebeena
two-lanehighway.Andagenerationbeforethat,allyouwouldhaveseenwerericepaddies.
Twohoursin,attheheadwatersofthePearlRiver,liesthecityofGuangzhou,andpastGuangzhou,remnantsoftheoldChinaareeasiertofind.Thecountrysidebecomesbreathtakinglybeautiful,rollinghillsdottedwith
outcroppingsoflimestonerockagainstthebackdropoftheNanLingMountains.Hereandtherearethetraditionalkhaki-coloredmud-brickhutsoftheChinesepeasantry.Inthesmalltowns,thereareopen-airmarkets:chickensandgeeseinelaboratebamboobaskets,vegetableslaidoutinrowsontheground,slabsofporkontables,tobaccobeing
soldinbigclumps.Andeverywhere,thereisrice,milesuponmilesofit.Inthewinterseason,thepaddiesaredryanddottedwiththestubbleofthepreviousyear’scrop.Afterthecropsareplantedinearlyspring,asthehumidwindsbegintoblow,theyturnamagicalgreen,andbythetimeofthefirstharvest,asthegrainsemergeontheendsofthericeshoots,
thelandbecomesanunendingseaofyellow.
RicehasbeencultivatedinChinaforthousandsofyears.ItwasfromChinathatthetechniquesofricecultivationspreadthroughoutEastAsia—Japan,Korea,Singapore,andTaiwan.Yearin,yearout,asfarbackashistoryisrecorded,farmersfromacrossAsiahaveengagedinthesame
relentless,intricatepatternofagriculture.
Ricepaddiesare“built,”not“openedup”thewayawheatfieldis.Youdon’tjustclearthetrees,underbrush,andstonesandthenplow.Ricefieldsarecarvedintomountainsidesinanelaborateseriesofterraces,orpainstakinglyconstructedfrommarshlandandriverplains.Aricepaddyhastobe
irrigated,soacomplexsystemofdikeshastobebuiltaroundthefield.Channelsmustbedugfromthenearestwatersource,andgatesbuiltintothedikessothewaterflowcanbeadjustedpreciselytocovertherightamountoftheplant.
Thepaddyitself,meanwhile,hastohaveahardclayfloor;otherwisethewaterwillsimplyseepinto
theground.Butofcourse,riceseedlingscan’tbeplantedinhardclay,soontopoftheclay,therehastobeathick,softlayerofmud.Andtheclaypan,asit’scalled,hastobecarefullyengineeredsothatitwilldrainproperlyandalsokeeptheplantssubmergedattheoptimumlevel.Ricehastobefertilizedrepeatedly,whichisanotherart.Traditionally,farmers
used“nightsoil”(humanmanure)andacombinationofburnedcompost,rivermud,beancake,andhemp—andtheyhadtobecareful,becausetoomuchfertilizer,ortherightamountappliedatthewrongtime,couldbeasbadastoolittle.
Whenthetimecametoplant,aChinesefarmerwouldhavehundredsofdifferentvarietiesofricefromwhich
tochoose,eachoneofwhichofferedaslightlydifferenttrade-off,say,betweenyieldandhowquicklyitgrew,orhowwellitdidintimesofdrought,orhowitfaredinpoorsoil.Afarmermightplantadozenormoredifferentvarietiesatonetime,adjustingthemixfromseasontoseasoninordertomanagetheriskofacropfailure.
Heorshe(or,more
accurately,thewholefamily,sincericeagriculturewasafamilyaffair)wouldplanttheseedinaspeciallypreparedseedbed.Afterafewweeks,theseedlingswouldbetransplantedintothefield,incarefullyspacedrowssixinchesapart,andthenpainstakinglynurtured.
Weedingwasdonebyhand,diligentlyandunceasingly,becausethe
seedlingscouldeasilybechokedbyotherplantlife.Sometimeseachriceshootwouldbeindividuallygroomedwithabamboocombtoclearawayinsects.Allthewhile,farmershadtocheckandrecheckwaterlevelsandmakesurethewaterdidn’tgettoohotinthesummersun.Andwhenthericeripened,farmersgatheredalloftheirfriendsand
relativesand,inonecoordinatedburst,harvesteditasquicklyaspossiblesotheycouldgetasecondcropinbeforethewinterdryseasonbegan.
BreakfastinSouthChina,atleastforthosewhocouldaffordit,wascongee—whitericeporridge,withlettuceanddacepasteandbambooshoots.Lunchwasmorecongee.Dinnerwasricewith
“toppings.”Ricewaswhatyousoldatthemarkettobuytheothernecessitiesoflife.Itwashowwealthandstatusweremeasured.Itdictatedalmosteveryworkingmomentofeveryday.“Riceislife,”saystheanthropologistGonçaloSantos,whohasstudiedatraditionalSouthChinesevillage.“Withoutrice,youdon’tsurvive.Ifyouwantto
beanyoneinthispartofChina,youwouldhavetohaverice.Itmadetheworldgoaround.”
2.Takealookatthefollowinglistofnumbers:4,8,5,3,9,7,6.Readthemoutloud.Nowlookawayandspendtwentysecondsmemorizingthatsequencebeforesaying
themoutloudagain.IfyouspeakEnglish,you
haveabouta50percentchanceofrememberingthatsequenceperfectly.Ifyou’reChinese,though,you’realmostcertaintogetitrighteverytime.Whyisthat?Becauseashumanbeingswestoredigitsinamemoryloopthatrunsforabouttwoseconds.Wemosteasilymemorizewhateverwecan
sayorreadwithinthattwo-secondspan.AndChinesespeakersgetthatlistofnumbers—4,8,5,3,9,7,6—rightalmosteverytimebecause,unlikeEnglish,theirlanguageallowsthemtofitallthosesevennumbersintotwoseconds.
ThatexamplecomesfromStanislasDehaene’sbookTheNumberSense.AsDehaeneexplains:
Chinesenumberwordsareremarkablybrief.Mostofthemcanbeutteredinlessthanone-quarterofasecond(forinstance,4is“si”and7“qi”).TheirEnglishequivalents—“four,”“seven”—arelonger:pronouncingthemtakesaboutone-thirdofasecond.The
memorygapbetweenEnglishandChineseapparentlyisentirelyduetothisdifferenceinlength.InlanguagesasdiverseasWelsh,Arabic,Chinese,EnglishandHebrew,thereisareproduciblecorrelationbetweenthetimerequiredtopronouncenumbersinagivenlanguageand
thememoryspanofitsspeakers.Inthisdomain,theprizeforefficacygoestotheCantonesedialectofChinese,whosebrevitygrantsresidentsofHongKongarocketingmemoryspanofabout10digits.
Itturnsoutthatthereis
alsoabigdifferenceinhownumber-namingsystemsinWesternandAsianlanguagesareconstructed.InEnglish,wesayfourteen,sixteen,seventeen,eighteen,andnineteen,soonemightexpectthatwewouldalsosayoneteen,twoteen,threeteen,andfiveteen.Butwedon’t.Weuseadifferentform:eleven,twelve,thirteen,andfifteen.Similarly,wehave
fortyandsixty,whichsoundlikethewordstheyarerelatedto(fourandsix).Butwealsosayfiftyandthirtyandtwenty,whichsortofsoundlikefiveandthreeandtwo,butnotreally.And,forthatmatter,fornumbersabovetwenty,weputthe“decade”firstandtheunitnumbersecond(twenty-one,twenty-two),whereasfortheteens,wedoittheotherwayaround
(fourteen,seventeen,eighteen).ThenumbersysteminEnglishishighlyirregular.NotsoinChina,Japan,andKorea.Theyhavealogicalcountingsystem.Elevenisten-one.Twelveisten-two.Twenty-fouristwo-tens-fourandsoon.
ThatdifferencemeansthatAsianchildrenlearntocountmuchfasterthanAmericanchildren.Four-year-old
Chinesechildrencancount,onaverage,toforty.Americanchildrenatthatagecancountonlytofifteen,andmostdon’treachfortyuntilthey’refive.Bytheageoffive,inotherwords,AmericanchildrenarealreadyayearbehindtheirAsiancounterpartsinthemostfundamentalofmathskills.
Theregularityoftheir
numbersystemalsomeansthatAsianchildrencanperformbasicfunctions,suchasaddition,farmoreeasily.AskanEnglish-speakingseven-year-oldtoaddthirty-sevenplustwenty-twoinherhead,andshehastoconvertthewordstonumbers(37+22).Onlythencanshedothemath:2plus7is9and30and20is50,whichmakes59.AskanAsianchildtoadd
three-tens-sevenandtwo-tens-two,andthenthenecessaryequationisrightthere,embeddedinthesentence.Nonumbertranslationisnecessary:It’sfive-tens-nine.
“TheAsiansystemistransparent,”saysKarenFuson,aNorthwesternUniversitypsychologistwhohascloselystudiedAsian-Westerndifferences.“Ithink
thatitmakesthewholeattitudetowardmathdifferent.Insteadofbeingarotelearningthing,there’sapatternIcanfigureout.ThereisanexpectationthatIcandothis.Thereisanexpectationthatit’ssensible.Forfractions,wesaythree-fifths.TheChineseisliterally‘outoffiveparts,takethree.’That’stellingyouconceptuallywhatafraction
is.It’sdifferentiatingthedenominatorandthenumerator.”
Themuch-storieddisenchantmentwithmathematicsamongWesternchildrenstartsinthethirdandfourthgrades,andFusonarguesthatperhapsapartofthatdisenchantmentisduetothefactthatmathdoesn’tseemtomakesense;itslinguisticstructureisclumsy;
itsbasicrulesseemarbitraryandcomplicated.
Asianchildren,bycontrast,don’tfeelnearlythatsamebafflement.Theycanholdmorenumbersintheirheadsanddocalculationsfaster,andthewayfractionsareexpressedintheirlanguagescorrespondsexactlytothewayafractionactuallyis—andmaybethatmakesthemalittlemore
likelytoenjoymath,andmaybebecausetheyenjoymathalittlemore,theytryalittleharderandtakemoremathclassesandaremorewillingtodotheirhomework,andonandon,inakindofvirtuouscircle.
Whenitcomestomath,inotherwords,Asianshaveabuilt-inadvantage.Butit’sanunusualkindofadvantage.Foryears,studentsfrom
China,SouthKorea,andJapan—andthechildrenofrecentimmigrantswhoarefromthosecountries—havesubstantiallyoutperformedtheirWesterncounterpartsatmathematics,andthetypicalassumptionisthatithassomethingtodowithakindofinnateAsianproclivityformath.*ThepsychologistRichardLynnhasevengonesofarastoproposean
elaborateevolutionarytheoryinvolvingtheHimalayas,reallycoldweather,premodernhuntingpractices,brainsize,andspecializedvowelsoundstoexplainwhyAsianshavehigherIQs.†That’showwethinkaboutmath.Weassumethatbeinggoodatthingslikecalculusandalgebraisasimplefunctionofhowsmartsomeoneis.Butthe
differencesbetweenthenumbersystemsintheEastandtheWestsuggestsomethingverydifferent—thatbeinggoodatmathmayalsoberootedinagroup’sculture.
InthecaseoftheKoreans,onekindofdeeplyrootedlegacystoodinthewayoftheverymoderntaskofflyinganairplane.Herewehaveanotherkindoflegacy,one
thatturnsouttobeperfectlysuitedfortwenty-first-centurytasks.Culturallegaciesmatter,andoncewe’veseenthesurprisingeffectsofsuchthingsaspowerdistanceandnumbersthatcanbesaidinaquarterasopposedtoathirdofasecond,it’shardnottowonderhowmanyotherculturallegacieshaveanimpactonourtwenty-first-centuryintellectualtasks.
Whatifcomingfromacultureshapedbythedemandsofgrowingricealsomakesyoubetteratmath?Couldthericepaddymakeadifferenceintheclassroom?
3.Themoststrikingfactaboutaricepaddy—whichcanneverquitebegraspeduntilyouactuallystandinthemiddle
ofone—isitssize.It’stiny.Thetypicalricepaddyisaboutasbigasahotelroom.AtypicalAsianricefarmmightbecomposedoftwoorthreepaddies.AvillageinChinaoffifteenhundredpeoplemightsupportitselfentirelywith450acresofland,whichintheAmericanMidwestwouldbethesizeofatypicalfamilyfarm.Atthatscale,withfamiliesoffive
andsixpeoplelivingoffafarmthesizeoftwohotelrooms,agriculturechangesdramatically.
Historically,Westernagricultureis“mechanically”oriented.IntheWest,ifafarmerwantedtobecomemoreefficientorincreasehisyield,heintroducedmoreandmoresophisticatedequipment,whichallowedhimtoreplacehumanlabor
withmechanicallabor:athreshingmachine,ahaybaler,acombineharvester,atractor.Heclearedanotherfieldandincreasedhisacreage,becausenowhismachineryallowedhimtoworkmorelandwiththesameamountofeffort.ButinJapanorChina,farmersdidn’thavethemoneytobuyequipment—and,inanycase,therecertainlywasn’tany
extralandthatcouldeasilybeconvertedintonewfields.Soricefarmersimprovedtheiryieldsbybecomingsmarter,bybeingbettermanagersoftheirowntime,andbymakingbetterchoices.AstheanthropologistFrancescaBrayputsit,riceagricultureis“skilloriented”:ifyou’rewillingtoweedabitmorediligently,andbecomemoreadeptatfertilizing,andspend
abitmoretimemonitoringwaterlevels,anddoabetterjobkeepingtheclaypanabsolutelylevel,andmakeuseofeverysquareinchofyourricepaddy,you’llharvestabiggercrop.Throughouthistory,notsurprisingly,thepeoplewhogrowricehavealwaysworkedharderthanalmostanyotherkindoffarmer.
Thatlaststatementmay
seemalittleodd,becausemostofushaveasensethateveryoneinthepremodernworldworkedreallyhard.Butthatsimplyisn’ttrue.Allofus,forexample,aredescendedatsomepointfromhunter-gatherers,andmanyhunter-gatherers,byallaccounts,hadaprettyleisurelylife.The!KungbushmenoftheKalahariDesert,inBotswana,whoare
oneofthelastremainingpractitionersofthatwayoflife,subsistonarichassortmentoffruits,berries,roots,andnuts—inparticularthemongongonut,anincrediblyplentifulandprotein-richsourceoffoodthatliesthickontheground.Theydon’tgrowanything,anditisgrowingthings—preparing,planting,weeding,harvesting,storing—that
takestime.Nordotheyraiseanyanimals.Occasionally,themale!Kunghunt,butchieflyforsport.Alltold,!Kungmenandwomenworknomorethanabouttwelvetonineteenhoursaweek,withthebalanceofthetimespentdancing,entertaining,andvisitingfamilyandfriends.That’s,atmost,onethousandhoursofworkayear.(Whenabushmanwasaskedonce
whyhispeoplehadn’ttakentoagriculture,helookedpuzzledandsaid,“Whyshouldweplant,whentherearesomanymongongonutsintheworld?”)
Orconsiderthelifeofapeasantineighteenth-centuryEurope.Menandwomeninthosedaysprobablyworkedfromdawntonoontwohundreddaysayear,whichworksouttoabouttwelve
hundredhoursofworkannually.Duringharvestorspringplanting,thedaymightbelonger.Inthewinter,muchless.InTheDiscoveryofFrance,thehistorianGrahamRobbarguesthatpeasantlifeinacountrylikeFrance,evenwellintothenineteenthcentury,wasessentiallybriefepisodesofworkfollowedbylongperiodsofidleness.
“Ninety-ninepercentofall
humanactivitydescribedinthisandotheraccounts[ofFrenchcountrylife],”hewrites,“tookplacebetweenlatespringandearlyautumn.”InthePyreneesandtheAlps,entirevillageswouldessentiallyhibernatefromthetimeofthefirstsnowinNovemberuntilMarchorApril.InmoretemperateregionsofFrance,wheretemperaturesinthewinter
rarelyfellbelowfreezing,thesamepatternheld.Robbcontinues:
ThefieldsofFlandersweredesertedformuchoftheyear.AnofficialreportontheNièvrein1844describedthestrangemutationoftheBurgundianday-laboreroncethe
harvestwasinandthevinestockshadbeenburned:“Aftermakingthenecessaryrepairstotheirtools,thesevigorousmenwillnowspendtheirdaysinbed,packingtheirbodiestightlytogetherinordertostaywarmandeatlessfood.Theyweakenthemselvesdeliberately.”
Humanhibernationwasaphysicalandeconomicnecessity.Loweringthemetabolicratepreventedhungerfromexhaustingsupplies….Peopletrudgedanddawdled,eveninsummer….Aftertherevolution,inAlsaceandthePas-de-Calais,officialscomplained
thatwinegrowersandindependentfarmers,insteadofundertaking“somepeacefulandsedentaryindustry”inthequieterseason,“abandonthemselvestodumbidleness.”
IfyouwereapeasantfarmerinSouthernChina,bycontrast,youdidn’tsleep
throughthewinter.Intheshortbreakmarkedbythedryseason,fromNovemberthroughFebruary,youbusiedyourselfwithsidetasks.Youmadebamboobasketsorhatsandsoldtheminthemarket.Yourepairedthedikesinyourricepaddy,andrebuiltyourmudhut.Yousentoneofyoursonstoworkinanearbyvillageforarelative.Youmadetofuanddried
beancurdandcaughtsnakes(theywereadelicacy)andtrappedinsects.Bythetimelahpcheun(the“turningofthespring”)came,youwerebackinthefieldsatdawn.Workinginaricefieldistentotwentytimesmorelabor-intensivethanworkingonanequivalent-sizecornorwheatfield.Someestimatesputtheannualworkloadofawet-ricefarmerinAsiaatthree
thousandhoursayear.
4.Think,foramoment,aboutwhatthelifeofaricefarmerinthePearlRiverDeltamusthavebeenlike.Threethousandhoursayearisastaggeringamountoftimetospendworking,particularlyifmanyofthosehoursinvolvebeingbentoverinthehot
sun,plantingandweedinginaricepaddy.
Whatredeemedthelifeofaricefarmer,however,wasthenatureofthatwork.ItwasalotlikethegarmentworkdonebytheJewishimmigrantstoNewYork.Itwasmeaningful.Firstofall,thereisaclearrelationshipinricefarmingbetweeneffortandreward.Theharderyouworkaricefield,themoreit
yields.Second,it’scomplexwork.Thericefarmerisn’tsimplyplantinginthespringandharvestinginthefall.Heorsheeffectivelyrunsasmallbusiness,jugglingafamilyworkforce,hedginguncertaintythroughseedselection,buildingandmanagingasophisticatedirrigationsystem,andcoordinatingthecomplicatedprocessofharvestingthefirst
cropwhilesimultaneouslypreparingthesecondcrop.
And,mostofall,it’sautonomous.ThepeasantsofEuropeworkedessentiallyaslow-paidslavesofanaristocraticlandlord,withlittlecontrolovertheirowndestinies.ButChinaandJapanneverdevelopedthatkindofoppressivefeudalsystem,becausefeudalismsimplycan’tworkinarice
economy.Growingriceistoocomplicatedandintricateforasystemthatrequiresfarmerstobecoercedandbulliedintogoingoutintothefieldseachmorning.Bythefourteenthandfifteenthcenturies,landlordsincentralandSouthernChinahadanalmostcompletelyhands-offrelationshipwiththeirtenants:theywouldcollectafixedrentandletfarmersgo
abouttheirbusiness.“Thethingaboutwet-rice
farmingis,notonlydoyouneedphenomenalamountsoflabor,butit’sveryexacting,”saysthehistorianKennethPomerantz.“Youhavetocare.Itreallymattersthatthefieldisperfectlyleveledbeforeyoufloodit.Gettingitclosetolevelbutnotquiterightmakesabigdifferenceintermsofyouryield.It
reallymattersthatthewaterisinthefieldsforjusttherightamountoftime.There’sabigdifferencebetweenlininguptheseedlingsatexactlytherightdistanceanddoingitsloppily.It’snotlikeyouputthecorninthegroundinmid-Marchandaslongasraincomesbytheendofthemonth,you’reokay.You’recontrollingalltheinputsinaverydirectway.Andwhen
youhavesomethingthatrequiresthatmuchcare,theoverlordhastohaveasystemthatgivestheactuallaborersomesetofincentives,whereiftheharvestcomesoutwell,thefarmergetsabiggershare.That’swhyyougetfixedrents,wherethelandlordsays,Igettwentybushels,regardlessoftheharvest,andifit’sreallygood,yougettheextra.It’sa
cropthatdoesn’tdoverywellwithsomethinglikeslaveryorwagelabor.Itwouldjustbetooeasytoleavethegatethatcontrolstheirrigationwateropenafewsecondstoolongandtheregoesyourfield.”
