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LT202 Week 3
Coleridge and Wordsworth: Lyrical Ballads
Today’s lecture is about one of the most significant collections of
poetry in English literature: a collection of poems that marks a
watershed, or key point, in the development of modernity, first
published towards the end of the French Revolutionary decade in the
year 1798: Lyrical Ballads. (I hope you have enjoyed reading the
poems, or that you will enjoy them in the next few days. They are
wonderful, mostly short examples of Romantic poetry). Lyrical Ballads
is regarded as a fundamental text to English Romanticism, a literary,
artistic and philosophical movement that occurred alongside similar
movements in Germany, France, and Italy between the Enlightenment
and the Victorian Period, and mainly between the American War of
Independence and the passing of the first Great Reform Act in 1832.
Although a collaborative project by William Wordsworth and Samuel
Taylor Coleridge, Lyrical Ballads was first published anonymously in
London in 1798 following the circulation of a private ‘test’ edition
earlier in that year which was published in Bristol. The private edition
deserves mentioning, not least because it was printed by the
Dissenting publisher Joseph Cottle, whilst the London, official first
public edition was published by J. Arch. Bristol at the end of the
eighteenth-century was not only a port connected with the slave trade
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and its produce, but also – conversely - a centre where reformers and
radicals gathered. I will say more about publishers later.
Lyrical Ballads ran through three further editions after 1798,
published respectively in 1800, 1802 and 1805. Whereas the first
edition contained 23 poems (the privately circulated volume had 24),
the successive editions contained many more. You can compare the
different editions on line at the Romantic Circles electronic editions
archive (the link is provided on ORB and Moodle). Indeed, the second
edition and other editions ran into two volumes whilst the first was a
small, unassuming single book. Besides an increase in the number of
poems, Wordsworth added his name (but not Coleridge’s) to the
second and subsequent editions along with a lengthy essay that he
wrote theorizing what constituted good poetry and the basic conditions
for poetic composition. That essay is usually referred to as “The
‘Preface’ to Lyrical Ballads,’ or even simply as “Wordsworth’s Preface.”
I will spend a few moments talking about it, because it is a
philosophical treatise and one of the most important theoretical
studies of the nature of poetry in English literature. In the “Preface,”
Wordsworth explains “why I have chosen subjects from common life,
and endeavoured to bring my language near to the real language of
men.” He further argues that “all good poetry is the spontaneous overflow of
powerful feelings . . . by a man who being possessed of more than usual organic
sensibility had also thought long and deeply.” Reflection during moments of tranquility,
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on the everyday events of life and the intense feelings of love, sympathy, loss and pain
that produce, in such a way that original feelings are recreated to be contemplated at a
distance of time, is the key to the “Preface.” That privileging of the philosophical power
of the ordinary man’s life and imagination is one of the most modern aspects of Lyrical
Ballads and of Romanticism. I have long thought of Lyrical Ballads as a collection that
re-democratizes poetry by dispensing with the idea that a high education is necessary. A
heightened sense of feeling and the ability recapture moments of epiphany through
thought are the only necessary qualities for a poet, according to Wordsworth. Johnny
Foy, the Idiot Boy, is a poet when he produces ecstatic speech - after a poem in which he
can only make noises that Wordsworth captures phonetically (Burr, burr—now
Johnny’s lips they burr, / As loud as any mill):
Now Johnny all night long had heard The owls in tuneful concert strive; No doubt too he the moon had seen; For in the moonlight he had been From eight o’clock till five.
And thus to Betty’s question, he Made answer, like a traveller bold, (His very words I give to you,) “The cocks did crow to-whoo, to-whoo, “And the sun did shine so cold.”
The Idiot Boy was one of the poems in the first edition of Lyrical
Ballads. The “Preface’ was in many ways a response to criticism that
had followed publication of the first edition, an attempt to explicate the
poems in retrospect. Indeed, the “Preface” is like a retrospective
manifesto not only for Lyrical Ballads and Wordsworth’s poems more
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generally, but for Romanticism itself. The extra materials in the
second and subsequent editions of Lyrical Ballads - the added poems
and the Preface - were mainly by Wordsworth. Lyrical Ballads
therefore really needs to be understood as a collaborative venture and
a developing and unfolding series, rather than as a single book. The
balance shifts from a joint venture towards Wordsworth after the first
edition. The fluid nature of the volume’s composition - we might
describe it as an organic process - is one of the reasons why it is so
important to English Literature. The revision of the series through
those four main editions is itself a manifestation of modernity - both a
symptom and a cause of change - because that processes that made
successive editions possible was brought about by material
improvements in printing technology in the late eighteenth century
that made it cheaper, easier, and quicker to revise books.
