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MODINAGAR
AA
PROJECT REPORTPROJECT REPORT
ONON
W i n d & S o l a r P o w e r e d S t r e e t L a m pi n d & S o l a r P o w e r e d S t r e e t L a m p Submitted for the partial fulfillment of
the requirement for the degree of
Bachelor of Technology in Electrical & Electronics EngineeringFrom
U.P. Technical University, LucknowSESSION: 2009-10
SUBMITTED TO:
Er. Vikas SinghEr. Vikas Singh
SUBMITTED BY:
Vivek JaiswalManish Kumar Sharma
Lalit Kumar
Ashutosh Dwivedi
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CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that this project entitled wind and solar powered street
lamp submitted in the partial fulfillment, for the award of degree ofBachelor
of technology [Electrical and Electronics] of UTTAR PRADESH
TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, Lucknow; at K.N,G.D MODI ENGGINEERING
COLLEGE, Modinagar, by Vivek Jaiswal Roll No. 0619521055 is carried out
by him/her under my supervision. The matter embodied in this project work has
not been submitted earlier for award of any degree or diploma in any
university/institution to the best of our knowledge and belief.
Head of the Department (ENE) Director (Engineering)
Date: __/__/____ College Seal
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It gives us a great sense of pleasure to present the report of
the B. Tech Project undertaken during B. Tech. Final Year. Weowe special debt of gratitude to Mr. Vikas Singh, Head,
Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering,
K.N.G.D.Modi Engineering College, Modi Nagar, Ghaziabad for
his constant support and guidance throughout the course of our
work. His sincerity, thoroughness and perseverance have been a
constant source of inspiration for us. It is only his
cognizant efforts that our endeavors have seen light of the
day.
We also take the opportunity to acknowledge the contribution
of Er. Priyank Chaudhry ,Er Shweta Agarwal [Lecturer],
Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering,K.N.G.D.Modi Engineering College, Modi Nagar, Ghaziabad for
their full support and assistance during the development of
the project.
We also do not like to miss the opportunity to acknowledge the
contribution of all faculty members of the department for
their kind assistance and cooperation during the development
of our project. Last but not the least, we acknowledge our
friends for their contribution in the completion of the
project.
Signature:
Name :
Roll No.:
Date :
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ABSTRACT
Hybrid power system can be used to reduce energy storage
requirements. The influence of the Deficiency of Power SupplyProbability (DPSP), Relative Excess Power Generated (REPG),
Energy to Load Ratio (ELR), fraction of PV and wind energy,
and coverage of PV and wind energy against the system size and
performance were analyzed. The technical feasibility of PV-
wind hybrid system in given range of load demand was
evaluated. The methodology of Life Cycle Cost (LCC) for
economic evaluation of stand-alone photovoltaic system, stand-
alone wind system and PV-wind hybrid system have been
developed and simulated using the model. The comparative cost
analysis of grid line extension energy source with PV-wind
hybrid system was studied in detail. The optimum combinationof solar PV-wind hybrid system lies between 0.70 and 0.75 of
solar energy to load ratio and the corresponding LCC is
minimum.
The PV-wind hybrid system returns the lowest unit cost values
to maintain the same level of DPSP as compared to standalone
solar and wind systems. For all load demands the levelised
energy cost for PV-wind hybrid system is always lower than
that of standalone solar PV or wind system. The PV-wind hybrid
option is techno-economically viable for rural
electrification.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction
Figure Of Wind and Solar Powered Hybrid Street Lamp
Wind Turbine for hybrid system
History of Wind Power
Small "Hybrid" Solar and Wind Electric Systems
Electricity Generation from Wind
Types of Wind Turbines
Parts used
Stepper motor Using as a Dynamo
Solar panel
Figure Of a Typical Solar Panel
LED street lamp
A Typical Led Panel
Advantages of Wind And Solar Powered Lamp
Disadvantages of Wind And Solar Powered Lamp
Application
Economic Analysis
References
Declaration
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INTRODUCTION
The innovativewind and solar poweredhybrid street lampconcept cannot only produce light by using renewable energy, also its a
boost to an everyday object that can operate completely off-
grid. This concept was derived from the effort of designers to
create a more sustainable future that integrates a range of
reusable energy technologies into everyday life objects. These
lamps comprise a solar array connected with a wind turbine,
and can produce up to 380W of power.