ThehistorianDavidArkushoncecomparedRussianandChinesepeasantproverbs,andthedifferencesarestriking.“IfGoddoesnot
bringit,theearthwillnotgiveit”isatypicalRussianproverb.That’sthekindoffatalismandpessimismtypicalofarepressivefeudalsystem,wherepeasantshavenoreasontobelieveintheefficacyoftheirownwork.Ontheotherhand,Arkushwrites,Chineseproverbsarestrikingintheirbeliefthat“hardwork,shrewdplanningandself-relianceor
cooperationwithasmallgroupwillintimebringrecompense.”
HerearesomeofthethingsthatpennilesspeasantswouldsaytooneanotherastheyworkedthreethousandhoursayearinthebakingheatandhumidityofChinesericepaddies(which,bytheway,arefilledwithleeches):
“Nofoodwithoutblood
andsweat.”“Farmersarebusy;
farmersarebusy;iffarmersweren’tbusy,wherewouldgraintogetthroughthewintercomefrom?”
“Inwinter,thelazymanfreezestodeath.”
“Don’tdependonheavenforfood,butonyourowntwohandscarryingtheload.”
“Uselesstoaskaboutthecrops,italldependsonhardworkandfertilizer.”
“Ifamanworkshard,thelandwillnotbelazy.”
And,mosttellingofall:“Noonewhocanrisebeforedawnthreehundredsixtydaysayearfailstomakehisfamilyrich.”Risebeforedawn?360daysayear?For
the!Kungleisurelygatheringmongongonuts,ortheFrenchpeasantsleepingawaythewinter,oranyoneelselivinginsomethingotherthantheworldofricecultivation,thatproverbwouldbeunthinkable.
Thisisnot,ofcourse,anunfamiliarobservationaboutAsianculture.GotoanyWesterncollegecampusandyou’llfindthatAsian
studentshaveareputationforbeinginthelibrarylongaftereveryoneelsehasleft.SometimespeopleofAsianbackgroundgetoffendedwhentheircultureisdescribedthisway,becausetheythinkthatthestereotypeisbeingusedasaformofdisparagement.Butabeliefinworkoughttobeathingofbeauty.Virtuallyeverysuccessstorywe’veseenin
thisbooksofarinvolvessomeoneorsomegroupworkingharderthantheirpeers.BillGateswasaddictedtohiscomputerasachild.SowasBillJoy.TheBeatlesputinthousandsofhoursofpracticeinHamburg.JoeFlomgroundawayforyears,perfectingtheartoftakeovers,beforehegothischance.Workingreallyhardiswhatsuccessfulpeopledo,
andthegeniusofthecultureformedinthericepaddiesisthathardworkgavethoseinthefieldsawaytofindmeaninginthemidstofgreatuncertaintyandpoverty.ThatlessonhasservedAsianswellinmanyendeavorsbutrarelysoperfectlyasinthecaseofmathematics.
5.
Afewyearsago,AlanSchoenfeld,amathprofessoratBerkeley,madeavideotapeofawomannamedReneeasshewastryingtosolveamathproblem.Reneewasinhermid-twenties,withlongblackhairandroundsilverglasses.Inthetape,she’splayingwithasoftwareprogramdesignedtoteachalgebra.Onthescreenareayandanxaxis.Theprogram
askstheusertopunchinasetofcoordinatesandthendrawsthelinefromthosecoordinatesonthescreen.Forexample,whenshetypedin5ontheyaxisand5onthexaxis,thecomputerdidthis:
Atthispoint,I’msure,somevaguememoryofyour
middle-schoolalgebraiscomingbacktoyou.Butrestassured,youdon’tneedtorememberanyofittounderstandthesignificanceofRenee’sexample.Infact,asyoulistentoReneetalkinginthenextfewparagraphs,focusnotonwhatshe’ssayingbutratheronhowshe’stalkingandwhyshe’stalkingthewaysheis.
Thepointofthecomputer
program,whichSchoenfeldcreated,wastoteachstudentsabouthowtocalculatetheslopeofaline.Slope,asI’msureyouremember(or,moreaccurately,asI’llbetyoudon’tremember;Icertainlydidn’t),isriseoverrun.Theslopeofthelineinourexampleis1,sincetheriseis5andtherunis5.
SothereisRenee.She’ssittingatthekeyboard,and
she’stryingtofigureoutwhatnumberstoenterinordertogetthecomputertodrawalinethatisabsolutelyvertical,thatisdirectlysuperimposedovertheyaxis.Now,thoseofyouwhorememberyourhighschoolmathwillknowthatthisis,infact,impossible.Averticallinehasanundefinedslope.Itsriseisinfinite:anynumberontheyaxisstartingatzeroandgoingonforever.
It’srunonthexaxis,meanwhile,iszero.Infinitydividedbyzeroisnotanumber.
ButReneedoesn’trealizethatwhatshe’stryingtodocan’tbedone.Sheis,rather,inthegripofwhatSchoenfeldcallsa“gloriousmisconception,”andthereasonSchoenfeldlikestoshowthisparticulartapeisthatitisaperfect
demonstrationofhowthismisconceptioncametoberesolved.
Reneewasanurse.Shewasn’tsomeonewhohadbeenparticularlyinterestedinmathematicsinthepast.Butshehadsomehowgottenholdofthesoftwareandwashooked.
“Now,whatIwanttodoismakeastraightlinewiththisformula,paralleltothey
axis,”shebegins.Schoenfeldissittingnexttoher.Shelooksoverathimanxiously.“It’sbeenfiveyearssinceIdidanyofthis.”
Shestartstofiddlewiththeprogram,typingindifferentnumbers.
“NowifIchangetheslopethatway…minus1…nowwhatImeantodoismakethelinegostraight.”
Asshetypesinnumbers,
thelineonthescreenchanges.
“Oops.That’snotgoingtodoit.”
Shelookspuzzled.“Whatareyoutryingto
do?”Schoenfeldasks.“WhatI’mtryingtodois
makeastraightlineparalleltotheyaxis.WhatdoIneedtodohere?IthinkwhatIneedtodoischangethisalittlebit.”Shepointsatthe
placewherethenumberfortheyaxisis.“ThatwassomethingIdiscovered.Thatwhenyougofrom1to2,therewasaratherbigchange.Butnowifyougetwayupthereyouhavetokeepchanging.”
ThisisRenee’sgloriousmisconception.She’snoticedthehighershemakestheyaxiscoordinate,thesteeperthelinegets.Soshethinks
thekeytomakingaverticallineisjustmakingtheyaxiscoordinatelargeenough.
“Iguess12oreven13coulddoit.Maybeevenasmuchas15.”
Shefrowns.SheandSchoenfeldgobackandforth.Sheaskshimquestions.Heprodshergentlyintherightdirection.Shekeepstryingandtrying,oneapproachafteranother.
Atonepoint,shetypesin20.Thelinegetsalittlebitsteeper.
Shetypesin40.Thelinegetssteeperstill.
“Iseethatthereisarelationshipthere.Butasto
why,itdoesn’tseemtomakesensetome….WhatifIdo80?If40getsmehalfway,then80shouldgetmeallthewaytotheyaxis.Solet’sjustseewhathappens.”
Shetypesin80.Thelineissteeper.Butit’sstillnottotallyvertical.
“Ohhh.It’sinfinity,isn’tit?It’snevergoingtogetthere.”Reneeisclose.Butthensherevertstoher
originalmisconception.“SowhatdoIneed?100?
Everytimeyoudoublethenumber,yougethalfwaytotheyaxis.Butitnevergetsthere…”
Shetypesin100.
“It’scloser.Butnotquitethereyet.”
Shestartstothinkoutloud.It’sobviousshe’sonthevergeoffiguringsomethingout.“Well,Iknewthis,though…but…Iknewthat.Foreachoneup,itgoesthatmanyover.I’mstillsomewhatconfusedastowhy…”
Shepauses,squintingatthescreen.
“I’mgettingconfused.It’satenthofthewaytotheone.
ButIdon’twantittobe…”Andthensheseesit.“Oh!It’sanynumberup,
andzeroover.It’sanynumberdividedbyzero!”Herfacelightsup.“Averticallineisanythingdividedbyzero—andthat’sanundefinednumber.Ohhh.Okay.NowIsee.Theslopeofaverticallineisundefined.Ahhhh.Thatmeanssomethingnow.Iwon’tforgetthat!”
6.Overthecourseofhiscareer,Schoenfeldhasvideotapedcountlessstudentsastheyworkedonmathproblems.ButtheReneetapeisoneofhisfavoritesbecauseofhowbeautifullyitillustrateswhatheconsiderstobethesecrettolearningmathematics.Twenty-twominutespassfromthemomentRenee
beginsplayingwiththecomputerprogramtothemomentshesays,“Ahhhh.Thatmeanssomethingnow.”That’salongtime.“Thisiseighth-grademathematics,”Schoenfeldsaid.“IfIputtheaverageeighthgraderinthesamepositionasRenee,I’mguessingthatafterthefirstfewattempts,theywouldhavesaid,‘Idon’tgetit.Ineedyoutoexplainit.’”
Schoenfeldonceaskedagroupofhighschoolstudentshowlongtheywouldworkonahomeworkquestionbeforetheyconcludeditwastoohardforthemevertosolve.Theiranswersrangedfromthirtysecondstofiveminutes,withtheaverageanswertwominutes.
ButReneepersists.Sheexperiments.Shegoesbackoverthesameissuestimeand
again.Shethinksoutloud.Shekeepsgoingandgoing.Shesimplywon’tgiveup.Sheknowsonsomevaguelevelthatthereissomethingwrongwithhertheoryabouthowtodrawaverticalline,andshewon’tstopuntilshe’sabsolutelysureshehasitright.
Reneewasn’tamathnatural.Abstractconceptslike“slope”and“undefined”
clearlydidn’tcomeeasilytoher.ButSchoenfeldcouldnothavefoundhermoreimpressive.
“There’sawilltomakesensethatdriveswhatshedoes,”Schoenfeldsays.“Shewouldn’tacceptasuperficial‘Yeah,you’reright’andwalkaway.That’snotwhosheis.Andthat’sreallyunusual.”Herewoundthetapeandpointedtoamomentwhen
Reneereactedwithgenuinesurprisetosomethingonthescreen.
“Look,”hesaid.“Shedoesadoubletake.Manystudentswouldjustletthatflyby.Instead,shethought,‘Thatdoesn’tjibewithwhateverI’mthinking.Idon’tgetit.That’simportant.Iwantanexplanation.’Andwhenshefinallygetstheexplanation,shesays,‘Yeah,
thatfits.’”AtBerkeley,Schoenfeld
teachesacourseonproblemsolving,theentirepointofwhich,hesays,istogethisstudentstounlearnthemathematicalhabitstheypickeduponthewaytouniversity.“IpickaproblemthatIdon’tknowhowtosolve,”hesays.“Itellmystudents,‘You’regoingtohaveatwo-weektake-home
exam.Iknowyourhabits.You’regoingtodonothingforthefirstweekandstartitnextweek,andIwanttowarnyounow:Ifyouonlyspendoneweekonthis,you’renotgoingtosolveit.If,ontheotherhand,youstartworkingthedayIgiveyouthemidterm,you’llbefrustrated.You’llcometomeandsay,‘It’simpossible.’I’lltellyou,Keepworking,andbyweek
two,you’llfindyou’llmakesignificantprogress.”
Wesometimesthinkofbeinggoodatmathematicsasaninnateability.Youeitherhave“it”oryoudon’t.ButtoSchoenfeld,it’snotsomuchabilityasattitude.Youmastermathematicsifyouarewillingtotry.That’swhatSchoenfeldattemptstoteachhisstudents.Successisafunctionofpersistenceand
doggednessandthewillingnesstoworkhardfortwenty-twominutestomakesenseofsomethingthatmostpeoplewouldgiveuponafterthirtyseconds.PutabunchofReneesinaclassroom,andgivethemthespaceandtimetoexploremathematicsforthemselves,andyoucouldgoalongway.OrimagineacountrywhereRenee’sdoggednessisnotthe
exception,butaculturaltrait,embeddedasdeeplyasthecultureofhonorintheCumberlandPlateau.Nowthatwouldbeacountrygoodatmath.
7.Everyfouryears,aninternationalgroupofeducatorsadministersacomprehensivemathematics
andsciencetesttoelementaryandjuniorhighstudentsaroundtheworld.It’stheTIMSS(thesametestyoureadaboutearlier,inthediscussionofdifferencesbetweenfourthgradersbornnearthebeginningofaschoolcutoffdateandthosebornneartheendofthedate),andthepointoftheTIMSSistocomparetheeducationalachievementofonecountry
withanother’s.Whenstudentssitdownto
taketheTIMSSexam,theyalsohavetofilloutaquestionnaire.Itasksthemallkindsofthings,suchaswhattheirparents’levelofeducationis,andwhattheirviewsaboutmathare,andwhattheirfriendsarelike.It’snotatrivialexercise.It’sabout120questionslong.Infact,itissotediousand
demandingthatmanystudentsleaveasmanyastenortwentyquestionsblank.
Now,here’stheinterestingpart.Asitturnsout,theaveragenumberofitemsansweredonthatquestionnairevariesfromcountrytocountry.Itispossible,infact,torankalltheparticipatingcountriesaccordingtohowmanyitemstheirstudentsansweronthe
questionnaire.Now,whatdoyouthinkhappensifyoucomparethequestionnairerankingswiththemathrankingsontheTIMSS?Theyareexactlythesame.Inotherwords,countrieswhosestudentsarewillingtoconcentrateandsitstilllongenoughandfocusonansweringeverysinglequestioninanendlessquestionnairearethesame
countrieswhosestudentsdothebestjobofsolvingmathproblems.
ThepersonwhodiscoveredthisfactisaneducationalresearcherattheUniversityofPennsylvanianamedErlingBoe,andhestumbledacrossitbyaccident.“Itcameoutoftheblue,”hesays.Boehasn’tevenbeenabletopublishhisfindingsinascientific
journal,because,hesays,it’sjustabittooweird.Remember,he’snotsayingthattheabilitytofinishthequestionnaireandtheabilitytoexcelonthemathtestarerelated.He’ssayingthattheyarethesame:ifyoucomparethetworankings,theyareidentical.
Thinkaboutthisanotherway.Imaginethateveryyear,therewasaMathOlympicsin
somefabulouscityintheworld.Andeverycountryintheworldsentitsownteamofonethousandeighthgraders.Boe’spointisthatwecouldpredictpreciselytheorderinwhicheverycountrywouldfinishintheMathOlympicswithoutaskingasinglemathquestion.Allwewouldhavetodoisgivethemsometaskmeasuringhowhardtheywerewillingto
work.Infact,wewouldn’tevenhavetogivethematask.Weshouldbeabletopredictwhichcountriesarebestatmathsimplybylookingatwhichnationalculturesplacethehighestemphasisoneffortandhardwork.
So,whichplacesareatthetopofbothlists?Theanswershouldn’tsurpriseyou:Singapore,SouthKorea,China(Taiwan),HongKong,
andJapan.Whatthosefivehaveincommon,ofcourse,isthattheyareallculturesshapedbythetraditionofwet-riceagricultureandmeaningfulwork.*Theyarethekindsofplaceswhere,forhundredsofyears,pennilesspeasants,slavingawayinthericepaddiesthreethousandhoursayear,saidthingstooneanotherlike“Noonewhocanrisebeforedawnthree
hundredsixtydaysayearfailstomakehisfamilyrich.Ӡ
CHAPTERNINE
Marita’sBargain
“ALLMYFRIENDSNOWAREFROMKIPP.”
1.Inthemid-1990s,an
experimentalpublicschoolcalledtheKIPPAcademyopenedonthefourthfloorofLouGehrigJuniorHighSchoolinNewYorkCity.*LouGehrigisintheseventhschooldistrict,otherwiseknownastheSouthBronx,oneofthepoorestneighborhoodsinNewYorkCity.Itisasquat,gray1960s-erabuildingacrossthestreetfromableak-lookinggroup
ofhigh-rises.AfewblocksoverisGrandConcourse,theborough’smainthoroughfare.Thesearenotstreetsthatyou’dhappilywalkdown,alone,afterdark.
KIPPisamiddleschool.Classesarelarge:thefifthgradehastwosectionsofthirty-fivestudentseach.Therearenoentranceexamsoradmissionsrequirements.Studentsarechosenby
lottery,withanyfourthgraderlivingintheBronxeligibletoapply.RoughlyhalfofthestudentsareAfricanAmerican;therestareHispanic.Three-quartersofthechildrencomefromsingle-parenthomes.Ninetypercentqualifyfor“freeorreducedlunch,”whichistosaythattheirfamiliesearnsolittlethatthefederalgovernmentchipsinsothe
childrencaneatproperlyatlunchtime.
KIPPAcademyseemslikethekindofschoolinthekindofneighborhoodwiththekindofstudentthatwouldmakeeducatorsdespair—exceptthattheminuteyouenterthebuilding,it’sclearthatsomethingisdifferent.Thestudentswalkquietlydownthehallwaysinsinglefile.Intheclassroom,they
aretaughttoturnandaddressanyonetalkingtotheminaprotocolknownas“SSLANT”:smile,situp,listen,askquestions,nodwhenbeingspokento,andtrackwithyoureyes.Onthewallsoftheschool’scorridorsarehundredsofpennantsfromthecollegesthatKIPPgraduateshavegoneontoattend.Lastyear,hundredsoffamiliesfrom
acrosstheBronxenteredthelotteryforKIPP’stwofifth-gradeclasses.Itisnoexaggerationtosaythatjustovertenyearsintoitsexistence,KIPPhasbecomeoneofthemostdesirablepublicschoolsinNewYorkCity.
WhatKIPPismostfamousforismathematics.IntheSouthBronx,onlyabout16percentofallmiddle
schoolstudentsareperformingatorabovetheirgradelevelinmath.ButatKIPP,bytheendoffifthgrade,manyofthestudentscallmaththeirfavoritesubject.Inseventhgrade,KIPPstudentsstarthighschoolalgebra.Bytheendofeighthgrade,84percentofthestudentsareperformingatorabovetheirgradelevel,whichistosaythatthis
motleygroupofrandomlychosenlower-incomekidsfromdingyapartmentsinoneofthecountry’sworstneighborhoods—whoseparents,inanoverwhelmingnumberofcases,neversetfootinacollege—doaswellinmathematicsastheprivilegedeighthgradersofAmerica’swealthysuburbs.“Ourkids’readingisonpoint,”saidDavidLevin,
whofoundedKIPPwithafellowteacher,MichaelFeinberg,in1994.“Theystrugglealittlebitwithwritingskills.Butwhentheyleavehere,theyrockinmath.”
TherearenowmorethanfiftyKIPPschoolsacrosstheUnitedStates,withmoreontheway.TheKIPPprogramrepresentsoneofthemostpromisingneweducational
philosophiesintheUnitedStates.Butitssuccessisbestunderstoodnotintermsofitscurriculum,itsteachers,itsresources,orsomekindofinstitutionalinnovation.KIPPis,rather,anorganizationthathassucceededbytakingtheideaofculturallegaciesseriously.
2.
Intheearlynineteenthcentury,agroupofreformerssetouttoestablishasystemofpubliceducationintheUnitedStates.Whatpassedforpublicschoolatthetimewasahaphazardassortmentoflocallyrunone-roomschoolhousesandovercrowdedurbanclassroomsscatteredaroundthecountry.Inruralareas,schoolsclosedinthespring
andfallandranallsummerlong,sothatchildrencouldhelpoutinthebusyplantingandharvestingseasons.Inthecity,manyschoolsmirroredthelongandchaoticschedulesofthechildren’sworking-classparents.Thereformerswantedtomakesurethatallchildrenwenttoschoolandthatpublicschoolwascomprehensive,meaningthatallchildrengotenough
schoolingtolearnhowtoreadandwriteanddobasicarithmeticandfunctionasproductivecitizens.