The poems in Lyrical Ballads were themselves experimental, as
mentioned in the Advertisement that preceded them in the first
edition:
“The majority of the following poems are to be
considered as experiments. They were written
chiefly with a view to ascertain how far the
language of conversation in the middle and
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lower classes of society is adapted to the
purposes of poetic pleasure.”
(Advertisement to Lyrical Ballads 1798).
Above all, though, Lyrical Ballads announced its experimental nature
up front, even before reader read those lines from the Advertisement.
The title itself promised something unusual: Lyrical Ballads. Readers
could not but expect something different from what they were used to,
even though the apparent forms of the poems acknowledged tradition
rather than rejecting it. Let’s look at the title for a moment: just what
are Lyrical Ballads? Lyrical poetry and ballads are traditionally quite
different forms of verse, traceable to different origins in classical
literature, then passing across and down through folklore. Lyrical
poetry is concerned with feeling, emotion and thought, whilst ballads -
a narrative poetic form - tell a story. Lyrical poetry in the Western
Tradition evolved from ancient Greek poetry as far back as Sappho and
a group of other lyricists in the 7th century BC, in which the feelings
and passions of individuals were the main subject matter rather than
the exploits and deeds of heroes that comprised the narratives of
heroic and epic poetry. Indeed, lyric poetry arose as a counterpoint to
the narratives of epic and heroic poetry. The choruses in Greek drama
tend to be lyrical in style, as they reflect the thoughts with which the
audience can identify rather than the narrative that the play drives
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along. Both forms of poetry derive from oral traditions, and there lies
the common ground between them. Both forms were originally sung or
chanted, and they had passed down through the centuries into the
folklore forms of songs (lyrical) and ballads. Lyrical poems may have
elements of narrative, and ballads may describe feelings and thoughts,
but Wordsworth’s and Coleridge’s equal weighting of the two forms -
Lyrical Ballads - must have suggested to readers in 1798 and the early
1800s a rather unusual reworking of traditional forms. The
Advertisement that I have already mentioned is very important, as it
anticipates those new forms and prepares readers for something quite
unusual.
You must have noticed in your reading of Lyrical Ballads that
some of the poems look like more or less like ballads - “The Rhyme of
the Ancyent Marinere,” “Goody Blake and Harry Gill,” “Lines Written at
a Small Distance from my House,” “Simon Lee the Old Huntsman,”
“We are Seven” and “The Idiot Boy,” for example - whilst others bear
no formal resemblance to ballad form - “ The Foster Mother’s Tale,”
“Old Man Travelling,” “Complaint of Forsaken Indian Woman,” and
“Lines Written a Few Miles Above Tintern Abbey,” for example. In all of
these cases, however, elements of ballad form are both present and
changed. Even the most ballad-like of the poems are profoundly
concerned with the feelings and imagination of individuals. The poems
all privilege the imagination of the poet and an individual subject or
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interlocutor (the narrator or a character in the poem). “The Complaint
of a Forsaken Indian Woman” imagines the last thoughts of a dying
woman, as she regrets having to leave her child to others to raise. The
narrative is full of symbolic meaning, and sympathy is the key to the
poem - as is shown in these last lines:
My fire is dead, and snowy white The water which beside it stood; The wolf has come to me to-night, And he has stolen away my food. For ever left alone am I, Then wherefore should I fear to die?
My journey will be shortly run, I shall not see another sun, I cannot lift my limbs to know If they have any life or no. My poor forsaken child! if I For once could have thee close to me, With happy heart I then would die, And my last thoughts would happy be. I feel my body die away, I shall not see another day.
Note that the woman - a fictitious narrator - thinks sympathetically of
her child, and the love that she will no longer be able to give it, rather
than of the physical pain of her own death. Her love for her child is
expressed simply, yet in proportions that are overwhelming. Such an
expression of sympathy and love in the most dire of situations is a
typically Romantic trope which, in its turn, elicits the sympathy of the
reader for the fictional Indian woman and, by association, for everyone
who must die and leave loved ones behind in the world.