These wind/solar powered street lamps are fitted to locally
made usual galvanized steel poles and can be easily swapped
with previous street lamps. The turbines can be either a
horizontal axis wind turbine or a 2nd generation 300W vertical
axis wind turbine. Two solar panels are mounted on the side of
the pole that is capable of producing up to 80W of power.
Energy is vital for the progress of a nation and it has to beconserved in a most efficient manner. Not only the
technologies should be developed to produce energy in a most
environment-friendly manner from all varieties of fuels but
also enough importance should be given to conserve the energy
resources in the most efficient way. Energy is the ultimate
factor responsible for both industrial and agricultural
development. The use of renewable energy technology to meet
the energy demands has been steadily increasing for the past
few years, however, the important drawbacks associated with
renewable energy systems are their inability to guarantee
reliability and their lean nature. Import of petroleumproducts constitutes a major drain on our foreign exchange
reserve. Renewable energy sources are considered to be the
better option to meet these challenges.
More than 200 million people, live in rural areas without
access to grid-connected power [4]. In India, over 80,000
villages remain to be un-electrified and particularly in the
state of Tamil Nadu, about 400 villages (with 63% tribes) are
difficult to supply electricity due to inherent problems of
location and economy. The costs to install and service the
distribution lines are considerably high for remote areas.
Also there will be a substantial increase in transmission line
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losses in addition to poor power supply reliability. Like
several other developing countries, India is characterized by
severe energy deficit. In most of the remote and non-
electrified sites, extension of utility grid lines experiences
a number of problems such as high capital investment, high
lead time, low load factor, poor voltage regulation and
frequent power supply interruptions. There is a growing
interest in harnessing renewable energy sources since they are
naturally
available, pollution free and inexhaustible. It is this
segment that needs special attention and hence concentrated
efforts are continually provided in implementing standalone
PV, wind, bio-diesel generator and integrated systems at sites
that have a large potential of either solar, wind or both.
Traditionally, electrical energy for remote villages has been
derived from diesel generators characterized by high
reliability, high running costs, moderate efficiency and high
maintenance. Hence, a convenient, cost-effective and reliable
power supply is an essential factor in the development of any
rural area. It is a critical factor in the development of the
agro industry and commercial operations, which are projected
to be the core of that areas economy.
At present, standalone solar photovoltaic and wind systems
have been promoted around the globe on a comparatively larger
scale [7]. These independent systems cannot provide continuous
source of energy, as they are seasonal. For example,
standalone solar photovoltaic energy system cannot provide
reliable power during non-sunny days. The standalone wind
system cannot satisfy constant load demands due to significant
fluctuations in the magnitude of wind speeds from hour to hour
throughout the year. Therefore, energy storage systems will be
required for each of these systems in order to satisfy the
power demands. Usually storage system is expensive and the
size has to be reduced to a minimum possible for the renewable
energy system to be cost effective. Hybrid power systems can
be used to reduce energy storage requirements.
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Wind & Solar Powered Street Lamp
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Wind Turbine for hybrid system
1. The hybrid.
The solar panels can only work average 3 hours a day under
sunshine. In the raining day and in the night, when solar PV
can not
work, we can expect the wind turbine.
Compare with the solar (only) street lamp, a hybrid system can
reduce the expensive solar PV, and makes the battery charged
in
most kinds of weather.
2. How much power does an MW-400 wind turbine output?
One important thing of a wind turbine is its cut-in speed.Forexample:
Many wind turbines cut-in speed is above 3m/s. That means it
can output 0 when the wind-speed is below 3m/s.
The cut-in speed of the MW-400 is 2.1m/s as it has low coggingalternator, and 6 blades makes it high torque. If the wind in
that area is always 2-3m/s, it also can work and charge the
battery. Sometimes it can work hours more than the above.
One characteristic of the MW wind turbine is that it works
well at lower wind-speed. The
MW-400 can supply 35AH a day to the 24VDC battery bank in the
average wind-speed of
5m/s.