ButasthehistorianKennethGoldhaspointedout,theearlyeducationalreformerswerealsotremendouslyconcernedthatchildrennotgettoomuchschooling.In1871,forexample,theUScommissionerofeducation
publishedareportbyEdwardJarvisonthe“RelationofEducationtoInsanity.”Jarvishadstudied1,741casesofinsanityandconcludedthat“over-study”wasresponsiblefor205ofthem.“Educationlaysthefoundationofalargeportionofthecausesofmentaldisorder,”Jarviswrote.Similarly,thepioneerofpubliceducationinMassachusetts,HoraceMann,
believedthatworkingstudentstoohardwouldcreatea“mostperniciousinfluenceuponcharacterandhabits….Notinfrequentlyishealthitselfdestroyedbyover-stimulatingthemind.”Intheeducationjournalsoftheday,therewereconstantworriesaboutovertaxingstudentsorbluntingtheirnaturalabilitiesthroughtoomuchschoolwork.
Thereformers,Goldwrites:
stroveforwaystoreducetimespentstudying,becauselongperiodsofrespitecouldsavethemindfrominjury.HencetheeliminationofSaturdayclasses,theshorteningofthe
schoolday,andthelengtheningofvacation—allofwhichoccurredoverthecourseofthenineteenthcentury.Teacherswerecautionedthat“when[students]arerequiredtostudy,theirbodiesshouldnotbeexhaustedbylongconfinement,northeir
mindsbewilderedbyprolongedapplication.”Restalsopresentedparticularopportunitiesforstrengtheningcognitiveandanalyticalskills.AsonecontributortotheMassachusettsTeachersuggested,“itiswhenthusrelievedfromthestateoftensionbelongingto
actualstudythatboysandgirls,aswellasmenandwomen,acquirethehabitofthoughtandreflection,andofformingtheirownconclusions,independentlyofwhattheyaretaughtandtheauthorityofothers.”
Thisidea—thateffort
mustbebalancedbyrest—couldnotbemoredifferentfromAsiannotionsaboutstudyandwork,ofcourse.Butthenagain,theAsianworldviewwasshapedbythericepaddy.InthePearlRiverDelta,thericefarmerplantedtwoandsometimesthreecropsayear.Thelandwasfallowonlybriefly.Infact,oneofthesingularfeaturesofricecultivationisthat
becauseofthenutrientscarriedbythewaterusedinirrigation,themoreaplotoflandiscultivated,themorefertileitgets.
ButinWesternagriculture,theoppositeistrue.Unlessawheat-orcornfieldisleftfalloweveryfewyears,thesoilbecomesexhausted.Everywinter,fieldsareempty.Thehardlaborofspringplantingand
fallharvestingisfollowed,likeclockwork,bytheslowerpaceofsummerandwinter.Thisisthelogicthereformersappliedtothecultivationofyoungminds.Weformulatenewideasbyanalogy,workingfromwhatweknowtowardwhatwedon’tknow,andwhatthereformersknewweretherhythmsoftheagriculturalseasons.Amindmustbecultivated.Butnot
toomuch,lestitbeexhausted.Andwhatwastheremedyforthedangersofexhaustion?Thelongsummervacation—apeculiaranddistinctiveAmericanlegacythathashadprofoundconsequencesforthelearningpatternsofthestudentsofthepresentday.
3.
SummervacationisatopicseldommentionedinAmericaneducationaldebates.Itisconsideredapermanentandinviolatefeatureofschoollife,likehighschoolfootballortheseniorprom.Buttakealookatthefollowingsetsofelementaryschooltest-scoreresults,andseeifyourfaithinthevalueoflongsummerholidaysisn’tprofoundly
shaken.Thesenumberscomefrom
researchledbytheJohnsHopkinsUniversitysociologistKarlAlexander.Alexandertrackedtheprogressof650firstgradersfromtheBaltimorepublicschoolsystem,lookingathowtheyscoredonawidelyusedmath-andreading-skillsexamcalledtheCaliforniaAchievementTest.Theseare
readingscoresforthefirstfiveyearsofelementaryschool,brokendownbysocioeconomicclass—low,middle,andhigh.
Class 1stGrade
2ndGrade
3rdGrade
4thGrade
Low 329 375 397 433Middle 348 388 425 467High 361 418 460 506
Lookatthefirstcolumn.Thestudentsstartinfirst
gradewithmeaningful,butnotoverwhelming,differencesintheirknowledgeandability.Thefirstgradersfromthewealthiesthomeshavea32-pointadvantageoverthefirstgradersfromthepooresthomes—andbytheway,firstgradersfrompoorhomesinBaltimorearereallypoor.Nowlookatthefifth-gradecolumn.Bythatpoint,four
yearslater,theinitiallymodestgapbetweenrichandpoorhasmorethandoubled.
This“achievementgap”isaphenomenonthathasbeenobservedoverandoveragain,andittypicallyprovokesoneoftworesponses.Thefirstresponseisthatdisadvantagedkidssimplydon’thavethesameinherentabilitytolearnaschildrenfrommoreprivileged
backgrounds.They’renotassmart.Thesecond,slightlymoreoptimisticconclusionisthat,insomeway,ourschoolsarefailingpoorchildren:wesimplyaren’tdoingagoodenoughjobofteachingthemtheskillstheyneed.Buthere’swhereAlexander’sstudygetsinteresting,becauseitturnsoutthatneitherofthoseexplanationsringstrue.
ThecityofBaltimoredidn’tgiveitskidstheCaliforniaAchievementTestjustattheendofeveryschoolyear,inJune.ItgavethemthetestinSeptembertoo,justaftersummervacationended.WhatAlexanderrealizedisthatthesecondsetoftestresultsallowedhimtodoaslightlydifferentanalysis.Ifhelookedatthedifferencebetweenthescoreastudent
gotatthebeginningoftheschoolyear,inSeptember,andthescoreheorshegotthefollowingJune,hecouldmeasure—precisely—howmuchthatstudentlearnedovertheschoolyear.Andifhelookedatthedifferencebetweenastudent’sscoreinJuneandtheninthefollowingSeptember,hecouldseehowmuchthatstudentlearnedoverthe
courseofthesummer.Inotherwords,hecouldfigureout—atleastinpart—howmuchoftheachievementgapistheresultofthingsthathappenduringtheschoolyear,andhowmuchithastodowithwhathappensduringsummervacation.
Let’sstartwiththeschool-yeargains.Thistableshowshowmanypointsstudents’testscoresrosefromthetime
theystartedclassesinSeptembertothetimetheystoppedinJune.The“Total”columnrepresentstheircumulativeclassroomlearningfromallfiveyearsofelementaryschool.
Class 1stGrade
2ndGrade
3rdGrade
4thGrade
Low 55 46 30 33Middle 69 43 34 41High 60 39 34 28
Hereisacompletelydifferentstoryfromtheonesuggestedbythefirsttable.Thefirstsetoftestresultsmadeitlooklikelower-incomekidsweresomehowfailingintheclassroom.Buthereweseeplainlythatisn’ttrue.Lookatthe“Total”column.Overthecourseoffiveyearsofelementaryschool,poorkids“out-learn”thewealthiestkids189points
to184points.Theylagbehindthemiddle-classkidsbyonlyamodestamount,and,infact,inoneyear,secondgrade,theylearnmorethanthemiddle-orupper-classkids.
Next,let’sseewhathappensifwelookjustathowreadingscoreschangeduringsummervacation.
Class After1st
After2nd
After3rd
After4th
Low –3.67 –1.70 2.74 2.89Middle –3.11 4.18 3.68 2.34High 15.38 9.22 14.51 13.38
Doyouseethedifference?Lookatthefirstcolumn,whichmeasureswhathappensoverthesummerafterfirstgrade.ThewealthiestkidscomebackinSeptemberandtheirreadingscoreshavejumpedmorethan15points.Thepoorestkidscomebackfromthe
holidaysandtheirreadingscoreshavedroppedalmost4points.Poorkidsmayout-learnrichkidsduringtheschoolyear.Butduringthesummer,theyfallfarbehind.
Nowtakealookatthelastcolumn,whichtotalsupallthesummergainsfromfirstgradetofifthgrade.Thereadingscoresofthepoorkidsgoupby.26points.Whenitcomestoreading
skills,poorkidslearnnothingwhenschoolisnotinsession.Thereadingscoresoftherichkids,bycontrast,goupbyawhopping52.49points.Virtuallyalloftheadvantagethatwealthystudentshaveoverpoorstudentsistheresultofdifferencesinthewayprivilegedkidslearnwhiletheyarenotinschool.
Whatareweseeinghere?Oneveryrealpossibilityis
thatthesearetheeducationalconsequencesofthedifferencesinparentingstylesthatwetalkedaboutintheChrisLanganchapter.ThinkbacktoAlexWilliams,thenine-year-oldwhomAnnetteLareaustudied.Hisparentsbelieveinconcertedcultivation.Hegetstakentomuseumsandgetsenrolledinspecialprogramsandgoestosummercamp,wherehetakes
classes.Whenhe’sboredathome,thereareplentyofbookstoread,andhisparentsseeitastheirresponsibilitytokeephimactivelyengagedintheworldaroundhim.It’snothardtoseehowAlexwouldgetbetteratreadingandmathoverthesummer.
ButnotKatieBrindle,thelittlegirlfromtheothersideofthetracks.There’snomoneytosendhertosummer
camp.She’snotgettingdrivenbyhermomtospecialclasses,andtherearen’tbookslyingaroundherhousethatshecanreadifshegetsbored.There’sprobablyjustatelevision.Shemaystillhaveawonderfulvacation,makingnewfriends,playingoutside,goingtothemovies,havingthekindofcarefreesummerdaysthatwealldreamabout.Noneofthosethings,though,
willimprovehermathandreadingskills,andeverycarefreesummerdayshespendsputsherfurtherandfurtherbehindAlex.Alexisn’tnecessarilysmarterthanKatie.He’sjustout-learningher:he’sputtinginafewsolidmonthsoflearningduringthesummerwhileshewatchestelevisionandplaysoutside.
WhatAlexander’swork
suggestsisthatthewayinwhicheducationhasbeendiscussedintheUnitedStatesisbackwards.Anenormousamountoftimeisspenttalkingaboutreducingclasssize,rewritingcurricula,buyingeverystudentashinynewlaptop,andincreasingschoolfunding—allofwhichassumesthatthereissomethingfundamentallywrongwiththejobschools
aredoing.Butlookbackatthesecondtable,whichshowswhathappensbetweenSeptemberandJune.Schoolswork.Theonlyproblemwithschool,forthekidswhoaren’tachieving,isthatthereisn’tenoughofit.
Alexander,infact,hasdoneaverysimplecalculationtodemonstratewhatwouldhappenifthechildrenofBaltimorewentto
schoolyear-round.Theansweristhatpoorkidsandwealthykidswould,bytheendofelementaryschool,bedoingmathandreadingatalmostthesamelevel.
SuddenlythecausesofAsianmathsuperioritybecomeevenmoreobvious.StudentsinAsianschoolsdon’thavelongsummervacations.Whywouldthey?Culturesthatbelievethatthe
routetosuccessliesinrisingbeforedawn360daysayeararescarcelygoingtogivetheirchildrenthreestraightmonthsoffinthesummer.TheschoolyearintheUnitedStatesis,onaverage,180dayslong.TheSouthKoreanschoolyearis220dayslong.TheJapaneseschoolyearis243dayslong.
Oneofthequestionsaskedoftesttakersona
recentmathtestgiventostudentsaroundtheworldwashowmanyofthealgebra,calculus,andgeometryquestionscoveredsubjectmatterthattheyhadpreviouslylearnedinclass.ForJapanesetwelfthgraders,theanswerwas92percent.That’sthevalueofgoingtoschool243daysayear.Youhavethetimetolearneverythingthatneedstobe
learned—andyouhavelesstimetounlearnit.ForAmericantwelfthgraders,thecomparablefigurewas54percent.Foritspooreststudents,Americadoesn’thaveaschoolproblem.Ithasasummervacationproblem,andthat’stheproblemtheKIPPschoolssetouttosolve.TheydecidedtobringthelessonsofthericepaddytotheAmericaninnercity.
4.“Theystartschoolatseventwenty-five,”saysDavidLevinofthestudentsattheBronxKIPPAcademy.“Theyalldoacoursecalledthinkingskillsuntilsevenfifty-five.TheydoninetyminutesofEnglish,ninetyminutesofmatheveryday,exceptinfifthgrade,wheretheydotwohoursofmathaday.An
hourofscience,anhourofsocialscience,anhourofmusicatleasttwiceaweek,andthenyouhaveanhourandfifteenminutesoforchestraontopofthat.Everyonedoesorchestra.Thedaygoesfromseventwenty-fiveuntilfivep.m.Afterfive,therearehomeworkclubs,detention,sportsteams.Therearekidsherefromseventwenty-fiveuntilsevenp.m.
Ifyoutakeanaverageday,andyoutakeoutlunchandrecess,ourkidsarespendingfiftytosixtypercentmoretimelearningthanthetraditionalpublicschoolstudent.”
Levinwasstandingintheschool’smainhallway.Itwaslunchtimeandthestudentsweretroopingbyquietlyinorderlylines,allofthemintheirKIPPAcademyshirts.
Levinstoppedagirlwhoseshirttailwasout.“Domeafavor,whenyougetachance,”hecalledout,mimingatucking-inmovement.Hecontinued:“Saturdaystheycomeinninetoone.Inthesummer,it’seighttotwo.”Bysummer,LevinwasreferringtothefactthatKIPPstudentsdothreeextraweeksofschool,inJuly.Theseare,afterall,
preciselythekindoflower-incomekidswhoAlexanderidentifiedaslosinggroundoverthelongsummervacation,soKIPP’sresponseissimplytonothavealongsummervacation.
“Thebeginningishard,”hewenton.“Bytheendofthedaythey’rerestless.Partofitisendurance,partofitismotivation.Partofitisincentivesandrewardsand
funstuff.Partofitisgoodold-fashioneddiscipline.Youthrowallofthatintothestew.Wetalkalothereaboutgritandself-control.Thekidsknowwhatthosewordsmean.”
Levinwalkeddownthehalltoaneighth-grademathclassandstoodquietlyintheback.AstudentnamedAaronwasatthefrontoftheclass,workinghiswaythrougha
problemfromthepageofthinking-skillsexercisesthatallKIPPstudentsarerequiredtodoeachmorning.Theteacher,aponytailedmaninhisthirtiesnamedFrankCorcoran,satinachairtotheside,onlyoccasionallyjumpingintoguidethediscussion.ItwasthekindofscenerepeatedeverydayinAmericanclassrooms—withonedifference.Aaronwasup
atthefront,workingonthatsingleproblem,fortwentyminutes—methodically,carefully,withtheparticipationoftheclass,workinghiswaythroughnotjusttheanswerbutalsothequestionofwhethertherewasmorethanonewaytogettheanswer.ItwasReneepainstakinglyfiguringouttheconceptofundefinedslopealloveragain.
“Whatthatextratimedoesisallowforamorerelaxedatmosphere,”Corcoransaid,aftertheclasswasover.“Ifindthattheproblemwithmatheducationisthesink-or-swimapproach.Everythingisrapidfire,andthekidswhogetitfirstaretheoneswhoarerewarded.Sotherecomestobeafeelingthattherearepeoplewhocandomathandtherearepeoplewhoaren’t
mathpeople.Ithinkthatextendedamountoftimegivesyouthechanceasateachertoexplainthings,andmoretimeforthekidstositanddigesteverythingthat’sgoingon—toreview,todothingsatamuchslowerpace.Itseemscounterintuitivebutwedothingsataslowerpaceandasaresultwegetthroughalotmore.There’salotmoreretention,better
understandingofthematerial.Itletsmebealittlebitmorerelaxed.Wehavetimetohavegames.Kidscanaskanyquestionstheywant,andifI’mexplainingsomething,Idon’tfeelpressedfortime.Icangobackovermaterialandnotfeeltimepressure.”TheextratimegaveCorcoranthechancetomakemathematicsmeaningful:tolethisstudentsseetheclearrelationship
betweeneffortandreward.Onthewallsofthe
classroomweredozensofcertificatesfromtheNewYorkStateRegentsexam,testifyingtofirst-classhonorsforCorcoran’sstudents.“Wehadagirlinthisclass,”Corcoransaid.“Shewasahorriblemathstudentinfifthgrade.ShecriedeverySaturdaywhenwedidremedialstuff.Hugetearsand
tears.”Atthememory,Corcorangotalittleemotionalhimself.Helookeddown.“Shejuste-mailedusacoupleweeksago.She’sincollegenow.She’sanaccountingmajor.”
5.Thestoryofthemiracleschoolthattransformslosersintowinnersis,ofcourse,all
toofamiliar.It’sthestuffofinspirationalbooksandsentimentalHollywoodmovies.ButtherealityofplaceslikeKIPPisagooddeallessglamorousthanthat.Togetasenseofwhat50to60percentmorelearningtimemeans,listentothetypicaldayinthelifeofaKIPPstudent.
Thestudent’snameisMarita.She’sanonlychild
wholivesinasingle-parenthome.Hermotherneverwenttocollege.Thetwoofthemshareaone-bedroomapartmentintheBronx.Maritausedtogotoaparochialschooldownthestreetfromherhome,untilhermotherheardofKIPP.“WhenIwasinfourthgrade,meandoneofmyotherfriends,Tanya,webothappliedtoKIPP,”Marita
said.“IrememberMissOwens.Sheinterviewedme,andthewayshewassayingmadeitsoundsohardIthoughtIwasgoingtoprison.Ialmoststartedcrying.Andshewaslike,Ifyoudon’twanttosignthis,youdon’thavetosignthis.Butthenmymomwasrightthere,soIsignedit.”
Withthat,herlifechanged.(Keepinmind,
whilereadingwhatfollows,thatMaritaistwelveyearsold.)
“Iwakeupatfive-forty-fivea.m.togetaheadstart,”shesays.“Ibrushmyteeth,shower.Igetsomebreakfastatschool,ifIamrunninglate.UsuallygetyelledatbecauseIamtakingtoolong.ImeetmyfriendsDianaandStevenatthebusstop,andwegetthenumberonebus.”
A5:45wakeupisfairlytypicalofKIPPstudents,especiallygiventhelongbusandsubwaycommutesthatmanyhavetogettoschool.Levin,atonepoint,wentintoaseventh-grademusicclasswithseventykidsinitandaskedforashowofhandsonwhenthestudentswokeup.Ahandfulsaidtheywokeupaftersix.Threequarterssaidtheywokeupbeforesix.And
almosthalfsaidtheywokeupbefore5:30.OneclassmateofMarita’s,aboynamedJosé,saidhesometimeswakesupatthreeorfoura.m.,finisheshishomeworkfromthenightbefore,andthen“goesbacktosleepforabit.”
Maritawenton:
Ileaveschoolatfivep.m.,andifIdon’t
lollygagaround,thenIwillgethomearoundfive-thirty.ThenIsayhitomymomreallyquicklyandstartmyhomework.Andifit’snotalotofhomeworkthatday,itwilltakemetwotothreehours,andI’llbedonearoundninep.m.Orifwehaveessays,thenIwillbedoneliketenp.m.,
orten-thirtyp.m.Sometimesmy
mommakesmebreakfordinner.ItellherIwanttogostraightthrough,butshesaysIhavetoeat.Soaroundeight,shemakesmebreakfordinnerfor,like,ahalfhour,andthenIgetbacktowork.Then,usuallyafterthat,mymom
wantstohearaboutschool,butIhavetomakeitquickbecauseIhavetogetinbedbyelevenp.m.SoIgetallmystuffready,andthenIgetintobed.Itellherallaboutthedayandwhathappened,andbythetimewearefinished,sheisonthebrinkofsleeping,sothat’s
probablyaroundeleven-fifteen.ThenIgotosleep,andthenextmorningwedoitalloveragain.Weareinthesameroom.Butit’sahugebedroomandyoucansplititintotwo,andwehavebedsonothersides.Meandmymomareveryclose.
Shespokeinthematter-of-factwayofchildrenwhohavenowayofknowinghowunusualtheirsituationis.Shehadthehoursofalawyertryingtomakepartner,orofamedicalresident.Allthatwasmissingwerethedarkcirclesunderhereyesandasteamingcupofcoffee,exceptthatshewastooyoungforeither.
“SometimesIdon’tgotosleepwhenI’msupposedto,”
Maritacontinued.“Igotosleepat,like,twelveo’clock,andthenextafternoon,itwillhitme.AndIwilldozeoffinclass.ButthenIhavetowakeupbecauseIhavetogettheinformation.IrememberIwasinoneclass,andIwasdozingoffandtheteachersawmeandsaid,‘CanItalktoyouafterclass?’Andheaskedme,‘Whywereyoudozingoff?’AndItoldhimI
wenttosleeplate.Andhewas,like,‘Youneedtogotosleepearlier.’”