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“We are Seven,” another of the poems, privileges the
imagination of a child, which is set against the apparent realism and
wisdom of the adult interlocutor who tells the story. But Wordsworth
gives the little maid has the last word, as she adamantly insists that if
her dead brother and sisters have lived, they cannot ‘unexist.’ The
interlocutor becomes increasingly frustrated, and again the reader is
drawn to sympathize with the maid in a poem that is ultimately
uplifting because optimistic in appalling circumstances (the death of
siblings, however commonplace in the late eighteenth century is
represented in the poem as intensely personal).
They poems in Lyrical Ballads emphasize the value of events
concerning ordinary people and their lives - even the Rime of the
Ancyent Marinere, with all its gothic imagery and supernatural
suggestion, is the tale of a seemingly common sailor. Such
celebrations of the power of the imagination, and the attempt to take
poetry back to simple events which are closer to nature, are key
features of what we call Romantic writing. Sympathy for the poor and
the unfortunate in society is a key aspect of the poems, as is the
remembrance of past events years after they happen. That, indeed, is
the theme in the poem that is usually considered the most difficult for
students, but which is one of the most important poems in the English
language, Lines Written a few Miles above Tintern Abbey. Consider
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these lines from the opening of that poem, looking at the way in which
they emphasize the passing of time and the motif of return:
Five years have passed; five summers, with the lengthOf five long winters! and again I hearThese waters, rolling from their mountain-springsWith a sweet inland murmur.—Once againDo I behold these steep and lofty cliffs,Which on a wild secluded scene impressThoughts of more deep seclusion ; and connect
The landscape with the quiet of the sky.The day is come when I again reposeHere, under this dark sycamore, and viewThese plots of cottage-ground, these orchard-tufts,Which, at this season, with their unripe fruits,Among the woods and copses lose themselves,Nor, with their green and simple hue, disturbThe wild green landscape.
Motifs of remembrance that mark the passing of time, seeing changes
that have occurred over five years through the imaginative lens of the
poet’s memory on which they are impressed, are features that we
associate with Romantic writing. The anxiety that marks the
fragmentary nature of memory is a commonplace feature of modernity
and modern literature. Change itself seems a small matter in the early
lines of Tintern Abbey. The narrator continues:
Once again I see / These hedge-rows, hardly hedge-rows, little lines /
Of sportive wood run wild
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But the poem soon becomes a philosophical reflection on the way that
time affects our lives, our consciences, and the way we understand the
very nature of existence. The narrator (remember that this poem by
Wordsworth was first published anonymously) thinks with sadness not
only about what has been lost to him personally, but on the tragedies
that mankind more generally suffers. He cannot fully remember what
he once was, but can only recapture a series of emotions and moments
of feeling:
I cannot paintWhat then I was. The sounding cataractHaunted me like a passion: the tall rock,The mountain, and the deep and gloomy wood,Their colours and their forms, were then to meAn appetite: a feeling and a love,That had no need of a remoter charm,By thought supplied, or any interestUnborrowed from the eye.—That time is past,And all its aching joys are now no more,And all its dizzy raptures. Not for thisFaint I, nor mourn nor murmur: other giftsHave followed, for such loss, I would believe,Abundant recompence. For I have learnedTo look on nature, not as in the hourOf thoughtless youth, but hearing oftentimesThe still, sad music of humanity.
This is obviously profoundly lyrical poetry, although there is a narrative
element attaching to the plot of passing time and the revisiting of
place. Still later in Tintern Abbey, these early feelings of melancholy
and loss turn to joy and wonder as the poet senses with exhilaration
that he is part of the grand scheme of creation that has been unfolding
since time began and will go on unfolding into eternity:
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A presence that disturbs me with the joyOf elevated thoughts ; a sense sublimeOf something far more deeply interfused,Whose dwelling is the light of setting suns,And the round ocean, and the living air,And the blue sky, and in the mind of man,A motion and a spirit, that impelsAll thinking things, all objects of all thought,And rolls through all things.