6.Marita’slifeisnotthelifeofatypicaltwelve-year-old.Norisitwhatwewouldnecessarilywishforatwelve-year-old.Children,weliketobelieve,shouldhavetimetoplayanddreamandsleep.
Maritahasresponsibilities.WhatisbeingaskedofheristhesamethingthatwasaskedoftheKoreanpilots.Tobecomeasuccessatwhattheydid,theyhadtoshedsomepartoftheirownidentity,becausethedeeprespectforauthoritythatrunsthroughoutKoreanculturesimplydoesnotworkinthecockpit.Maritahashadtodothesamebecausethecultural
legacyshehadbeengivendoesnotmatchhercircumstanceseither—notwhenmiddle-andupper-middle-classfamiliesareusingweekendsandsummervacationtopushtheirchildrenahead.Hercommunitydoesnotgiveherwhatsheneeds.Sowhatdoesshehavetodo?Giveuphereveningsandweekendsandfriends—alltheelementsof
heroldworld—andreplacethemwithKIPP.
HereisMaritaagain,inapassagethatislittleshortofheartbreaking:
Well,whenwefirststartedfifthgrade,Iusedtohavecontactwithoneofthegirlsfrommyoldschool,andwheneverIleft
schoolonFriday,Iwouldgotoherhouseandstaythereuntilmymomwouldgethomefromwork.SoIwouldbeatherhouseandIwouldbedoingmyhomework.Shewouldneverhaveanyhomework.Andshewouldsay,“Oh,myGod,youstaytherelate.”Thenshesaid
shewantedtogotoKIPP,butthenshewouldsaythatKIPPistoohardandshedidn’twanttodoit.AndIwouldsay,“EveryonesaysthatKIPPishard,butonceyougetthehangofit,it’snotreallythathard.”Shetoldme,“It’sbecauseyouaresmart.”AndIsaid,“No,everyoneof
usissmart.”Andshewassodiscouragedbecausewestayeduntilfiveandwehadalotofhomework,andItoldherthatushavingalotofhomeworkhelpsusdobetterinclass.Andshetoldmeshedidn’twanttohearthewholespeech.AllmyfriendsnowarefromKIPP.
Isthisalottoaskofachild?Itis.ButthinkofthingsfromMarita’sperspective.Shehasmadeabargainwithherschool.Shewillgetupatfive-forty-fiveinthemorning,goinonSaturdays,anddohomeworkuntilelevenatnight.Inreturn,KIPPpromisesthatitwilltakekidslikeherwhoarestuckinpovertyandgivethemachancetogetout.It
willget84percentofthemuptoorabovetheirgradelevelinmathematics.Onthestrengthofthatperformance,90percentofKIPPstudentsgetscholarshipstoprivateorparochialhighschoolsinsteadofhavingtoattendtheirowndesultoryhighschoolsintheBronx.Andonthestrengthofthathighschoolexperience,morethan80percentofKIPPgraduateswillgoonto
college,inmanycasesbeingthefirstintheirfamilytodoso.
Howcouldthatbeabadbargain?EverythingwehavelearnedinOutlierssaysthatsuccessfollowsapredictablecourse.Itisnotthebrightestwhosucceed.Ifitwere,ChrisLanganwouldbeuptherewithEinstein.Norissuccesssimplythesumofthedecisionsandeffortswe
makeonourownbehalf.Itis,rather,agift.Outliersarethosewhohavebeengivenopportunities—andwhohavehadthestrengthandpresenceofmindtoseizethem.ForhockeyandsoccerplayersborninJanuary,it’sabettershotatmakingtheall-starteam.FortheBeatles,itwasHamburg.ForBillGates,theluckybreakwasbeingbornattherighttimeandgettingthe
giftofacomputerterminalinjuniorhigh.JoeFlomandthefoundersofWachtell,Lipton,RosenandKatzgotmultiplebreaks.Theywerebornattherighttimewiththerightparentsandtherightethnicity,whichallowedthemtopracticetakeoverlawfortwentyyearsbeforetherestofthelegalworldcaughton.AndwhatKoreanAirdid,whenitfinallyturnedits
operationsaround,wasgiveitspilotstheopportunitytoescapetheconstraintsoftheirculturallegacy.
Thelessonhereisverysimple.Butitisstrikinghowoftenitisoverlooked.Wearesocaughtinthemythsofthebestandthebrightestandtheself-madethatwethinkoutliersspringnaturallyfromtheearth.WelookattheyoungBillGatesandmarvel
thatourworldallowedthatthirteen-year-oldtobecomeafabulouslysuccessfulentrepreneur.Butthat’sthewronglesson.Ourworldonlyallowedonethirteen-year-oldunlimitedaccesstoatime-sharingterminalin1968.Ifamillionteenagershadbeengiventhesameopportunity,howmanymoreMicrosoftswouldwehavetoday?Tobuildabetterworldweneed
toreplacethepatchworkofluckybreaksandarbitraryadvantagesthattodaydeterminesuccess—thefortunatebirthdatesandthehappyaccidentsofhistory—withasocietythatprovidesopportunitiesforall.IfCanadahadasecondhockeyleagueforthosechildrenborninthelasthalfoftheyear,itwouldtodayhavetwiceasmanyadulthockeystars.
Nowmultiplythatsuddenfloweringoftalentbyeveryfieldandprofession.Theworldcouldbesomuchricherthantheworldwehavesettledfor.
Maritadoesn’tneedabrand-newschoolwithacresofplayingfieldsandgleamingfacilities.Shedoesn’tneedalaptop,asmallerclass,ateacherwithaPhD,orabiggerapartment.
Shedoesn’tneedahigherIQoramindasquickasChrisLangan’s.Allthosethingswouldbenice,ofcourse.Buttheymissthepoint.Maritajustneededachance.Andlookatthechanceshewasgiven!SomeonebroughtalittlebitofthericepaddytotheSouthBronxandexplainedtoherthemiracleofmeaningfulwork.
EPILOGUE
AJamaicanStory
“IFAPROGENYOFYOUNGCOLORED
CHILDRENISBROUGHTFORTH,THESEAREEMANCIPATED.”
1.
OnSeptember9,1931,ayoungwomannamedDaisyNationgavebirthtotwingirls.Sheandherhusband,Donald,wereschoolteachersinatinyvillagecalledHarewood,inthecentralJamaicanparishofSaintCatherine’s.TheynamedtheirdaughtersFaithandJoyce.WhenDonaldwastoldthathehadfatheredtwins,hesankdownonhiskneesand
surrenderedresponsibilityfortheirlivesovertoGod.
TheNationslivedinasmallcottageonthegroundsofHarewood’sAnglicanchurch.Theschoolhousewasnextdoor,along,single-roombarnofabuildingraisedonconcretestilts.Onsomedays,theremightbeasmanyasthreehundredchildrenintheroom,andonothers,lessthantwodozen.
Thechildrenwouldreadoutloudorrecitetheirtimestables.Writingwasdoneonslates.Wheneverpossible,theclasseswouldmoveoutside,underthemangotrees.Ifthechildrenwereoutofcontrol,DonaldNationwouldwalkfromoneendoftheroomtotheother,wavingastrapfromlefttorightasthechildrenscrambledbacktotheirplaces.
Hewasanimposingman,quietanddignified,andagreatloverofbooks.InhissmalllibrarywereworksofpoetryandphilosophyandnovelsbysuchwritersasSomersetMaugham.Everydayhewouldreadthenewspaperclosely,followingthecourseoftheeventsaroundtheworld.Intheevening,hisbestfriend,ArchdeaconHay,the
Anglicanpastorwholivedontheothersideofthehill,wouldcomeoverandsitonDonald’sveranda,andtogethertheywouldexpoundontheproblemsofJamaica.Donald’swife,Daisy,wasfromtheparishofSaintElizabeth.HermaidennamewasFord,andherfatherhadownedasmallgrocerystore.Shewasoneofthreesisters,andshewasrenownedforher
beauty.Attheageofeleven,the
twinswonscholarshipstoaboardingschoolcalledSaintHilda’snearthenorthcoast.ItwasanoldAnglicanprivateschool,establishedforthedaughtersofEnglishclergy,propertyowners,andoverseers.FromSaintHilda’stheyappliedandwereacceptedtoUniversityCollege,inLondon.Notlong
afterward,Joycewenttoatwenty-first-birthdaypartyforayoungEnglishmathematiciannamedGraham.Hestooduptoreciteapoemandforgothislines,andJoycebecameembarrassedforhim—eventhoughitmadenosenseforhertofeelembarrassed,becauseshedidnotknowhimatall.JoyceandGrahamfellinloveandgotmarried.They
movedtoCanada.Grahamwasamathprofessor.Joycebecameasuccessfulwriterandafamilytherapist.Theyhadthreesonsandbuiltabeautifulhouseonahill,offinthecountryside.Graham’slastnameisGladwell.Heismyfather,andJoyceGladwellismymother.
2.
Thatisthestoryofmymother’spathtosuccess—anditisn’ttrue.It’snotalieinthesensethatthefactsweremadeup.ButitisfalseinthewaythattellingthestoryofBillGateswithoutmentioningthecomputeratLakesideisfalse,oraccountingforAsianmathprowesswithoutgoingbacktothericepaddiesisfalse.Itleavesoutmymother’smany
opportunitiesandtheimportanceofherculturallegacy.
In1935,forexample,whenmymotherandhersisterwerefour,ahistoriannamedWilliamM.MacMillanvisitedJamaica.HewasaprofessorattheUniversityofWitwatersrandinJohannesburg,SouthAfrica.MacMillanwasamanbeforehistime:hewas
deeplyconcernedwiththesocialproblemsofSouthAfrica’sblackpopulation,andhecametotheCaribbeantomakethesameargumenthehadmadebackhomeinSouthAfrica.
ChiefamongMacMillan’sconcernswasJamaica’seducationalsystem.Formalschooling—ifyoucouldcallwhathappenedinthewoodenbarnnextdoortomy
grandparents’house“formalschooling”—wentonlytofourteenyearsofage.Jamaicahadnopublichighschoolsoruniversities.Thosewithacademicinclinationstookextraclasseswiththeheadteacherintheirteenageyearsandwithluckmadeitintoteachers’college.Thosewithbroaderambitionshadtosomehowfindtheirwayintoaprivateschool,andfrom
theretoauniversityintheUnitedStatesorEngland.
Butscholarshipswerefewandfarbetween,andthecostofprivateschoolingwasprohibitiveforallbutaprivilegedfew.The“bridgefromtheprimaryschools”tohighschool,MacMillanlaterwrote,inablisteringcritiqueofEngland’streatmentofitscoloniesentitledWarningfromtheWestIndies,“is
narrowandinsecure.”Theschoolsystemdidnothingforthe“humblest”classes.Hewenton:“Ifanythingtheseschoolsareafactordeepeningandsharpeningsocialdistinctions.”Ifthegovernmentdidnotgiveitspeopleopportunities,hewarned,therewouldbetrouble.
AyearafterMacMillanpublishedhisbook,awaveof
riotsandunrestswepttheCaribbean.Fourteenpeoplewerekilledandfifty-nineinjuredinTrinidad.Fourteenwerekilledandforty-seveninjuredinBarbados.InJamaica,aseriesofviolentstrikesshutdownthecountry,andastateofemergencywasdeclared.Panicked,theBritishgovernmenttookMacMillan’sprescriptionstoheartand,amongother
reforms,proposedaseriesof“all-island”scholarshipsforacademicallymindedstudentstogotoprivatehighschools.Thescholarshipsbeganin1941.Mymotherandhertwinsistersatfortheexamthefollowingyear.Thatishowtheygotahighschooleducation;hadtheybeenborntwoorthreeorfouryearsearlier,theymightneverhavegottenafulleducation.My
motherowesthecourseherlifetooktothetimingofherbirth,totheriotersof1937,andtoW.M.MacMillan.
IdescribedDaisyNation,mygrandmother,as“renownedforherbeauty.”Butthetruthisthatwasacarelessandcondescendingwaytodescribeher.Shewasaforce.ThefactthatmymotherandhersisterleftHarewoodforSaintHilda’s
wasmygrandmother’sdoing.Mygrandfathermayhavebeenanimposingandlearnedman,buthewasanidealistandadreamer.Heburiedhimselfinhisbooks.Ifhehadambitionsforhisdaughters,hedidnothavetheforesightandenergytomakethemreal.Mygrandmotherdid.SaintHilda’swasheridea:someofthewealthierfamiliesintheareasenttheir
daughtersthere,andshesawwhatagoodschoolmeant.Herdaughtersdidnotplaywiththeotherchildrenofthevillage.Theyread.Latinandalgebrawerenecessaryforhighschool,soshehadherdaughterstutoredbyArchdeaconHay.
“Ifyou’daskedherabouthergoalsforherchildren,shewouldhavesaidshewantedusoutofthere,”mymother
recalls.“Shedidn’tfeelthattheJamaicancontextofferedenough.Andiftheopportunitywastheretogoon,andyouwereabletotakeit,thentohertheskywasthelimit.”
Whentheresultscamebackfromthescholarshipexam,onlymyauntwasawardedascholarship.Mymotherwasnot.That’sanotherfactthatmyfirst
historywascarelessabout.Mymotherremembersherparentsstandinginthedoorway,talkingtoeachother.“Wehavenomoremoney.”Theyhadpaidthetuitionforthefirsttermandboughttheuniformsandhadexhaustedtheirsavings.Whatwouldtheydowhenthesecond-termfeesformymothercamedue?Butthenagain,theycouldn’tsendone
daughterandnottheother.Mygrandmotherwassteadfast.Shesentboth—andprayed—andattheendofthefirstterm,itturnedoutthatoneoftheothergirlsattheschoolhadwontwoscholarships,sothesecondwasgiventomymother.
Whenitcametimetogotouniversity,myaunt,theacademictwin,wonwhatwascalledaCentenary
Scholarship.The“Centenary”wasareferencetothefactthatthescholarshipwasestablishedonehundredyearsaftertheabolitionofslaveryinJamaica.Itwasreservedforthegraduatesofpublicelementaryschools,and,inameasureofhowdeeplytheBritishfeltabouthonoringthememoryofabolition,therewasatotalofoneCentenaryscholarship
awardedeveryyearforthewholeisland,withtheprizegoingtothetopgirlandthetopboyinalternatingyears.Theyearmyauntappliedwasoneofthe“girl”years.Shewaslucky.Mymotherwasnot.MymotherwasfacedwiththecostofpassagetoEngland,roomandboardandlivingexpenses,andtuitionattheUniversityofLondon.Togetasenseofhowdaunting
thatfigurewas,thevalueoftheCentenaryscholarshipmyauntwonwasprobablyasmuchasthesumofmygrandparents’annualsalaries.Therewerenostudentloanprograms,nobankswithlinesofcreditforschoolteachersoutinthecountryside.“IfI’daskedmyfather,”mymothersays,“hewouldhavereplied,‘Wehavenomoney.’”
WhatdidDaisydo?She
wenttotheChineseshopkeeperinaneighboringtown.JamaicahasaverylargeChinesepopulationthatsincethenineteenthcenturyhasdominatedthecommerciallifeoftheisland.InJamaicanparlance,astoreisnotastore,itisa“Chinee-shop.”Daisywenttothe“Chinee-shop,”toMr.Chance,andborrowedthemoney.Nooneknowshow
muchsheborrowed,althoughitmusthavebeenanenormoussum.AndnooneknowswhyMr.ChancelentittoDaisy,exceptofcoursethatshewasDaisyNation,andshepaidherbillspromptlyandhadtaughttheChancechildrenatHarewoodSchool.ItwasnotalwayseasytobeaChinesechildinaJamaicanschoolyard.TheJamaicanchildrenwould
taunttheChinesechildren.“Chineenyan[eat]dog.”Daisywasakindlyandbelovedfigure,anoasisamidthathostility.Mr.Chancemayhavefeltinherdebt.
“Didshetellmewhatshewasdoing?Ididn’tevenaskher,”mymotherremembers.“Itjustoccurred.Ijustappliedtouniversityandgotin.IactedcompletelyonfaiththatIcouldrelyonmy
mother,withoutevenrealizingthatIwasrelyingonmymother.”
JoyceGladwelloweshercollegeeducationfirsttoW.M.MacMillan,andthentothestudentatSaintHilda’swhogaveupherscholarship,andthentoMr.Chance,andthen,mostofall,toDaisyNation.
3.DaisyNationwasfromthenorthwesternendofJamaica.Hergreat-grandfatherwasWilliamFord.HewasfromIreland,andhearrivedinJamaicain1784havingboughtacoffeeplantation.Notlongafterhisarrival,heboughtaslavewomanandtookherashisconcubine.Henoticedheronthedocksat
AlligatorPond,afishingvillageonthesouthcoast.ShewasanIgbotribeswomanfromWestAfrica.Theyhadason,whomtheynamedJohn.Hewas,inthelanguageoftheday,a“mulatto”;hewascolored—andalloftheFordsfromthatpointonfellintoJamaica’scoloredclass.
IntheAmericanSouthduringthatsameperiod,itwouldhavebeenhighly
unusualforawhitelandownertohavesuchapublicrelationshipwithaslave.Sexualrelationsbetweenwhitesandblackswereconsideredmorallyrepugnant.Lawswerepassedprohibitingmiscegenation,thelastofwhichwerenotstruckdownbytheUSSupremeCourtuntil1967.Aplantationownerwholivedopenlywithaslavewoman
wouldhavebeensociallyostracized,andanyoffspringfromtheunionofblackandwhitewouldhavebeenleftinslavery.
InJamaica,attitudeswereverydifferent.TheCaribbeaninthoseyearswaslittlemorethanamassiveslavecolony.Blacksoutnumberedwhitesbyaratioofmorethantentoone.Therewerefew,ifany,marriageablewhitewomen,
andasaresult,theoverwhelmingmajorityofwhitemenintheWestIndieshadblackorbrownmistresses.OneBritishplantationownerinJamaicawhofamouslykeptaprecisediaryofhissexualexploitssleptwith138differentwomeninhisthirty-sevenyearsontheisland,almostallofthemslavesand,onesuspects,notallofthem
willingpartners.Andwhitessawmulattoes—thechildrenofthoserelationships—aspotentialallies,abufferbetweenthemandtheenormousnumbersofslavesontheisland.Mulattowomenwereprizedasmistresses,andtheirchildren,oneshadelighterinturn,movedstillfurtherupthesocialandeconomicladder.Mulattoesrarelyworkedinthefields.
Theylivedthemucheasierlifeofworkinginthe“house.”Theyweretheonesmostlikelytobefreed.SomanymulattomistresseswereleftsubstantialfortunesinthewillsofwhitepropertyownersthattheJamaicalegislatureoncepassedalawcappingbequestsattwothousandpounds(which,atthetime,wasanenormoussum).
“WhenaEuropeanarrivesintheWestIndiesandgetssettledorsetdownforanylengthoftime,hefindsitnecessarytoprovidehimselfwithahousekeeperormistress,”oneeighteenth-centuryobserverwrote.“Thechoicehehasanopportunityofmakingisvarious,ablack,atawney,amulattooramestee,oneofwhichcanbepurchasedfor100or150
sterling….Ifaprogenyofyoungcoloredchildrenisbroughtforth,theseareemancipated,andmostlysentbythosefatherswhocanaffordit,attheageofthreeorfouryears,tobeeducatedinEngland.”
ThisistheworldDaisy’sgrandfatherJohnwasborninto.Hewasonegenerationremovedfromaslaveship,livinginacountrybest
describedasanAfricanpenalcolony,andhewasafreeman,witheverybenefitofeducation.Hemarriedanothermulatto,awomanwhowashalfEuropeanandhalfArawak,whichistheIndiantribeindigenoustoJamaica,andhadsevenchildren.
“Thesepeople—thecoloreds—hadalotofstatus,”theJamaican
sociologistOrlandoPattersonsays.“Byeighteentwenty-six,theyhadfullcivilliberties.Infact,theyachievefullcivillibertiesatthesametimeastheJewsdoinJamaica.Theycouldvote.Doanythingawhitepersoncoulddo—andthisiswithinthecontextofwhatwasstillaslavesociety.
“Ideally,theywouldtrytobeartisans.Remember,
Jamaicahassugarplantations,whichareverydifferentfromthecottonplantationsyoufindintheAmericanSouth.Cottonisapredominantlyagriculturalpursuit.Youarepickingthisstuff,andalmostalloftheprocessingwasdoneinLancashire,ortheNorth.Sugarisanagro-industrialcomplex.Youhavetohavethefactoryrightthere,
becausesugarstartslosingsucrosewithinhoursofbeingpicked.Youhadnochoicebuttohavethesugarmillrightthere,andsugarmillsrequireawiderangeofoccupations.Thecoopers.Theboilermen.Thecarpenters—andalotofthosejobswerefilledbycoloredpeople.”
ItwasalsothecasethatJamaica’sEnglishelite,
unliketheircounterpartsintheUnitedStates,hadlittleinterestinthegrandprojectofnationbuilding.TheywantedtomaketheirmoneyandgobacktoEngland.Theyhadnodesiretostayinwhattheyconsideredahostileland.Sothetaskofbuildinganewsociety—withthemanyopportunitiesitembodied—felltothecoloredsaswell.
“Byeighteenfifty,the
mayorofKingston[theJamaicancapital]wasacoloredperson,”Pattersonwenton.“AndsowasthefounderoftheDailyGleaner[Jamaica’smajornewspaper].Thesewerecoloredpeople,andfromveryearlyon,theycametodominatetheprofessionalclasses.Thewhiteswereinvolvedinbusinessortheplantation.Thepeoplewhobecame
doctorsandlawyerswerethesecoloredpeople.Thesewerethepeoplerunningtheschools.ThebishopofKingstonwasaclassicbrownman.Theyweren’ttheeconomicelite.Buttheyweretheculturalelite.”
ThechartbelowshowsabreakdownoftwocategoriesofJamaicanprofessionals—lawyersandmembersofparliament—intheearly
1950s.Thecategorizationisbyskintone.“Whiteandlight”referstopeoplewhoareeitherentirelywhiteor,morelikely,whohavesomeblackheritagethatisnolongerreadilyapparent.“Olive”isonestepbelowthat,and“lightbrown”onestepbelowolive(althoughthedifferencebetweenthosetwoshadesmightnotbereadilyapparenttoanyone
butaJamaican).Thefacttokeepinmindisthatinthe1950s“blacks”madeupabout80percentoftheJamaicanpopulation,outnumberingcoloredsfivetoone.
Ethnicity Lawyers(percentage)
MembersofParliament(percentage)
Chinese 3.1EastIndians —
Jews 7.1
Syrians —Whiteandlight 38.8 10
Olive 10.2 13Lightbrown 17.3 19
Darkbrown 10.2 39
Black 5.1 10Unknown 8.2
Lookattheextraordinaryadvantagethattheirlittlebitofwhitenessgavethecoloredminority.Havinganancestor
whoworkedinthehouseandnotinthefields,whogotfullcivilrightsin1826,whowasvaluedinsteadofenslaved,whogotashotatmeaningfulworkinsteadofbeingconsignedtothesugarcanefields,madeallthedifferenceinoccupationalsuccesstwoandthreegenerationslater.
DaisyFord’sambitionforherdaughtersdidnotcomefromnowhere,inother
words.Shewastheinheritorofalegacyofprivilege.HerolderbrotherRufus,withwhomshewenttoliveasachild,wasateacherandamanoflearning.HerbrotherCarloswenttoCubaandthencamebacktoJamaicaandopenedagarmentfactory.Herfather,CharlesFord,wasaproducewholesaler.Hermother,Ann,wasaPowell,anothereducated,upwardly
mobilecoloredfamily—andthesamePowellswhowouldtwogenerationslaterproduceColinPowell.HeruncleHenryownedproperty.HergrandfatherJohn—thesonofWilliamFordandhisAfricanconcubine—becameapreacher.NolessthanthreemembersoftheextendedFordfamilyendedupwinningRhodesScholarships.Ifmymother
owedW.M.MacMillanandtheriotersof1937andMr.Chanceandhermother,DaisyFord,thenDaisyowedRufusandCarlosandAnnandCharlesandJohn.
4.Mygrandmotherwasaremarkablewoman.Butitisimportanttorememberthatthesteadyupwardpathupon
whichtheFordsembarkedbeganwithamorallycomplicatedact:WilliamFordlookeduponmygreat-great-great-grandmotherwithdesireataslavemarketinAlligatorPondandpurchasedher.
Theslaveswhowerenotsochosenhadshortandunhappylives.InJamaica,theplantationownersfeltitmadethemostsenseto
extractthemaximumpossibleeffortfromtheirhumanpropertywhilethepropertywasstillyoung—toworktheirslavesuntiltheywereeitheruselessordead—andthensimplybuyanotherroundatthemarket.Theyhadnotroublewiththephilosophicalcontradictionofcherishingthechildrentheyhadwithaslaveandsimultaneouslythinkingof
slavesasproperty.ThomasThistlewood,theplantationownerwhocatalogedhissexualexploits,hadalifelongrelationshipwithaslavenamedPhibbah,whom,byallaccounts,headored,andwhoborehimason.Buttohis“field”slaves,hewasamonster,whosepreferredpunishmentforthosewhotriedtorunawaywaswhathecalled“Derby’sdose.”The
runawaywouldbebeaten,andsaltpickle,limejuice,andbirdpepperwouldberubbedintohisorheropenwounds.Anotherslavewoulddefecateintothemouthofthemiscreant,whowouldthenbegaggedforfourtofivehours.
Itisnotsurprising,then,thatthebrown-skinnedclassesofJamaicacametofetishizetheirlightness.Itwastheirgreatadvantage.
Theyscrutinizedtheshadeofoneanother’sskinandplayedthecolorgameasruthlesslyintheendasthewhitesdid.“If,asoftenhappens,childrenareofdifferentshadesofcolorinafamily,”theJamaicansociologistFernandoHenriquesoncewrote:
themostlightly
coloredwillbefavoredattheexpenseoftheothers.Inadolescence,anduntilmarriage,thedarkermembersofthefamilywillbekeptoutofthewaywhenthefriendsofthefairorfairermembersofthefamilyarebeingentertained.Thefairchildisregardedasraisingthecolorofthe
familyandnothingmustbeputinthewayofitssuccess,thatisinthewayofamarriagewhichwillstillfurtherraisethecolorstatusofthefamily.Afairpersonwilltrytoseversocialrelationshemayhavewithdarkerrelatives…thedarkermembersofaNegrofamilywillencourage
theeffortsofaveryfairrelativeto“pass”forWhite.Thepracticesofintra-familyrelationslaythefoundationforthepublicmanifestationofcolorprejudice.
Myfamilywasnotimmunetothis.Daisywasinordinatelyproudofthefact
herhusbandwaslighterthanshewas.Butthatsameprejudicewasthenturnedonher:“Daisy’snice,youknow,”hermother-in-lawwouldsay,“butshe’stoodark.”
Oneofmymother’srelatives(I’llcallherAuntJoan)wasalsowellupthecolortotempole.Shewas“whiteandlight.”ButherhusbandwaswhatinJamaica
iscalledan“Injun”—amanwithadarkcomplexionandstraight,fineblackhair—andtheirdaughtersweredarkliketheirfather.Oneday,afterherhusbandhaddied,shewastravelingonatraintovisitherdaughter,andshemetandtookaninterestinalight-skinnedmaninthesamerailwaycar.WhathappenednextissomethingthatAuntJoantoldonlymymother,
yearslater,withthegreatestofshame.Whenshegotoffthetrain,shewalkedrightbyherdaughter,disowningherownfleshandblood,becauseshedidnotwantamansolight-skinnedanddesirabletoknowthatshehadborneadaughtersodark.
Inthe1960s,mymotherwroteabookaboutherexperiences.ItwasentitledBrownFace,BigMaster,the
“brownface”referringtoherself,andthe“bigmaster”referring,intheJamaicandialect,toGod.Atonepoint,shedescribesatimejustaftermyparentsweremarriedwhentheywerelivinginLondonandmyeldestbrotherwasstillababy.Theywerelookingforanapartment,andafteralongsearch,myfatherfoundoneinaLondonsuburb.Onthedayafterthey
movedin,however,thelandladyorderedthemout.“Youdidn’ttellmeyourwifewasJamaican,”shetoldmyfatherinarage.
Inherbook,mymotherdescribesherlongstruggletomakesenseofthishumiliation,toreconcileherexperiencewithherfaith.Intheend,shewasforcedtoacknowledgethatangerwasnotanoptionandthatasa
coloredJamaicanwhosefamilyhadbenefitedforgenerationsfromthehierarchyofrace,shecouldhardlyreproachanotherfortheimpulsetodividepeoplebytheshadeoftheirskin:
IcomplainedtoGodinsomanywords:“HereIwas,thewoundedrepresentativeofthe
negroraceinourstruggletobeaccountedfreeandequalwiththedominatingwhites!”AndGodwasamused;myprayerdidnotringtruewithHim.Iwouldtryagain.AndthenGodsaid,“Haveyounotdonethesamething?Rememberthisoneandthatone,
peoplewhomyouhaveslightedoravoidedortreatedlessconsideratelythanothersbecausetheyweredifferentsuperficially,andyouwereashamedtobeidentifiedwiththem.Haveyounotbeengladthatyouarenotmorecoloredthanyouare?Gratefulthatyou
arenotblack?”Myangerandhateagainstthelandladymelted.Iwasnobetterthanshewas,norworseforthatmatter….Wewerebothguiltyofthesinofself-regard,theprideandtheexclusivenessbywhichwecutsomepeopleofffromourselves.
Itisnoteasytobesohonestaboutwherewe’refrom.Itwouldbesimplerformymothertoportrayhersuccessasastraightforwardtriumphovervictimhood,justasitwouldbesimplertolookatJoeFlomandcallhimthegreatestlawyerever—eventhoughhisindividualachievementsaresoimpossiblyintertwinedwithhisethnicity,hisgeneration,
theparticularsofthegarmentindustry,andthepeculiarbiasesofthedowntownlawfirms.BillGatescouldacceptthetitleofgenius,andleaveitatthat.Ittakesnosmalldegreeofhumilityforhimtolookbackonhislifeandsay,“Iwasverylucky.”Andhewas.TheMothers’ClubofLakesideAcademyboughthimacomputerin1968.Itisimpossibleforahockey
player,orBillJoy,orRobertOppenheimer,oranyotheroutlierforthatmatter,tolookdownfromtheirloftyperchandsaywithtruthfulness,“Ididthis,allbymyself.”Superstarlawyersandmathwhizzesandsoftwareentrepreneursappearatfirstblushtolieoutsideordinaryexperience.Buttheydon’t.Theyareproductsofhistoryandcommunity,of
opportunityandlegacy.Theirsuccessisnotexceptionalormysterious.Itisgroundedinawebofadvantagesandinheritances,somedeserved,somenot,someearned,somejustplainlucky—butallcriticaltomakingthemwhotheyare.Theoutlier,intheend,isnotanoutlieratall.
Mygreat-great-great-grandmotherwasboughtatAlligatorPond.Thatact,in
turn,gaveherson,JohnFord,theprivilegeofaskincolorthatsparedhimalifeofslavery.ThecultureofpossibilitythatDaisyFordembracedandputtousesobrilliantlyonbehalfofherdaughterswaspassedontoherbythepeculiaritiesoftheWestIndiansocialstructure.Andmymother’seducationwastheproductoftheriotsof1937andtheindustriousness
ofMr.Chance.Thesewerehistory’sgiftstomyfamily—andiftheresourcesofthatgrocer,thefruitsofthoseriots,thepossibilitiesofthatculture,andtheprivilegesofthatskintonehadbeenextendedtoothers,howmanymorewouldnowlivealifeoffulfillment,inabeautifulhousehighonahill?
ReadingGroupGuide
OutliersTheStoryofSuccess
by
MALCOLMGLADWELL
AconversationwithMalcolmGladwell
Whatisanoutlier?
“Outlier”isascientifictermtodescribethingsorphenomenathatlieoutsidenormalexperience.Inthesummer,inParis,weexpectmostdaystobesomewhere
betweenwarmandveryhot.ButimagineifyouhadadayinthemiddleofAugustwhenthetemperaturefellbelowfreezing.Thatdaywouldbeanoutlier.AndwhilewehaveaverygoodunderstandingofwhysummerdaysinParisarewarmorhot,weknowagooddeallessaboutwhyasummerdayinParismightbefreezingcold.InthisbookI’minterestedinpeoplewhoare
outliers—inmenandwomenwho,foronereasonoranother,aresoaccomplishedandsoextraordinaryandsooutsideofordinaryexperiencethattheyareaspuzzlingtotherestofusasacolddayinAugust.
WhydidyouwriteOutliers?
IwritebookswhenIfindmyselfreturningagainand
again,inmymind,tothesamethemes.IwroteTippingPointbecauseIwasfascinatedbythesuddendropincrimeinNewYorkCity—andthatfascinationgrewtoaninterestinthewholeideaofepidemicsandepidemicprocesses.IwroteBlinkbecauseIbegantogetobsessed,inthesameway,withhowallofusseemtomakeupourmindsabout
otherpeopleinaninstant—withoutdoinganyrealthinking.
InthecaseofOutliers,thebookgrewoutofafrustrationIfoundmyselfhavingwiththewayweexplainthecareersofreallysuccessfulpeople.YouknowhowyouhearsomeonesayofBillGatesorsomerockstarorsomeotheroutlier“They’rereallysmart”or“They’re
reallyambitious”?Well,Iknowlotsofpeoplewhoarereallysmartandreallyambitious,andtheyaren’tworth60billiondollars.Itstruckmethatourunderstandingofsuccesswasreallycrude—andtherewasanopportunitytodigdownandcomeupwithabettersetofexplanations.
Inwhatwayareour
explanationsofsuccess“crude”?
That’sabitofapuzzlebecausewecertainlydon’tlackforinterestinthesubject.Ifyougotothebookstore,youcanfindahundredsuccessmanuals,orbiographiesoffamouspeople,orself-helpbooksthatpromisetooutlinethesixkeystogreatachievement.
(Orisitseven?)Soweshouldbeprettysophisticatedonthetopic.WhatIcametorealizeinwritingOutliers,though,isthatwe’vebeenfartoofocusedontheindividual—ondescribingthecharacteristicsandhabitsandpersonalitytraitsofthosewhogetfurthestaheadintheworld.Andthat’stheproblem,becauseinordertounderstandoutliersIthink
youhavetolookaroundthem—attheircultureandcommunityandfamilyandgeneration.We’vebeenlookingattalltrees,andIthinkweshouldhavebeenlookingattheforest.
Canyougivesomeexamples?
Sure.Forexample,oneofthechapterslooksatthefactthatasurprisingnumberofthe
mostpowerfulandsuccessfulcorporatelawyersinNewYorkCityhavealmosttheexactsamebiography:theyareJewishmen,bornintheBronxorBrooklyninthemid-1930stoimmigrantparentswhoworkedinthegarmentindustry.Now,youcancallthatacoincidence.Oryoucanask—asIdo—whatisitaboutbeingJewishandbeingpartofthegeneration
bornintheDepressionandhavingparentswhoworkedinthegarmentbusinessthatmighthavesomethingtodowithturningsomeoneintoareally,reallysuccessfullawyer?Andtheansweristhatyoucanlearnahugeamountaboutwhysomeonereachesthetopofthatprofessionbyaskingthosequestions.
Doesn’tthatmakeitsoundlikesuccessissomethingoutsideofanindividual’scontrol?
Idon’tmeantogothatfar.ButIdothinkthatwevastlyunderestimatetheextenttowhichsuccesshappensbecauseofthingstheindividualhasnothingtodowith.Outliersopens,forexample,byexaminingwhya
hugelydisproportionatenumberofprofessionalhockeyandsoccerplayerswereborninJanuary,February,andMarch.I’mnotgoingtospoilthingsforyoubygivingyoutheanswer.Butthepointisthattheverybesthockeyplayersarepeoplewhoaretalentedandworkhardbutwhoalsobenefitfromtheweirdandlargelyunexaminedandpeculiar
waysinwhichtheirworldisorganized.
IactuallyhavealotoffunwithbirthdatesinOutliers.Didyouknowthatthere’samagicyeartobebornifyouwanttobeasoftwareentrepreneur?Andanothermagicyeartobebornifyouwanttobereallyrich?Infact,onenine-yearstretchturnsouttohaveproducedmoreoutliersthananyotherperiod
inhistory.It’sremarkablehowmanypatternsyoucanfindinthelivesofsuccessfulpeoplewhenyoulookclosely.
What’sthemostsurprisingpatternyouuncoveredinthebook?
It’sprobablythechapterneartheendofOutlierswhereItalkaboutplanecrashes.How
goodapilotis,itturnsout,hasalottodowithwherethatpilotisfrom—thatis,thecultureheorshewasraisedin.Iwasactuallystunnedbyhowstrongtheconnectionisbetweencultureandcrashes,andit’ssomethingthatIwouldneverhavedreamedwastrueinamillionyears.
Wait.DoesthismeanthattherearesomeairlinesthatI
shouldavoid?
Yes.Although,asIpointoutinOutliers,byacknowledgingtherolethatcultureplaysinpiloting,someofthemostunsafeairlineshaveactuallybeguntocleanuptheiract.
InTheTippingPoint,youhadanentirechapteronsuicide.InBlink,youended
thebookwithalongchapterontheDialloshooting—andnowplanecrashes.Doyouhaveamacabreside?
Yes!I’mafrustratedthrillerwriter!But,seriously,there’sagoodreasonforthat.Ithinkthatwelearnmorefromextremecircumstancesthananythingelse;disasterstellussomethingaboutthewaywethinkandbehavethatwe
can’tlearnfromordinarylife.That’sthepremiseofOutliers.It’sthosewholieoutsideordinaryexperiencewhohavethemosttoteachus.
HowdoesthisbookcomparetoBlinkandTheTippingPoint?
It’sdifferentinthesensethatit’smuchmorefocusedon
peopleandtheirstories.Thesubtitle—“TheStoryofSuccess”—issupposedtosignalthat.Alotofthebookisanattempttodescribethelivesofsuccessfulpeople,buttotelltheirstoriesinadifferentwaythanwe’reusedto.Ihaveachapterthatdeals,inpart,withexplainingtheextraordinarysuccessofBillGates.ButI’mnotinterestedinanythingthathappenedto
himpasttheageofaboutseventeen.OrIhaveachapterexplainingwhyAsianschoolchildrenaresogoodatmath.Butit’sfocusedalmostentirelyonwhatthegrandparentsandgreat-grandparentsandgreat-great-grandparentsofthoseschoolchildrendidforaliving.You’llmeetmorepeopleinOutliersthaninmyprevioustwobooks.
WhatwasyourmostmemorableexperienceinresearchingOutliers?
Thereweresomany!I’llneverforgetthetimeIspentwithChrisLangan,whomightbethesmartestmanintheworld.I’veneverbeenabletofeelsomeone’sintellectbefore,thewayIcouldwithhim.Itwasanintimidatingexperience,but
alsoprofoundlyheartbreaking—asIhopebecomesapparentin“TheTroublewithGeniuses”chapter.IalsowenttosouthernChinaandhungoutinricepaddies,andwenttothisweirdlittletownineasternPennsylvaniawherenooneeverhasaheartattack,anddecipheredaircraft“blackbox”recorderswithcrashinvestigators.Ishouldwarnallpotentialreadersthat
onceyougetinterestedintheworldofplanecrashes,itbecomesveryhardtotearyourselfaway.I’mstillobsessed.
WhatdoyouwantpeopletotakeawayfromOutliers?
IthinkthisisthewayinwhichOutliersisalotlikeBlinkandTheTippingPoint.Theyareallattemptstomake
usthinkabouttheworldalittledifferently.ThehopewithTheTippingPointwasitwouldhelpthereaderunderstandthatrealchangewaspossible.WithBlink,Iwantedtogetpeopletotaketheenormouspoweroftheirintuitionseriously.MywishwithOutliersisthatitmakesusunderstandhowmuchofagroupprojectsuccessis.Whenoutliersbecome
outliersitisnotjustbecauseoftheirownefforts.It’sbecauseofthecontributionsoflotsofdifferentpeopleandlotsofdifferentcircumstances,andthatmeansthatwe,asasociety,havemorecontrolaboutwhosucceeds—andhowmanyofussucceed—thanwethink.That’sanamazinglyhopefulandupliftingidea.
Inoticedthatthebookisdedicatedto“Daisy.”Whoisshe?