Finally, there is the return to nature, the everyday world that is around
the poet, and the desire to share his experience with the dear
companion (in this case, Wordsworth’s beloved sister Dorothy is the
friend addressed). The effect is similar to catharsis, although not quite
the same, but the protagonist is the ordinary man, the poet himself:
Therefore am I still A lover of the meadows and the woods,And mountains; and of all that we beholdFrom this green earth; of all the mighty worldOf eye and ear, both what they half-create,*
And what perceive; well pleased to recognizeIn nature and the language of the sense,The anchor of my purest thoughts, the nurse,The guide, the guardian of my heart, and soulOf all my moral being
. . .
wilt thou then forgetThat on the banks of this delightful streamWe stood together; and that I, so longA worshipper of Nature, hither came,Unwearied in that service: rather sayWith warmer love, oh! with far deeper zealOf holier love. Nor wilt thou then forget,That after many wanderings, many yearsOf absence, these steep woods and lofty cliffs,
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And this green pastoral landscape, were to meMore dear, both for themselves, and for thy sake.
I will continue to explain why all of these features were so important to
Romantic writing and to Modernity throughout the rest of this lecture,
with reference to more of the poems that demonstrate the
experimental nature of Lyrical Ballads.
Lyrical Ballads is now recognized as one of the founding works of
Romanticism, although Coleridge and William Wordsworth would not
have recognized it as such. They could not have done so, because in
1798 the Romantic movement was still very new (you can read more
about Romanticism in the several general books we have in the
library). What is modern about Romanticism? That is not a
straightforward question to answer, because Romantic writing took
various forms. However, a common feature amongst Romantic writers
is the privileging of the individual mind as the place where freedom of
thought is located, and a corresponding interest in the natural world as
a conduit for imaginative thought. Romantic saw the natural world not
in terms of landownership and property, but as a counterpoint to the
mind-numbing corruption of city life and commercialism. In another
poem, Wordsworth wrote: “The World is too much with us / Late and
soon, Getting and spending, we lay waste our powers/ little we see in
nature that is ours.” Nature for the Romantics contained the spirit of a
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creative power - God, in the case of Wordsworth and Coleridge who
both help deeply rooted Christian beliefs. That is why the Ancyent
Mariner is redeemed when, after his mindless act of violence against a
sinless creature (the Albatross, which can be read symbolically as an
allegory of Christ) he sees beauty in the lowliest of all creatures, the
sea-snakes that he has previously found so hideous. In a moment of
involuntary emotion, he blesses them unawares and experiences
spontaneous feelings of joy and redemption.
Beyond the shadow of the ship I watch’d the water-snakes: They mov’d in tracks of shining white; And when they rear’d, the elfish light Fell off in hoary flakes.
Within the shadow of the ship I watch’d their rich attire:Blue, glossy green, and velvet blackThey coil’d and swam; and every track Was a flash of golden fire.
O happy living things! no tongue Their beauty might declare: A spring of love gusht from my heart, And I bless’d them unaware! Sure my kind saint took pity on me, And I bless’d them unaware.
The self-same moment I could pray; And from my neck so free The Albatross fell off, and sank Like lead into the sea.
I mentioned earlier that Lyrical Ballads was made possible by the
growing commercialization of the book trade and technological
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developments in printing and paper manufacture in the eighteenth
century, which I mentioned to you last week. I would like now to turn to
some of the material historical contexts of the collection. The first
edition was neither expensive nor cheap to buy – an ordinary,
everyday product in its material form, if you like, that did not seek to
draw attention to itself in very obvious ways. In fact, despite Lyrical
Ballads subsequent importance as a ground-breaking work of
literature, and the ambivalent traditional-yet-modern form of the
poems themselves, the material book in which it was printed looked no
different from thousands of other books published at the same time
[See facsimile and title pages of editions on slides ].
We should also think of the various editions within their historical
contexts of the French Revolutionary and early Napoleonic years (that
is, 1789-1799 as the French Revolutionary years, and 1800-1815 and
the years of the Napoleonic wars).Those were years in which Britain
was almost continually at war with France and intermittently at war
with the United States. Radical movements calling for social and
political changes were regarded by the establishment as dangerously
revolutionary, and were ruthlessly repressed by the institutions of
State, including the law. To be a radical was to live in a dangerous
situation, where legal prosecution or beating by Church and King mobs
were very real dangers. Coleridge and Wordsworth were both initial
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supporters of the French Revolution, but they quickly withdrew from
that support when the events of the terror took place in 1793 and
1794. Wordsworth in particular had lived for a while in France, and had
left a young woman partner there pregnant. His guilt at leaving
Annette Vallon and his daughter, and at supporting a revolution which
collapsed into the bloodshed of the guillotine, haunts his poetry
thereafter. If we look back at “Lines written a few miles above Tintern
Abbey” published in 1798, the ‘five years’ that are mentioned as
having passed go back to 1793 and just before the Terror, when the
poet fled from France. The redemptive qualities of nature and time that
are invoked in “Tintern Abbey” can be read as God’s and the natural
world’s healing process for the events that had torn apart both the
poet’s life and France.