Daisyismygrandmother.Shewasaremarkablewomanwhowasresponsibleformymother’ssuccess—forthefactthatmymotherwasabletogetoutofthelittleruralvillageinJamaicawhereshegrewup,getauniversityeducationinEngland,and
ultimatelymeetandmarrymyfather.ThelastchapterofOutliersisanattempttounderstandhowDaisywasabletomakethathappen—usingallthelessonslearnedoverthecourseofthebook.I’veneverwrittensomethingquitethispersonalbefore.IhopereadersfindherstoryasmovingasIdid.
Questionsandtopicsfordiscussion
1. MalcolmGladwellarguesthatthere’snosuchthingasaself-mademanandthatsuperachieversaresuccessfulbecauseoftheircircumstances,theirfamilies,andtheir
appetiteforhardwork.Howisthisviewdifferentfromthewayyouhavethoughtaboutandunderstoodsuccessinthepast?
2. In“TheEthnicTheoryofPlaneCrashes,”Gladwelldiscussesoneextremewayinwhichdifferent“culturallanguages”manifest
themselves.Inyouropinion,whatisour“culturallanguage”?Howdiditemergeandevolve?Doesitworkinourfavorwithregardtooursocialstructure?
3. DiscusswhatGladwellmeanswhenhesaysthatbiologistsoftentalkabout“the‘ecology’ofanorganism”(here).
Howisthissimilarto“accumulativeadvantage”(here)?
4. Doyoubelievethatthereissuchathingasinnatetalent?What,accordingtoGladwell,isthedifferenceamongtalent,preparation,andopportunity?Whatlinkdoespracticehavetosuccess?
5. Whoarethe“Termites”andwhydidtheygetthisnickname?What,inGladwell’sopinion,wasTerman’serror?
6. WhatdoesGladwellthinkaresomeconsequencesofthewaythatwehavechosentothinkaboutandpersonalizesuccess?Whatopportunitiesdo
wemissasaresult?Doyouthinkthatasasocietyweshouldreviseourdefinitionofsuccessandhowitisachieved?
7. Inyouropinion,isthe10,000-hourruleanencouragingorfatalisticlensthroughwhichtoviewthepossibilityofindividualsuccess?Howdoesthisrulealterour
notionoftheAmericanDream?
8. Gladwellwritesaboutmeritocraciesinfluencedbyadvantagessomepeoplehaveoverothersbyvirtueofopportunities,education,andcoaching.AstheincomegapintheUnitedStatescontinuestowiden,doyouthink
thatsocialmobility,whichisanessentialpartofachievingsuccess,willcontinuetosuffer?
9. Arethereanyoutliersinyourlife?Whoaretheyandwhataretheirstories?Hasreadingthisbookchangedwhatyouthinkoftheirstories?
Notes
INTRODUCTION
JohnG.BruhnandStewartWolfhavepublishedtwobooksontheirworkinRoseto:TheRosetoStory(Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress,1979)andThePowerofClan:TheInfluenceofHumanRelationshipsonHeart
Disease(NewBrunswick,N.J.:TransactionPublishers,1993).ForacomparisonofRosetoValfortore,Italy,andRoseto,Pennsylvania,USA,seeCarlaBianco,TheTwoRosetos(Bloomington:IndianaUniversityPress,1974).RosetomightbeuniqueamongsmallPennsylvaniatownsinthedegreeofacademicinterestithasattracted.
ONE:THEMATTHEWEFFECT
JebBush’sfantasiesaboutbeingaself-mademanaredetailedinS.V.Dáte’sJeb:America’sNextBush(NewYork:JeremyP.Tarcher/Penguin,2007),esp.pages80–81.Dátewrites:“Inbothhis1994and1998runs,Jebmadeitclear:notonlywashenotapologizingforhisbackground,hewasproudofwherehewasfinancially,and
certainthatitwastheresultofhisownpluckandworkethic.‘I’veworkedrealhardforwhatI’veachievedandI’mquiteproudofit,’hetoldtheSt.PetersburgTimesin1993.‘Ihavenosenseofguilt,nosenseofwrongdoing.’
“TheattitudewasmuchthesameashehadexpressedonCNN’sLarryKingLivein1992:‘Ithink,overall,it’sa
disadvantage,’hesaidofbeingthepresident’ssonwhenitcametohisbusinessopportunities.‘Becauseyou’rerestrictedinwhatyoucando.’
“Thisthinkingcannotbedescribedasanythingotherthandelusional.”TheLethbridgeBroncos,whowereplayingthedaythatPaulaandRogerBarnsleyfirstnoticedtherelative-age
effect,wereajunioricehockeyteamintheWesternHockeyLeaguefrom1974until1986.TheywontheWHLChampionshipin1982–83,andthreeyearslaterwerebroughtbacktoSwiftCurrentinSaskatchewan.Seehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lethbridge_BroncosForanoverviewoftherelative-ageeffect,seeJochenMuschandSimonGrondin,“UnequalCompetitionasan
ImpedimenttoPersonalDevelopment:AReviewoftheRelativeAgeEffectinSport,”publishedinDevelopmentalReview21,no.2(2001):147–167.RogerBarnsleyandA.H.ThompsonhaveputtheirstudyonaWebsite,http://www.socialproblemindex.ualberta.ca/relage.htmSelf-fulfillingpropheciescanbetracedbacktoancientGreekandIndianliterature,
butthetermitselfwascoinedbyRobertK.MertoninSocialTheoryandSocialStructure(NewYork:FreePress,1968).Barnsleyandhisteambranchedoutintoothersports.SeeR.Barnsley,A.H.Thompson,andPhilipeLegault,“FamilyPlanning:FootballStyle.TheRelativeAgeEffectinFootball,”publishedintheInternational
ReviewfortheSociologyofSport27,no.1(1992):77–88.Thestatisticsfortherelative-ageeffectinbaseballcomefromGregSpira,inSlatemagazine,http://www.slate.com/id/2188866/A.Dudink,attheUniversityofAmsterdam,showedhowthecutoffdateforEnglishPremierLeaguesoccercreatesthesameage
hierarchyasisseeninCanadianhockey.See“BirthDateandSportingSuccess,”Nature368(1994):592.Interestingly,inBelgium,thecutoffdateforsoccerusedtobeAugust1,andbackthen,almostaquarteroftheirtopplayerswereborninAugustandSeptember.ButthentheBelgiansoccerfederationswitchedtoJanuary1,andsureenough,withinafew
years,therewerealmostnoelitesoccerplayersborninDecember,andanoverwhelmingnumberborninJanuary.Formore,seeWernerF.Helsen,JanetL.Starkes,andJanvanWinckel,“EffectsofaChangeinSelectionYearonSuccessinMaleSoccerPlayers,”AmericanJournalofHumanBiology12,no.6(2000):729–735.
KellyBedardandElizabethDhuey’sdatacomesfrom“ThePersistenceofEarlyChildhoodMaturity:InternationalEvidenceofLong-RunAgeEffects,”publishedintheQuarterlyJournalofEconomics121,no.4(2006):1437–1472.
TWO:THE10,000-HOURRULE
Muchofthediscussionof
BillJoy’shistorycomesfromAndrewLeonard’sSalonarticle,“BSDUnix:PowertothePeople,fromtheCode,”May16,2000,http://archive.salon.com/tech/fsp/2000/05/16/chapter_2_part_one/index.htmlForahistoryoftheUniversityofMichiganComputerCenter,see“ACareerInterviewwithBernieGaller,”professoremeritusintheElectricalEngineeringandComputerScience
departmentattheschool,IEEEAnnalsoftheHistoryofComputing23,no.4(2001):107–112.Oneof(many)wonderfularticlesbyEricssonandhiscolleaguesabouttheten-thousand-hourruleisK.AndersEricsson,RalfTh.Krampe,andClemensTesch-Römer,“TheRoleofDeliberatePracticeintheAcquisitionofExpert
Performance,”PsychologicalReview100,no.3(1993):363–406.DanielJ.LevitintalksaboutthetenthousandhoursittakestogetmasteryinThisIsYourBrainonMusic:TheScienceofaHumanObsession(NewYork:Dutton,2006),p.197.Mozart’sdevelopmentasaprodigyisdiscussedinMichaelJ.A.Howe’sGenius
Explained(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1999),p.3.HaroldSchonbergisquotedinJohnR.Hayes,ThinkingandLearningSkills.Vol.2:ResearchandOpenQuestions,ed.SusanF.Chipman,JudithW.Segal,andRobertGlaser(Hillsdale,N.J.:LawrenceErlbaumAssociates,1985).Forchess’sexceptiontothe
rule,grandmasterBobbyFischer,seeNeilCharness,RalfTh.Krampe,andUlrichMayrintheiressay“TheRoleofPracticeandCoachinginEntrepreneurialSkillDomains:AnInternationalComparisonofLife-SpanChessSkillAcquisition,”inTheRoadtoExcellence:TheAcquisitionofExpertPerformanceintheArtsandSciences,SportsandGames,
ed.K.AndersEricsson(Hillsdale,N.J.:LawrenceErlbaumAssociates,1996),pp.51–126,esp.p.73.Toreadmoreaboutthetime-sharingrevolution,seeStephenManesandPaulAndrews’sGates:HowMicrosoft’sMogulReinventedanIndustry—AndMadeHimselftheRichestManinAmerica(NewYork:Touchstone,1994),p.26.
PhilipNormanwrotetheBeatles’biographyShout!(NewYork:Fireside,2003).JohnLennonandGeorgeHarrison’sreminiscencesabouttheband’sbeginninginHamburgcomefromHamburgDaysbyGeorgeHarrison,AstridKirchherr,andKlausVoorman(Surrey:GenesisPublications,1999).Thequotationisfrompage122.
RobertW.WeisbergdiscussestheBeatles—andcomputesthehourstheyspentpracticing—in“CreativityandKnowledge:AChallengetoTheories”inHandbookofCreativity,ed.RobertJ.Sternberg(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1999):226–250.Thecompletelistoftherichestpeopleinhistorycan
befoundathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wealthy_historical_figures_2008ThereferencetoC.WrightMillsinthefootnotecomesfromTheAmericanBusinessElite:ACollectivePortrait,publishedintheJournalofEconomicHistory5(December1945):20–44.SteveJobs’spursuitofBillHewlettisdescribedinLeeButcher’sAccidentalMillionaire:TheRiseand
FallofSteveJobsatAppleComputer(NewYork:ParagonHouse,1987).
THREE:THETROUBLEWITHGENIUSES,PART1
Theepisodeof1vs.100featuringChrisLanganairedJanuary25,2008.LetaHollingworth,whoismentionedinthefootnote,publishedheraccountof“L”inChildrenAbove180IQ(NewYork:WorldBooks,1942).
AmongotherexcellentsourcesonthelifeandtimesofLewisTermanareHenryL.Minton,“ChartingLifeHistory:LewisM.Terman’sStudyoftheGifted”inTheRiseofExperimentationinAmericanPsychology,ed.JillG.Morawski(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,1988);JoelN.Shurkin,Terman’sKids(NewYork:Little,Brown,1992);andMay
Seagoe,TermanandtheGifted(LosAltos:Kauffman,1975).ThediscussionofHenryCowellcomesfromSeagoe.LiamHudson’sdiscussionofthelimitationsofIQtestscanbefoundinContraryImaginations:APsychologicalStudyoftheEnglishSchoolboy(Middlesex:PenguinBooks,1967).Hudsonisanabsolute
delighttoread.TheMichiganLawSchoolstudy“Michigan’sMinorityGraduatesinPractice:TheRiverRunsThroughLawSchool,”writtenbyRichardO.Lempert,DavidL.Chambers,andTerryK.Adams,appearsinLawandSocialInquiry25,no.2(2000).PitirimSorokin’srebuttaltoTermanwaspublishedin
FadsandFoiblesinModernSociologyandRelatedSciences(Chicago:HenryRegnery,1956).
FOUR:THETROUBLEWITHGENIUSES,PART2
KaiBirdandMartinJ.Sherwin,AmericanPrometheus:TheTriumphandTragedyofJ.RobertOppenheimer(NewYork:Knopf,2005).RobertJ.Sternberghaswrittenwidelyonpracticalintelligenceandsimilar
subjects.Foragood,nonacademicaccount,seeSuccessfulIntelligence:HowPracticalandCreativeIntelligenceDetermineSuccessinLife(NewYork:Plume,1997).Asshouldbeobvious,IlovedAnnetteLareau’sbook.Itiswellworthreading,asIhaveonlybeguntooutlineherargumentfromUnequalChildhoods:Class,Race,and
FamilyLife(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2003).AnotherexcellentdiscussionofthedifficultiesinfocusingsolelyonIQisStephenJ.Ceci’sOnIntelligence:ABioecologicalTreatiseonIntellectualDevelopment(Cambridge,Mass.:HarvardUniversityPress,1996).ForagentlebutcriticalassessmentofTerman’s
study,see“TheVanishingGenius:LewisTermanandtheStanfordStudy”byGretchenKreuter.ItwaspublishedintheHistoryofEducationQuarterly2,no.1(March1962):6–18.
FIVE:THETHREELESSONSOFJOEFLOM
ThedefinitivehistoryofSkadden,Arpsandthe
takeoverculturewaswrittenbyLincolnCaplan,Skadden:Power,Money,andtheRiseofaLegalEmpire(NewYork:Farrar,Straus,andGiroux,1993).AlexanderBickel’sobituaryranintheNewYorkTimesonNovember8,1974.ThetranscriptofhisinterviewisfromtheAmericanJewishCommittee’soralhistoryproject,whichisarchivedat
theNewYorkPublicLibrary.ErwinO.SmigelwritesaboutNewYork’soldwhite-shoelawfirmsinTheWallStreetLawyer:ProfessionalOrganizationMan?(Bloomington:IndianaUniversityPress,1969).Theirparticularemployeepreferencesarelistedonpage37.LouisAuchinclosshaswrittenmoreaboutthe
changesthattookplaceintheold-linelawfirmsofManhattaninthepostwaryearsthananyone.ThequotationisfromhisbookTheScarletLetters(NewYork:HoughtonMifflin,2003),p.153.TheeconomicannihilationfacedbylawyersatthelowerendofthesocialspectrumduringtheDepressionisexploredinJeroldS.
Auerbach’sUnequalJustice:LawyersandSocialChangeinModernAmerica(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1976),p.159.StatisticsonthefluctuatingbirthrateinAmericaduringthetwentiethcenturycanbefoundathttp://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0005067.htmlTheimpactofthe“demographictrough”isexploredinRichardA.
Easterlin’sBirthandFortune:TheImpactofNumbersonPersonalWelfare(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1987).H.ScottGordon’spaeantothecircumstancesofchildrenbornduringatroughisfromp.4ofhispresidentialaddresstotheWesternEconomicAssociationattheannualmeetinginAnaheim,California,inJuneof1977,
“OnBeingDemographicallyLucky:TheOptimumTimetoBeBorn.”Itisquotedonpage31.ForadefinitiveaccountoftheriseofJewishlawyers,seeEliWald,“TheRiseandFalloftheWASPandJewishLawFirms,”StanfordLawReview60,no.6(2008):1803.ThestoryoftheBorgenichtswastoldbyLouistoHaroldH.Friedmanandpublishedas
TheHappiestMan:TheLifeofLouisBorgenicht(NewYork:G.P.Putnam’sSons,1942).Formoreonthevariousoccupationsofnineteenth-andtwentieth-centuryimmigrantstoAmerica,readThomasKessner’sTheGoldenDoor:ItalianandJewishImmigrantMobilityinNewYorkCity1880–1915(NewYork:Oxford
UniversityPress,1977).StephenSteinberg’sTheEthnicMyth:Race,Ethnicity,andClassinAmerica(Boston:BeaconPress,1982)includesabrilliantchapteronJewishimmigrantstoNewYork,towhichIamheavilyindebted.LouiseFarkas’sresearchwaspartofhermaster’sthesisatQueen’scollege:LouiseFarkas,“Occupational
GenealogiesofJewsinEasternEuropeandAmerica,1880–1924(NewYork:QueensCollegeSpringThesis,1982).
SIX:HARLAN,KENTUCKY
HarryM.CaudillwroteaboutKentucky,itsbeautyanditstroubles,inNightComestotheCumberlands:ABiographyofaDepressed
Area(Boston:Little,Brown,1962).TheimpactofcoalminingonHarlanCountyisexaminedin“SocialDisorganizationandReorganizationinHarlanCounty,Kentucky,”byPaulFrederickCresseyinAmericanSociologicalReview14,no.3(June1949):389–394.ThebloodyandcomplicatedTurner-Howardfeudis
described,alongwithotherKentuckyfeuds,inJohnEdPearce’smarvelouslyentertainingDaysofDarkness:TheFeudsofEasternKentucky(Lexington:UniversityPressofKentucky,1994),p.11.ThesameclashesareassessedfromananthropologicalperspectivebyKeithF.Otterbeinin“FiveFeuds:AnAnalysisof
HomicidesinEasternKentuckyintheLateNineteenthCentury,”AmericanAnthropologist102,no.2(June2000):231–243.J.K.Campbell’sessay“HonourandtheDevil”appearedinJ.G.Peristiany(ed.),HonourandShame:TheValuesofMediterraneanSociety(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1966).
TheScotch-Irishancestryofthesouthernbackcountry,aswellasaphoneticguidetoScotch-Irishspeech,canbefoundinDavidHackettFischer’smonumentalstudyofearlyAmericanhistory,Albion’sSeed:FourBritishFolkwaysinAmerica(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1989),p.652.ThehighmurderrateintheSouth,andthespecificnature
ofthesemurders,isdiscussedbyJohnSheltonReedinOneSouth:AnEthnicApproachtoRegionalCulture(BatonRouge:LouisianaStateUniversityPress,1982).See,particularly,chapter11,“BelowtheSmithandWessonLine.”FormoreonthehistoricalcausesofthesoutherntemperamentandtheinsultexperimentattheUniversity
ofMichigan,seeCultureofHonor:ThePsychologyofViolenceintheSouth,byRichardE.NisbettandDovCohen(Boulder,Colo.:WestviewPress,Inc.,1996).RaymondD.Gastil’sstudyonthecorrelationbetween“southernness”andtheUSmurderrate,“HomicideandaRegionalCultureofViolence,”waspublishedintheAmericanSociological
Review36(1971):412–427.Cohen,withJosephVandello,SylviaPuente,andAdrianRantilla,workedonanotherstudyabouttheAmericanNorth-Southculturaldivide:“‘WhenYouCallMeThat,Smile!’HowNormsforPoliteness,InteractionStyles,andAggressionWorkTogetherinSouthernCulture,”SocialPsychologyQuarterly62,no.3(1999):
257–275.
SEVEN:THEETHNICTHEORYOFPLANECRASHES
TheNationalTransportationSafetyBoard,thefederalagencythatinvestigatescivilaviationaccidents,publishedanAircraftAccidentReportontheKoreanAir801crash:NTSB/AAR-00/01.ThefootnoteaboutThree
MileIslanddrawsheavilyontheanalysisofCharlesPerrow’sclassicNormalAccidents:LivingwithHighRiskTechnologies(NewYork:BasicBooks,1984).Theseven-errors-per-accidentstatisticwascalculatedbytheNationalTransportationSafetyBoardinasafetystudytitled“AReviewofFlightcrew-InvolvedMajorAccidentsofU.S.Air
Carriers,1978Through1990”(SafetyStudyNTSB/SS-94/01,1994).TheagonizingdialogueandanalysisoftheAvianca052crashcanbefoundintheNationalTransportationSafetyBoardAccidentReportAAR-91/04.UteFischerandJudithOrasanu’sstudyofmitigationinthecockpit,“CulturalDiversityandCrew
Communication,”waspresentedatthefiftiethAstronauticalCongressinAmsterdam,October1999.ItwaspublishedbytheAmericanInstituteofAeronauticsandAstronautics.DialoguebetweenthefatedAirFloridacaptainandfirstofficerisquotedinasecondstudybyFischerandOrasanu,“Error-ChallengingStrategies:TheirRolein
PreventingandCorrectingErrors,”producedaspartoftheInternationalErgonomicsAssociationfourteenthTriennialCongressandHumanFactorsandErgonomicsSocietyForty-secondAnnualMeetinginSanDiego,California,August2000.TheunconsciousimpactofnationalityonbehaviorwasformallycalculatedbyGeert
HofstedeandoutlinedinCulture’sConsequences:ComparingValues,Behaviors,Institutions,andOrganizationsAcrossNations(ThousandOaks,Calif.:SagePublications,2001).ThestudyofFrenchandGermanmanufacturingplantsthathequotesonpage102wasdonebyM.BrossardandM.Maurice,“Existe-t-ilunmodèleuniverseldes
structuresd’organisation?,”SociologieduTravail16,no.4(1974):482–495.TheapplicationofHofstede’sDimensionstoairlinepilotswascarriedoutbyRobertL.HelmreichandAshleighMerrittin“CultureintheCockpit:DoHofstede’sDimensionsReplicate?,”JournalofCross-CulturalPsychology31,no.3(May2000):283–301.
RobertL.Helmreich’sculturalanalysisoftheAviancacrashiscalled“AnatomyofaSystemAccident:TheCrashofAviancaFlight052,”InternationalJournalofAviationPsychology4,no.3(1994):265–284.ThelinguisticindirectnessofKoreanspeechascomparedwithAmericanwasobservedbyHo-minSohnatthe
UniversityofHawaiiinhispaper“InterculturalCommunicationinCognitiveValues:AmericansandKoreans,”publishedinLanguageandLinguistics9(1993):93–136.
EIGHT:RICEPADDIESANDMATHTESTS
Toreadmoreonthehistoryandintricaciesofrice
cultivation,seeFrancescaBray’sTheRiceEconomies:TechnologyandDevelopmentinAsianSocieties(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1994).ThelogicofAsiannumeralscomparedwiththeirWesterncounterpartsisdiscussedinStanislasDehaeneinTheNumberSense:HowtheMindCreatesMathematics(Oxford:OxfordUniversity
Press,1997).GrahamRobb,TheDiscoveryofFrance(NewYork:W.W.Norton,2007).Thesurprisinglysecureandleisurelylifeofthe!Kungisdetailedinchapter4ofMantheHunter,ed.RichardB.LeeandIrvenDeVore,withhelpfromJillNash-Mitchell(NewYork:Aldine,1968).TheworkingyearofEuropeanpeasantrywas
calculatedbyAntoineLavoisierandquotedbyB.H.SlichervanBathinTheAgrarianHistoryofWesternEurope,A.D.500–1850,trans.OliveOrdish(NewYork:St.Martin’s,1963).
Activities DaysPloughingand
sowing 12
Cerealharvest 28Haymaking 24
andcartingThreshing 130Otherwork 12Total 206
ThefatalismofRussianpeasantproverbsiscontrastedwiththeself-relianceofChineseonesbyR.DavidArkushin“IfManWorksHardtheLandWillNotBeLazy—EntrepreneurialValuesinNorthChinese
PeasantProverbs,”ModernChina10,no.4(October1984):461–479.Thecorrelationbetweenstudents’nationalaveragescoresinTIMSSandtheirpersistenceinansweringthestudentsurveyattachedtothetesthasbeenevaluatedin“PredictorsofNationalDifferencesinMathematicsandScienceAchievementofEighthGradeStudents:Data
fromTIMSSfortheSix-NationEducationalResearchProgram,”byErlingE.Boe,HenryMay,GemaBarkanic,andRobertF.BoruchattheCenterforResearchandEvaluationinSocialPolicy,GraduateSchoolofEducation,UniversityofPennsylvania.ItwasrevisedFebruary28,2002.Thegraphshowingtheresultscanbeseenonpage9.
ResultsoftheTIMSSteststhroughouttheyearscanbefoundontheNationalCenterforEducationStatisticsWebsite,http://nces.ed.gov/timss/.PriscillaBlinco’sstudyisentitled“TaskPersistenceinJapaneseElementarySchools”andcanbefoundinEdwardBeauchamp,ed.,WindowsonJapaneseEducation(NewYork:GreenwoodPress,1991).
NINE:MARITA’SBARGAIN
AnarticleintheNewYorkTimesMagazinebyPaulTough,“WhatItTakestoMakeaStudent”(November26,2006),examinestheimpactofthegovernment’sNoChildLeftBehindpolicy,thereasonsfortheeducationgap,andtheimpactofcharterschoolssuchasKIPP.KennethM.Gold,School’sIn:TheHistoryofSummer
EducationinAmericanPublicSchools(NewYork:PeterLang,2002),isanunexpectedlyfascinatingaccountoftherootsoftheAmericanschoolyear.KarlL.Alexander,DorisR.Entwisle,andLindaS.Olson’sstudyontheimpactofsummervacationiscalled“Schools,Achievement,andInequality:ASeasonalPerspective,”publishedin
EducationEvaluationandPolicyAnalysis23,no.2(Summer2001):171–191.Muchofthecross-nationaldatacomesfromMichaelJ.Barrett’s“TheCaseforMoreSchoolDays,”publishedintheAtlanticMonthlyinNovember1990,p.78.
EPILOGUE:AJAMAICANSTORY
WilliamM.MacMillan
detailshowhisfearscametopassintheprefacetothesecondeditionofWarningfromtheWestIndies:ATractforAfricaandtheEmpire(U.K.:PenguinBooks,1938).ThesexualexploitsandhorrificpunishmentsofJamaica’swhiterulingclassaredetailedbyTrevorBurnardinMastery,TyrannyandDesire:ThomasThistlewoodandHisSlaves
intheAnglo-JamaicanWorld(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,2004).TheintermediarycolorclassintheWestIndies,notseenintheAmericanSouth,isdescribedbyDonaldL.Horowitzin“ColorDifferentiationintheAmericanSystemsofSlavery,”JournalofInterdisciplinaryHistory3,no.3(Winter1973):509–541.
Populationandemploymentstatisticsamongthedifferent-coloredclassesin1950sJamaicaaretakenfromLeonardBroom’sessay“TheSocialDifferentiationofJamaica,”AmericanSociologicalReview19,no.2(April1954):115–125.DivisionsofcolorwithinfamiliesareexploredbyFernandoHenriquesin“ColourValuesinJamaican
Society,”BritishJournalofSociology2,no.2(June1951):115–121.JoyceGladwell’sexperiencesasablackwomanintheUKarefromBrownFace,BigMaster(London:Inter-VarsityPress,1969).Itisawonderfulbook.Irecommendithighly—although,asyoucanimagine,Icouldbeabitbiased.
Acknowledgments
I’mhappytosaythatOutliersconformstoitsownthesis.Itwasverymuchacollectiveeffort.Iwasinspired,asIseemtoalwaysbe,bytheworkofRichardNisbett.ItwasreadingtheCultureofHonorthatsetinmotionalotofthethinkingthatledtothis
book.Thankyou,ProfessorNisbett.
Asalways,Iprevaileduponmyfriendstocritiquevariousdraftsofthemanuscript.Happily,theycomplied,andOutliersisinfinitelybetterasaresult.ManythankstoJacobWeisberg,TerryMartin,RobertMcCrum,SarahLyall,CharlesRandolph,TaliFarhadian,ZoeRosenfeld,
andBruceHeadlam.StaceyKalishandSarahKesslerdidyeoman’sworkinresearchandfact-checking.SuzyHansenperformedherusualeditorialmagic.DavidRemnickgraciouslygavemetimeofffrommydutiesatTheNewYorkertocompletethisbook.Thankyou,asalways,David.HenryFinder,myeditoratTheNewYorker,savedmefrommyselfand
remindedmehowtothink,ashealwaysdoes.IhaveworkedwithHenryforsolongthatInowhavewhatIliketocallthe“internalFinder,”whichisaself-correctingvoiceinsidemyheadthatgivesmethebenefitofHenry’swisdomevenwhenheisnotthere.BothFinders—internalandexternal—wereinvaluable.
BillPhillipsandIhave
beentwofortwosofar,andI’mverygratefulIwasabletoenlisthisMidastouchoncemore.Thankyou,Bill.Here’shopingwegothreeforthree.WillGoodladandStefanMcGrathatPenguininEngland,andMichaelPietschand—especially—GeoffShandleratLittle,Brownsawthismanuscriptthrough,fromstarttofinish.ThankstotherestoftheteamatLittle,
Brownaswell:HeatherFainandHeatherRizzoandJunieDahn.MyfellowCanadianPamelaMarshallisawordwizard.Icannotimaginepublishingabookwithouther.
Twofinalwordsofappreciation.TinaBennett,myagent,hasbeenwithmefromtheverybeginning.Sheisinsightfulandthoughtfulandencouragingand
unfailinglywise,andwhenIthinkofwhatshehasdoneforme,IfeelasluckyasahockeyplayerbornonJanuary1.
Iowethanksmostofall,though,tomyparents,GrahamandJoyce.Thisisabookaboutthemeaningofwork,andIlearnedthatworkcanbemeaningfulfrommyfather.Everythinghedoes—fromhismostcomplex
academicmathematicstodigginginthegarden—hetackleswithjoyandresolveandenthusiasm.Myearliestmemoriesofmyfatherareofseeinghimworkathisdeskandrealizingthathewashappy.Ididnotknowitthen,butthatwasoneofthemostpreciousgiftsafathercangivehischild.Mymother,forherpart,taughtmehowtoexpressmyself;shetaughtme
thatthereisbeautyinsayingsomethingclearlyandsimply.Shereadeverywordofthisbookandtriedtoholdmetothatstandard.MygrandmotherDaisy,towhomOutliersisdedicated,gavemymotherthegiftofopportunity.Mymotherhasdonethesameforme.
Contents
FrontCoverImageWelcomeDedication
READINGGROUPGUIDE
ACONVERSATIONWITHMALCOLMGLADWELL
QUESTIONSANDTOPICSFORDISCUSSION
INTRODUCTIONTheRosetoMystery
“Thesepeopleweredyingofoldage.That’sit.”
PARTONE:OPPORTUNITY
ONETheMatthewEffect“Foruntoeveryonethathathshallbegiven,andheshallhaveabundance.
Butfromhimthathathnotshallbetakenawayeven
thatwhichhehath.”—Matthew25:29
TWOThe10,000-Hour
Rule“InHamburg,wehadtoplayforeighthours.”
THREE
TheTroublewithGeniuses,Part1“Knowledgeofaboy’sIQisoflittlehelpifyouarefacedwitha
formfulofcleverboys.”FOUR
TheTroublewithGeniuses,Part2“Afterprotractednegotiations,itwas
agreedthatRobertwouldbeputonprobation.”
FIVETheThreeLessons
ofJoeFlom“Marygotaquarter.”
PARTTWO:LEGACY
SIXHarlan,Kentucky
“Dielikeaman,likeyourbrother
did!”SEVEN
TheEthnicTheoryofPlaneCrashes“Captain,the
weatherradarhashelpedusalot.”
EIGHTRicePaddiesand
MathTests
“Noonewhocanrisebeforedawnthreehundredsixtydaysayearfailstomakehisfamily
rich.”NINE
Marita’sBargain“Allmyfriendsnowarefrom
KIPP.”
EPILOGUE
AJamaicanStory“Ifaprogenyofyoungcolored
childrenisbroughtforth,theseareemancipated.”
NOTES
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
AbouttheAuthor
AlsobyMalcolmGladwellAcclaimforMalcolm
Gladwell’sOutliersCopyright
MALCOLMGLADWELLisalsotheauthoroftheinternationallybestsellingbooksTheTippingPoint,Blink,andWhattheDogSaw.HehasbeenastaffwriterforTheNewYorkermagazinesince1996.PriortothathewasareporterwiththeWashingtonPost,wherehecoveredbusinessandscienceandalsoservedasthenewspaper’sNewYorkCity
bureauchief.Formoreinformation
aboutMalcolmGladwell,visithiswebsiteatwww.gladwell.com.
ALSOBYMALCOLMGLADWELL
WhattheDogSawBlink
TheTippingPoint
AcclaimforMalcolmGladwell’s
OutliersTheStoryofSuccess
“Onaneternalquesttoexplainustoourselves,MalcolmGladwellonceagainturnshisintellectualdiviningrodtowardacommonyetmysteriousculturalphenomenon—inthiscase,
thelivesofoutliers,thoseremarkableindividualswhosesuccessmillionsofusstrivetoduplicate.Whatisthedifference,Gladwellwonders,betweenthosewhodosomethingspecialwiththeirlivesandeveryoneelse?Fromsoftwarebillionairestoprofessionalathletes,Gladwellexplainswithhistrademarkcounterintuitivelogichowthehabitsofhighly
successfulpeoplepaleinimportancetowhere,when,andhowyouwereraised….Asalways,insightsguaranteedtocomfortanddiscomfortequally.”
—ElissaSchappell,VanityFair
“Inthevastworldofnonfictionwriting,MalcolmGladwellisasclosetoasingulartalentasexists
today….Outliersisapleasuretoreadandleavesyoumullingoveritsinventivetheoriesfordaysafterward….OutliersrepresentsanewkindofbookforGladwell….Itisalmostamanifesto.”
—DavidLeonhardt,NewYorkTimesBookReview
“Unabashedlyinspiring….Aprovocativeandpracticalbookaboutthelandscapeof
success.”—JonahRaskin,SanFranciscoChronicle
“Amust-readforeducators,recruiters,andparents….OutliersisevidenceofMr.Gladwell’s10,000hours.”
—JoanneMcNeil,SundayTimes
“Animportantnewbook….Gladwellintelligently
capturesalargertendencyofthought—thegrowingappreciationofthepowerofculturalpatterns,socialcontagions,memes….Gladwell’ssocialdeterminismisausefulcorrectivetotheHomoeconomicusviewofhumannature.”—DavidBrooks,NewYork
Times
“Outliersisacompellingreadwithanimportantmessage:byunderstandingbetterwhatmakespeoplesuccessfulweshouldbeabletoproducemoresuccessful(andhappy)people.”
—Economist
“TheexplosivelyentertainingOutliersmightbeGladwell’sbestandmostusefulworkyet….Therearebothbrilliant
yarnsandlifelessonshere:Outliersisrivetingscience,self-help,andentertainment,allinonebook.”
—GregoryKirschling,EntertainmentWeekly
“NootherbookIreadthisyearcombinessuchadistinctiveprosestylewithtrulythought-provokingcontent.Gladwellsomehowwriteswithahighdegreeof
dazzlebutatthesametimeremainsasclearanddirectasevenStrunkorWhitecouldhopefor.”
—FrankReiss,AtlantaJournal-Constitution
“Afascinatingandentertainingbook,onethatexposestherarelyacknowledgedforcesbehindsuccess.”
—JamesF.Sweeney,
ClevelandPlainDealer
“Gladwell’spointsarewellworthpondering.”
—BusinessWeek
“Insightful….IfenoughpeoplereadandpondertheimplicationsofOutliers,perhapsthatcanhelpbeginthemuchneededprocessofturningaroundcurrentcounterproductiveattitudes
towardeducationandtowardlife.”
—ThomasSowell,WashingtonTimes
“MalcolmGladwellhasarareability:hecantransformacademicresearchintoengagingfablesspotlightingrealpeople….Outliers,withitsentertainingpsychologyandsociology,iscatchyandbeautifullywritten.”
—StephenKotkin,NewYorkTimes
“It’shardtoresistMalcolmGladwell….Readingoneofhisbooksislikesittingatthekitchentablewhileherunsabouthishouse,pullingresearchstudiesoutoffilecabinets,thickbiographiesoffbookshelves,andspreadsheetsfromhislaptop.‘Checkthisout!’heexclaims,
and‘Canyoubelievethisone?!’Thenhegetsserious.‘Youknowhowimportantthisis,don’tyou?’heasks….Ultimately,Outliersisabookaboutthetwentiethcentury.Itoffersafascinatinglookathowcertainpeoplebecomesuccessful.”
—RebeccaSteinitz,BostonGlobe
“Thought-provoking,
entertaining,andirresistiblydebatable….Outliersisanotherwinnerfromthisagilesocialobserver.”—HellerMcAlpin,Christian
ScienceMonitor
“Gladwell’swritingisalwaysaccessibleandattractive,andhisideas—culledfromscience,brimmingwithresearch—arefascinating.”—MargaretSullivan,Buffalo
News
“Gladwellturnsconventionalwisdomonitshead….Withhisknackforspottingcuriousfindingsinthesocialsciences,hestandsoutamongcontemporarywriters….GladwellrevealshisspecialgeniusinthisremarkabletrilogycompletedbyOutliers….Itisinspottingremarkablejewelsinthevast
rockcollectionofsocial-scienceresearchandplacingthemexpertlyintoanexquisitesetting.”
—HowardGardner,WashingtonPost
“AsinBlinkandTheTippingPoint,theanecdotesaredazzlingandthedatauncanny.”
—MaxRoss,MinneapolisStarTribune
“Nootherwritertodaycanpullthissortofthingoffsowell.IfIhadn’tjustreadGladwell’sbook,I’dbejealousofhistalent,insteadofhisluck.”
—JerryAdler,Newsweek
“Aninsightfulbook….Requiredreadingforanyoneinterestedinthepsychologyofachievement.”
—ConnieGlaser,Atlanta
BusinessChronicle
“ThethrustofMr.Gladwell’sargumentisrightontarget….Hepassionatelyemphasizestheneedtocultivategreatmindsthatmightbelimitedbytheircircumstancesorenvironment.”—DavidA.Shaywitz,Wall
StreetJournal
“Downrightentertainingand
informative….MalcolmGladwellmakesusthink.Isthereanyfinercomplimentforanauthor?”
—AlHutchison,TampaTribune
“Readableandentertaining….MalcolmGladwellisasuccessfulpractitionerofwhatwemightthinkofasanewwaveofsocialscience—sociology,
economics,psychology,history—forageneralreadership….ThesuccessstoriesGladwellrelatesareinspiring,andthetalesofsuccess,whetherabouthockeyplayers,computergeniuses,corporatelawyers,orentrepreneurs,arenarratedexpertly.”
—CrispinSartwell,PhiladelphiaInquirer
“Thought-provoking….Gladwellroveswidely,anecdotally,andalwaysreadably….Thebook’smiscellanyofinformationandindividualsentertains.”
—NewScientist
“OutliersisprobablyMalcolmGladwell’smostimportantbookyet….Gladwellgivesyouanewwayofseeingtheworld.”
—MichaelBond,NatureMagazine
“Gladwell’suniqueperspectivechallengesreaderstothinkaboutintelligence,success,andfameinanewway….Outliersisaclever,entertainingbookthatstimulatesreaders’mindsandbroadenstheirperspectives.Itis,initsownway,genius.”
—JohnT.Slania,BookPage
“Outlierswillselljillionsofcopiesinthetimeittakesyoutoreadthisparagraph.AndwhilethousandsofitsreaderswillbebusinessstudentsandcorporateexecutiveslookingforGladwelltodemystifytheincomprehensiblebehaviorofhumanbeingsforthem,thetargetaudienceforOutlierscouldjustaswellbevery
anxiousparentsinAmerica.”—JoelLovell,GQ
“WithOutliers,MalcolmGladwellhasdoneitagain:takenwhatmighthavebeenadryandpedanticsubjectandinsteadproducedanenjoyable,almostbreezy,treatiseontheexceptional…illuminatedwiththeminute-yet-tellingdetailsthatmarkGladwell’sbestwork.”
—ScottCoffman,LouisvilleCourier-Journal
“Gladwellknowshowtospinayarnfromwhatmightotherwisebedrysociologicalandpsychologicalstudiesbyweavinginanecdotesandinterviewsthatillustratehistheoriesonhowtomaximizehumanpotential.”
—MichelleArcher,USAToday
“IlikethewayMalcolmGladwellmakesmethink….Gladwelluseshisspecialbrandofpopsociologyandacollectionofintriguinganecdotestopostulatethattiminghasasmuchtodowithsuccessasgritandbrains.”—SusanReimer,Baltimore
Sun
“Gladwellonceagainprovesmasterfulinagenrehe
essentiallypioneered—thebookthatilluminatessecretpatternsbehindeverydayphenomena….Gladwelltearsdownthemythofindividualmerittoexplorehowculture,circumstance,timing,birth,andluckaccountforsuccess—andhowhistoricallegaciescanholdothersbackdespiteampleindividualgifts.Evenasweknowhowmanyofthesestoriesend,Gladwell
restoresthesuspenseandserendipitytothesenarrativesthatmakethemfreshandsurprising.”
—PublishersWeekly
“Outliersisaprovocativeandstimulatingbook,apleasuretoreadforitsclearproseanditsvigorousintelligence.Gladwell’stimingisonceagainimpeccable,andwiththebenefitofhisgood
Canadianeducation,he’sequippedtosharehisgraspofzeitgeistwithanaudienceeagerforenlightenment.”