The late eighteenth century also saw huge changes in the
appearance and socio-economic structures of the British countryside,
with the Enclosures Acts disrupting communities and forcing families to
become more mobile. Thirdly, despite Britain’s involvement in wars
against France, exploration and the extension of trade in distant parts
of the world were stimulating yet further interest in exotic, mysterious
and previously unknown locations and as well as in human difference
or “otherness.” Lyrical Ballads is a profoundly political collection of
poetry that addresses each of those areas of concerns, as well as a
work of philosophical and literary innovation. Let’s look at some
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pointers to help you think about the ways in which Lyrical Ballads, in its
various editions, constitutes a politically engaged “version of
modernity.”
For example, how does other early Romantic print culture
compare with Lyrical Ballads as a version of modernity? Well, the
material ordinariness of appearance that I have mentioned could not
be said to apply to William Blake’s work, in books such as Songs of
Innocence and Experience – published earlier in the same decade as
Lyrical Ballads. Blake’s Songs similarly comprised a collection of song-
like poems with lyrical, socio-political themes and they are certainly,
similarly innovative works of first-generation Romanticism. Blake’s
songs can, indeed, usefully be compared and contrasted with Lyrical
Ballads as poetically innovative and socially-aware literature of the
1790s. Blake’s books are what we called “illuminated books” – drawing
on medieval traditions of vividly and allegorically illustrated text, but
with radically updated poems, themes and imagery. He hand engraved
and coloured his books himself, with the help of his wife. Each book is
materially unique – unlike Lyrical Ballads. And the number of copies
that could be produced meant that circulation was necessarily limited.
That was simply not the case with Lyrical Ballads, where the circulation
of an ordinary-looking book (with no illustrations) was determined by
public demand through sales and subscriptions and the economy of
sales figures. (William St. Clair’s The Reading Nation in the Romantic
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Period gives details of the number of copies printed and sold of all of
the primary works I will mention today – you might find that book,
which is in the library – very interesting as a guide to what people
bought by way of literature.)
I have mentioned editions several times. If you compare the
Romantic Circles electronic archive editions with your own volume, you
will see that the order of the original poems changes completely with
the 1800 second edition. You might like to think about why those
changes might have been made. Without any doubt, they privilege
Wordsworth’s contributions over Coleridge’s poems, and they point to
Wordsworth’s emphasis on his own ideas in the “Preface” that poetry
should be about the circumstances and events of everyday life,
because it is there that the most genuine feelings between human
beings are to be found. The poems “The Female Vagrant,” “Goody
Blake and Harry Gill,” “The Idiot Boy,” “We are seven,” “Old Man
Travelling” all bear out that belief. “Lines Written a few Miles Above
Tintern Abbey” begins with its theme of reflection upon revisiting the
site of an earlier emotional experience, thereby foregrounding
Wordsworth’s major argument in the “Preface” that poetry needs be
the result of reflection in moments of tranquility after an initial
overflow of powerful feeling. Those reflections can go on happening,
and they can be concerned with events from minutes or from years
before. “Tintern Abbey” looks back five years, whereas Johnnies’ poetic
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exclamation at the end of “The Idiot Boy” is concerned with the
experiences of the night before. Coleridge did not contribute any new
poems to Lyrical Ballads after the 2nd edition. Whereas the first edition
was published anonymously, Wordsworth’s name (but not Coleridge’s)
was on the title page of each subsequent edition. Next, and of
fundamental importance. Wordsworth’s great treatise on what good
poetry ought to be and on what makes a “good” poet, the “Preface”
was added in 1800, and even the order in which the original poems
appears was changed: for example, “Old Man Travelling: Animal
Tranquility and Decay, a Sketch: ” was placed third in the second
edition, after two new poems. Meanwhile, the “Rime of the Ancyent
Marinere” and “Lines Written a Few Miles above Tintern Abbey” - first
and last in the first edition, and both poems with philosophical themes
of revisiting past experiences, of heightened emotional response, and
of a yearning for inner peace through creative imaginative activity, but
with entirely different approaches to their subject matter, - were
respectively moved to second from last and last in the first volume of
the second edition. One of Wordsworth’s new poems for the collection,
“Michael: a Pastoral Poem,” – another philosophical poem about hope,
loss, and the fragmentation cause by change (the pile of unhewn
stones that were to have become a sheepfold built by father and son is
profoundly symbolic) concluded the second, 1800 edition. I will suggest
some reasons for those alterations of order, as they say something
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about the nature and values of modern poetry as Wordsworth and
Coleridge – increasingly differently - saw them.
Well, Lyrical Ballads is the first text that you will have read on
Versions of Modernity Last week, I talked to you about the overall
scope of the course, addressing what we mean by “modernity” and
how we intend to approach different versions of that concept through a
series of literary works. In terms of anxieties addressed by Lyrical
Ballads, some key features define problems and anxieties confronted
by literary and artistic modernity in general. Those anxieties including
the relationship between the desire for continuity and a disturbing
reality of fragmentation – social and concerned with cultural memory,
but also in terms of the individual’s desire for a secure sense of
identity. Lyrical Ballads directly confronts anxieties about social
change and fears of alienation. Those are also key themes in many of
other the texts that you will be reading on the module. They are
modern, but by no means new issues, for anxieties about change in
society stretch back through deep cultural memories and literary
traditions to before Homer, and are still features of works published
today, in the twenty-first Century. What does change in modernity is
the rapidity with which historical contexts and new circumstances
shape lives. So why did we choose Lyrical Ballads as your first text and
in what ways do the poems in that collection represent a key moment
in the development of Modernity? Those are good questions, to which a
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range of answers are necessary. I hope you will look for your own ideas
alongside those that I am proposing in the space of this brief lecture.
Obviously, a project that shapes the future of poetry through
innovation and experimentation – which Lyrical Ballads states as its
aim - implies a “modern” approach. However, it is impossible to give a
hard-and-fast definition of what actually constitutes “modernity,” in
writing from 1798 – 212 years ago now. Most of you will have looked
last year, at why the French Revolution - and the American Revolution
before it – was a moment of monumental significance in the shaping of
western cultural, political, social and intellectual modernity. What is
certain is that something is immediately evident in Lyrical Ballads that
identifies the collection as an instance of experimental and progressive
writing for its time. The title gives us our first clue, which is further
revealed when read alongside the Advertisement at the front of the
collection and then exemplified in the poems themselves.
Wordsworth’s “preface” to the second and subsequent editions
comprises one of the most important essays in English literature on the
nature of poetry, its “proper” subject matter, and the creative
processes of the poet’s mind.
I have put some key extracts from the Advertisement and from
the preface onto a PowerPoint presentation that will be available on
the CMR shortly after this lecture.
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In the time that we have left today, I want to offer a close
reading of “Old Man Travelling: Animal Tranquility and Decay.” It is a
short enough poem for us to consider in the space of a lecture and one
that bears out what I have said. [reading of Old Man Travelling as a
poem that turns from the mundane to the extraordinary, overturning
the nature, organic progression from one generation to another.
Some further reading:
M. H. Abrams, The Mirror and the Lamp, Oxford: Oxford UP, 1953.
Groundbreakaing in its time and still an important work on the
Romantic Imagination.
Richard Holmes, Coleridge: Early Visions, London: Hodder and
Stoughton, 1989. [Good on the composition and context of the “Rime
of the Ancyent Marinere” and Lyrical Ballads generally.]
William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Lyrical Ballads, 2nd
Edition, Ed. Michael Mason. Preface John Mullan. Edinburgh: Pearson,
2006. [Excellent introduction and valuable extra materials.]
Duncan Wu, Romanticism: an Anthology, 4th Edition. Malden, M.A.:
Wiley Blackwell, 2012. [Section on Lyrical Ballads.]
Journals:
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European Romantic Review. Not in the Library, so please ask me.
Romanticism: River Wye number July 2013, and essays in other
numbers.
Studies in Romanticism.