—JohnStrawn,PortlandOregonian
*ThewayCanadiansselecthockeyplayersisabeautifulexampleofwhatthesociologistRobertMertonfamouslycalleda“self-fulfillingprophecy”—asituationwhere“afalsedefinition,inthebeginning…evokesanewbehaviorwhichmakestheoriginalfalseconceptioncometrue.”Canadiansstartwithafalsedefinitionofwhothebestnine-andten-year-oldhockeyplayersare.They’rejustpickingtheoldesteveryyear.Butthewaytheytreatthose“all-stars”endsupmakingtheiroriginalfalsejudgmentlookcorrect.AsMertonputsit:“Thisspeciousvalidityoftheself-fulfillingprophecyperpetuatesareignoferror.Fortheprophetwillcite
theactualcourseofeventsasproofthathewasrightfromtheverybeginning.”
*AphysicallyimmaturebasketballplayerinanAmericancitycanprobablyplayasmanyhoursofbasketballinagivenyearasarelativelyolderchildbecausetherearesomanybasketballcourtsandsomanypeoplewillingtoplay.It’snotlikeicehockey,whereyouneedarink.Basketballissavedbyitsaccessibilityandubiquity.
*Evenmoresocialphenomenacanbelinkedtorelativeage.Barnsleyandtwocolleagues,forinstance,oncefoundthatstudentswhoattemptsuicidearealsomorelikelytobeborninthesecondhalfoftheschoolyear.Theirexplanationisthatpoorerschoolperformancecanleadtodepression.Theconnectionbetweenrelativeageandsuicide,however,isn’tnearlyaspronouncedasthecorrelationbetweenbirthdateandathleticsuccess.
*ThesociologistC.WrightMillsmadeanadditionalobservationaboutthatspecialcohortfromthe1830s.HelookedatthebackgroundsoftheAmericanbusinesselitefromtheColonialEratothetwentiethcentury.Inmostcases,notsurprisingly,hefoundthatbusinessleaderstendedtocomefromprivilegedbackgrounds.Theoneexception?The1830sgroup.Thatshowshowbigtheadvantagewasofbeingborninthatdecade.ItwastheonlytimeinAmericanhistorywhenthoseborninmodestcircumstanceshadarealisticshotatrealriches.Hewrites:“ThebesttimeduringthehistoryoftheUnitedStatesforthepoorboy
ambitiousforhighbusinesssuccesstohavebeenbornwasaroundtheyear1835.”
*ThesuperIQtestwascreatedbyRonaldK.Hoeflin,whoishimselfsomeonewithanunusuallyhighIQ.Here’sasamplequestion,fromtheverbalanalogiessection.“TeethistoHenasNestisto?”Ifyouwanttoknowtheanswer,I’mafraidIhavenoidea.
*TogetasenseofwhatChrisLanganmusthavebeenlikegrowingup,considerthefollowingdescriptionofachildnamed“L,”whohadanIQinthesame200rangeasLangan’s.It’sfromastudybyLetaStetterHollingworth,whowasoneofthefirstpsychologiststostudyexceptionallygiftedchildren.Asthedescriptionmakesobvious,anIQof200isreally,reallyhigh:“YoungL’seruditionwasastonishing.Hispassionforscholarlyaccuracyandthoroughnesssetahighstandardforaccomplishment.Hewasrelativelylarge,robustandimpressive,andwasfondlydubbed‘Professor.’Hisattitudesandabilitieswereappreciatedbyboth
pupilsandteachers.Hewasoftenallowedtolecture(foraslongasanhour)onsomespecialtopic,suchasthehistoryoftimepieces,ancienttheoriesofengineconstruction,mathematics,andhistory.Heconstructedoutofoddsandends(typewriterribbonspools,forexample)ahomemadeclockofthependulartypetoillustratesomeoftheprinciplesofchronometry,andthisclockwassetupbeforetheclassduringtheenrichmentuniton‘TimeandTimeKeeping’todemonstratesomeoftheprinciplesofchronometry.Hisnotebooksweremarvelsofscholarlyexposition.
“Beingdiscontentedwithwhathe
consideredtheinadequatetreatmentoflandtravelinaclassuniton‘Transportation,’heagreedthattimewastoolimitedtodojusticetoeverything.Butheinsistedthat‘atleasttheyshouldhavecoveredancienttheory.’Asanextraandvoluntaryproject,‘hebroughtinelaboratedrawingsandaccountsoftheancienttheoriesofengines,locomotivesetc.’…Hewasatthattime10yearsofage.”
*Theansweristhataroundmanholecovercan’tfallintothemanhole,nomatterhowmuchyoutwistandturnit.Arectangularcovercan:Allyouhavetodoistiltitsideways.There:nowyoucangetajobatMicrosoft.
*The“IQfundamentalist”ArthurJensenputitthuslyinhis1980bookBiasinMentalTesting(p.113):“ThefoursociallyandpersonallymostimportantthresholdregionsontheIQscalearethosethatdifferentiatewithhighprobabilitybetweenpersonswho,becauseoftheirlevelofgeneralmentalability,canorcannotattendaregularschool(aboutIQ50),canorcannotmasterthetraditionalsubjectmatterofelementaryschool(aboutIQ75),canorcannotsucceedintheacademicorcollegepreparatorycurriculumthroughhighschool(aboutIQ105),canorcannotgraduatefromanaccreditedfour-yearcollegewithgradesthat
wouldqualifyforadmissiontoaprofessionalorgraduateschool(aboutIQ115).Beyondthis,theIQlevelbecomesrelativelyunimportantintermsofordinaryoccupationalaspirationsandcriteriaofsuccess.ThatisnottosaythattherearenotrealdifferencesbetweentheintellectualcapabilitiesrepresentedbyIQsof115and150orevenbetweenIQsof150and180.ButIQdifferencesinthisupperpartofthescalehavefarlesspersonalimplicationsthanthethresholdsjustdescribedandaregenerallyoflesserimportanceforsuccessinthepopularsensethanarecertaintraitsofpersonalityand
character.”
*Justtobeclear:itisstillthecasethatHarvardproducesmoreNobelPrizewinnersthananyotherschool.Justlookatthoselists.Harvardappearsonbothofthem,atotalofthreetimes.AschoollikeHolyCrossappearsjustonce.Butwouldn’tyouexpectschoolslikeHarvardtowinmoreNobelsthantheydo?Harvardis,afterall,therichest,mostprestigiousschoolinhistoryandhasitspickofthemostbrilliantundergraduatestheworldover.
*TogetasenseofhowabsurdtheselectionprocessateliteIvyLeagueschoolshasbecome,considerthefollowingstatistics.In2008,27,462ofthemosthighlyqualifiedhighschoolseniorsintheworldappliedtoHarvardUniversity.Ofthesestudents,2,500ofthemscoredaperfect800ontheSATcriticalreadingtestand3,300hadaperfectscoreontheSATmathexam.Morethan3,300wererankedfirstintheirhighschoolclass.HowmanydidHarvardaccept?About1,600,whichistosaytheyrejected93outofevery100applicants.IsitreallypossibletosaythatonestudentisHarvardmaterialandanotherisn’t,whenbothhaveidentical
—andperfect—academicrecords?Ofcoursenot.Harvardisbeingdishonest.Schwartzisright.Theyshouldjusthavealottery.
*Here’sanotherstudent’sanswers.ThesemightbeevenbetterthanPoole’s:“(Brick).Tobreakwindowsforrobbery,todeterminedepthofwells,touseasammunition,aspendulum,topracticecarving,wallbuilding,todemonstrateArchimedes’Principle,aspartofabstractsculpture,cosh,ballast,weightfordroppingthingsinriver,etc.,asahammer,keepdooropen,footwiper,useasrubbleforpathfilling,chock,weightonscale,topropupwobblytable,paperweight,asfirehearth,toblockuprabbithole.”
*MostestimatesputtheheritabilityofIQatroughly50percent.
*ThelawyerandnovelistLouisAuchincloss,whoverymuchbelongstotheoldWASP-ywhite-shoelegalestablishmentinNewYork,hasasceneinhisbookTheScarletLettersthatperfectlycapturestheantipathythedowntownfirmsfelttowardtakeoverlaw.“Faceit,mydear,yourhusbandandIarerunningafirmofshysters,”atakeoverattorneyexplainstothewifeofhislawpartner.
Hecontinues:“Nowadayswhenonewishestoacquireacompanythatdoesn’twishtobeacquired,one’scounselbringallkindsofnuisancesuitstoinduceittochangeitsmind.Wesueformismanagementbythedirectors,for
unpaiddividends,forviolationofthebylaws,forimproperissuanceofstock.Weallegecriminalmisconduct;weshoutaboutantitrust;wesueforancientanddubiousliabilities.Andouropponent’scounselwillanswerwithinordinatedemandsforallourfilesandseekendlessinterrogatoriesinordertoenmeshourclientinahopelesstangleofredtape….Itissimplywar,andyouknowthequalitythatappliestothatandlove.”
*ThebestanalysisofhowadversityturnedintoopportunityforJewishlawyershasbeendonebythelegalscholarEliWald.Waldiscarefultomakethepoint,however,thatFlomandhisilkweren’tmerelylucky.Luckyiswinningthelottery.Theyweregivenanopportunity,andtheyseizedit.AsWaldsays:“Jewishlawyerswereluckyandtheyhelpedthemselves.That’sthebestwaytoputit.Theytookadvantageofthecircumstancesthatcametheirway.TheluckypartwastheunwillingnessoftheWASPfirmstostepintotakeoverlaw.Butthatwordluckfailstocapturetheworkandtheeffortsandtheimaginationandthe
actingonopportunitiesthatmighthavebeenhiddenandnotsoobvious.”
*JanklowandNesbit,theagencyhestarted,is,infact,myliteraryagency.ThatishowIheardaboutJanklow’sfamilyhistory.
*IrealizethatitseemsstrangetorefertoAmericanJewishimmigrantsasluckywhenthefamiliesandrelativestheyleftbehindinEuropewereonthevergeofexterminationatthehandsoftheNazis.Borgenicht,infact,unwittinglycapturesthispoignancyinhismemoir,whichwaspublishedin1942.HecalleditTheHappiestMan.Afternumerouschaptersbrimmingwithoptimismandcheer,thebookendswiththesoberingrealityofNazi-dominatedEurope.HadTheHappiestManbeenpublishedin1945,whenthefullstoryoftheHolocaustwasknown,oneimaginesitwouldhavehadaverydifferenttitle.
*Justtobeclear:tosaythatgarmentworkwasmeaningfulisnottoromanticizeit.Itwasincrediblyhardandoftenmiserablelabor.Theconditionswereinhuman.Onesurveyinthe1890sputtheaverageworkweekateighty-fourhours,whichcomestotwelvehoursaday.Attimes,itwashigher.“Duringthebusyseason,”DavidVonDrehlewritesinTriangle:TheFireThatChangedAmierca,“itwasnotunusualtofindworkersonstoolsorbrokenchairs,bentovertheirsewingorhotirons,from5a.m.to9p.m.,ahundredormorehoursaweek.Indeed,itwassaidthatduringthebusyseasonsthegrindinghumofsewing
machinesneverentirelyceasedontheLowerEastSide,dayornight.”
*TheconventionalexplanationforJewishsuccess,ofcourse,isthatJewscomefromaliterate,intellectualculture.Theyarefamously“thepeopleofthebook.”Thereissurelysomethingtothat.Butitwasn’tjustthechildrenofrabbiswhowenttolawschool.Itwasthechildrenofgarmentworkers.Andtheircriticaladvantageinclimbingtheprofessionalladderwasn’ttheintellectualrigoryougetfromstudyingtheTalmud.ItwasthepracticalintelligenceandsavvyyougetfromwatchingyourfathersellapronsonHesterStreet.
*DavidHackettFischer’sbookAlbion’sSeed:FourBritishFolkwaysinAmericaisthemostdefinitiveandconvincingtreatmentoftheideathatculturallegaciescastalonghistoricalshadow.(Ifyoureadmyfirstbook,TheTippingPoint,you’llrememberthatthediscussionofPaulReverewasdrawnfromFischer’sPaulRevere’sRide.)InAlbion’sSeed,FischerarguesthattherewerefourdistinctBritishmigrationstoAmericainitsfirst150years:firstthePuritans,inthe1630s,whocamefromEastAngliatoMassachusetts;thentheCavaliersandservants,whocamefromsouthernEnglandtoVirginiainthemid-seventeenthcentury;thenthe
Quakers,fromtheNorthMidlandstotheDelawareValleybetweenthelateseventeenthandearlyeighteenthcenturies;andfinally,thepeopleoftheborderlandstotheAppalachianinteriorintheeighteenthcentury.Fischerarguesbrilliantlythatthosefourcultures—eachprofoundlydifferent—characterizethosefourregionsoftheUnitedStateseventothisday.
*Cohenhasdoneotherexperimentslookingagainforevidenceof“southernness,”andeachtimehefindsthesamething.“Once,webotheredstudentswithpersistentannoyances,”hesaid.“Theycomeintothelabandtheyaresupposedtodrawpicturesfromtheirchildhood.Theyaredoingthiswiththeconfederate,andhe’sbeingajerk.Hedoesallthesethingstopersistentlyannoythesubject.He’llwaduphisdrawingandthrowitatthewastebasketandhitthesubject.He’llstealthesubject’scrayonsandnotgivethemback.Hekeepsoncallingthesubject‘Slick,’andhesays,‘I’mgoingtoputyournameonyourdrawing,’and
writes‘Slick.’Whatyoufindisthatnorthernerstendtogiveoffdisplaysofanger,uptoacertainpoint,atwhichpointtheyleveloff.Southernersaremuchlesslikelytobeangryearlyon.Butatsomepointtheycatchuptothenorthernersandshootpastthem.Theyaremorelikelytoexplode,muchmorevolatile,muchmoreexplosive.”
*Howarethesekindsofattitudespasseddownfromgenerationtogeneration?Throughsocialheritance.Thinkofthewayaccentspersistovertime.DavidHackettFischerpointsoutthattheoriginalsettlersofAppalachiasaid:“wharforwhere,tharforthere,hardforhired,critterforcreature,sartinforcertain,a-goinforgoing,hitforit,he-itforhit,farforfire,deeffordeaf,pizenforpoison,nekkidfornaked,eetchforitch,booshforbush,wrassleforwrestle,chawforchew,pooshforpush,shetforshut,ba-itforbat,be-itforbe,narrerfornarrow,winderforwindow,widderforwidow,andyoung-unsforyoungone.”Recognizethat?
It’sthesamewaymanyruralpeopleintheAppalachiansspeaktoday.Whatevermechanismpassesonspeechpatternsprobablypassesonbehavioralandemotionalpatternsaswell.
*KoreanAirwascalledKoreanAirlinesbeforeitchangeditsnameaftertheGuamaccident.AndtheBarentsSeaincidentwasactuallyprecededbytwoothercrashes,in1971and1976.
*Thisistruenotjustofplanecrashes.It’strueofvirtuallyallindustrialaccidents.Oneofthemostfamousaccidentsinhistory,forexample,wasthenearmeltdownatPennsylvania’sThreeMileIslandnuclearstationin1979.ThreeMileIslandsotraumatizedtheAmericanpublicthatitsenttheUSnuclearpowerindustryintoatailspinfromwhichithasneverfullyrecovered.Butwhatactuallyhappenedatthatnuclearreactorbeganassomethingfarfromdramatic.AsthesociologistCharlesPerrowshowsinhisclassicNormalAccidents,therewasarelativelyroutineblockageinwhatiscalledtheplant’s“polisher”—akindof
giantwaterfilter.Theblockagecausedmoisturetoleakintotheplant’sairsystem,inadvertentlytrippingtwovalvesandshuttingdowntheflowofcoldwaterintotheplant’ssteamgenerator.Likeallnuclearreactors,ThreeMileIslandhadabackupcoolingsystemforpreciselythissituation.Butonthatparticularday,forreasonsthatnoonereallyunderstands,thevalvesforthebackupsystemweren’topen.Someonehadclosedthem,andanindicatorinthecontrolroomshowingtheywereclosedwasblockedbyarepairtaghangingfromaswitchaboveit.Thatleftthereactordependentonanotherbackupsystem,aspecialsortof
reliefvalve.But,asluckwouldhaveit,thereliefvalvewasn’tworkingproperlythatdayeither.Itstuckopenwhenitwassupposedtoclose,and,tomakemattersevenworse,agaugeinthecontrolroomthatshouldhavetoldtheoperatorsthatthereliefvalvewasn’tworkingwasitselfnotworking.BythetimeThreeMileIsland’sengineersrealizedwhatwashappening,thereactorhadcomedangerouslyclosetoameltdown.
NosinglebigthingwentwrongatThreeMileIsland.Rather,fivecompletelyunrelatedeventsoccurredinsequence,eachofwhich,hadithappenedinisolation,wouldhave
causednomorethanahiccupintheplant’sordinaryoperation.
*Weknowthisbecausetheflightattendantsurvivedthecrashandtestifiedattheinquest.
*Hofstede,similarly,referencesastudydoneafewyearsagothatcomparedGermanandFrenchmanufacturingplantsthatwereinthesameindustryandwereroughlythesamesize.TheFrenchplantshad,onaverage,26percentoftheiremployeesinmanagementandspecialistpositions;theGermans,16percent.TheFrench,furthermore,paidtheirtopmanagementsubstantiallymorethantheGermansdid.Whatweareseeinginthatcomparison,Hofstedeargued,isadifferenceinculturalattitudestowardhierarchy.TheFrenchhaveapowerdistanceindextwicethatoftheGermans.Theyrequireandsupport
hierarchyinawaytheGermanssimplydon’t.
*HerearethetopfivepilotPDIsbycountry.Ifyoucomparethislisttotherankingofplanecrashesbycountry,theymatchupveryclosely.
1.Brazil2.SouthKorea3.Morocco4.Mexico5.Philippines
ThefivelowestpilotPDIsbycountryare:
15.UnitedStates16.Ireland17.SouthAfrica
18.Australia19.NewZealand
*Oninternationalcomparisontests,studentsfromJapan,SouthKorea,HongKong,Singapore,andTaiwanallscoreroughlythesameinmath,aroundtheninety-eighthpercentile.TheUnitedStates,France,England,Germany,andtheotherWesternindustrializednationsclusteratsomewherebetweenthetwenty-sixandthirty-sixthpercentile.That’sabigdifference.
†Lynn’sclaimthatAsianshavehigherIQshasbeenrefuted,convincingly,byanumberofotherexperts,whoshowedthathebasedhisargumentonIQsamplesdrawndisproportionatelyfromurban,upper-incomehomes.JamesFlynn,perhapstheworld’sleadingexpertonIQ,hassubsequentlymadeafascinatingcounterclaim.Asians’IQs,hesays,havehistoricallybeenslightlylowerthanwhites’IQs,meaningthattheirdominanceinmathhasbeeninspiteoftheirIQ,notbecauseofit.Flynn’sargumentwasoutlinedinhisbookAsianAmericans:AchievementBeyondIQ(1991).
*Twosmallpoints.MainlandChinaisn’tonthislistbecauseChinadoesn’tyettakepartintheTIMSSstudy.ButthefactthatTaiwanandHongKongranksohighlysuggeststhatthemainlandwouldprobablyalsodoreallywell.
Second,andperhapsmoreimportant,whathappensinthenorthofChina,whichisn’tawet-riceagriculturesocietybuthistoricallyawheat-growingculture,muchlikeWesternEurope?Aretheygoodatmathtoo?Theshortansweristhatwedon’tknow.ThepsychologistJamesFlynnpointsout,though,thattheoverwhelmingmajorityofChinese
immigrantstotheWest—thepeoplewhohavedonesowellinmathhere—arefromSouthChina.TheChinesestudentsgraduatingatthetopoftheirclassatMITarethedescendants,chiefly,ofpeoplefromthePearlRiverDelta.Healsopointsoutthatthelowest-achievingChineseAmericansaretheso-calledSzeYappeople,whocomefromtheedgesoftheDelta,“wheresoilwaslessfertileandagriculturelessintense.”
†ThereisactuallyasignificantscientificliteraturemeasuringAsian“persistence.”Inatypicalstudy,PriscillaBlincogavelargegroupsofJapaneseandAmericanfirstgradersaverydifficultpuzzleandmeasuredhowlongtheyworkedatitbeforetheygaveup.TheAmericanchildrenlasted,onaverage,9.47minutes.TheJapanesechildrenlasted13.93minutes,roughly40percentlonger.
*KIPPstandsfor“KnowledgeIsPowerProgram.”
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UnequalChildhoods:Class,Race,andFamilyLife,byAnnetteLareau,copyright
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PublishedbytheUniversityofCaliforniaPress;
“InterculturalCommunicationinCognitiveValues:
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