3. The weight vs. the installation.
The weight of the wind turbine and the solar PV is important
when concerning the intensityand the rigidity of the pole. The MW-200 wind turbine is 8.5
Kg, and the MW-400 is 10 Kg.
They are easy to install and light enough.
As the wind turbine can supply more power, the solar PV can be
reduced.
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Windmill electricity
Mankind been harnessing the wind's energy for many years. From
Holland to traditional farms around the world, windmills were
used in the past for pumping water through primitive
irrigation systems or used to grind grain. Then, the wind
turned large "sails" which were connected by a long vertical
shaft that was attached to a grinding machine or to a wheel
that turned and drew water from a well. Today's turbines - can
utilize the energy of the wind to turn large metal blades
which in turn spins a generator that manufactures electric
power.
Windmill electricity turbines, unlike the machines of old, aremounted on very tall towers in order to capture the most wind
energy available. At 100 feet (30 meters) or more above
ground, wind turbines can take advantage of the faster and
less turbulent wind. Turbines catch the wind's energy with
their propeller-like blades. Usually, two or three blades are
mounted on a shaft to form a rotor.
A blade acts much like an airplane wing. When the wind blows,
a pocket of low-pressure air forms on the downwind side of the
blade. The low-pressure air pocket then pulls the blade toward
it, causing the rotor to turn. This is called lift. The force
of the lift is actually much stronger than the wind's force
against the front side of the blade, which is called drag. The
combination of lift and drag causes the rotor to spin like a
propeller, and the turning shaft spins a generator to make
power.
In recent years, government have invested enormous amounts of
(taxpayer) money in windmill electricity "wind farms" to
generate electric power. The only problem with wind generated
power is that when the wind stops, so does the generator and
therefore the electric power production. Electric power cannot
be produced and stored for consumption later. Therefore, wind
power can only be counted on mostly when the wind is blowing
at optimal speeds and only in locations where the prevailing
winds are such that it makes economic sense to build these
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power plants and this may not be when and where the power is
needed.
Stand-alone windmill electricity turbines are typically used
for water pumping or communications. However, homeowners,
farmers, and ranchers in windy areas can also use wind
turbines as a way to cut their power bills.
Small windmill electricity systems also have potential as
distributed energy resources. Distributed energy resources
refer to a variety of small, modular power-generating
technologies that can be combined to improve the operation of
the electric power delivery system.
There is an increasing focus worldwide on renewable energy
sources. Wind Power is one of the best forms of creating
renewable energy. In this article we explore some of the
basics of wind electricity generation.
A windmill is a device that converts wind energy in other
forms of energy. In most cases this involves the wind energy
being transformed into mechanical energy when the blades start
to spin. It is this mechanical energy which is then
transformed into electricity. Given that wind is a naturallyoccurring, free, renewable resource, the ability to make use
of the wind for electricity generation makes it very useful in
the current times of rising energy prices.
Wind energy is best utilized in farms and rural areas. It may
also work in "suburbia", but is unlikely to be much use in
densely populated areas due to the increased number of
obstacles preventing the free flow of the wind.
There are two important prerequisites for the windmill:
* Ideally the windmill should be erected on an area of notless than one hectare. Any smaller than this and it won't work
as well due to there being insufficient wind energy for the
windmill to work.
* The average wind speed in this area should be about 11 mph.
As stated above, try to avoid areas where the windflaw is
distorted. And of course, it pays to install it in area where
there is good consistent wind strength.
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Windmill main components
To construct a windmill there are four main components :
* Blades -- responsible for the capture and utilization of windenergy. Blades can be made of wood or plastic.
* Tower-- the basis of the system which must be high enough tomake use of the wind. It should be constructed of a rigid
material, such as poly-vinyl chloride.
* The shaft -- the shaft joins the blades to the tower andensures that they rotate smoothly.
* The base -- the base holds everything together and ensures thatit is solid and stable
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History of Wind Power
Since ancient times, people have harnessed the wind's energy.Over 5,000 years ago, the ancient Egyptians used wind to sail
ships on the Nile River. Later, people built windmills to
grind wheat and other grains. The earliest known windmills
were in Persia (now called Iran). These early windmills looked
like large paddle wheels. Centuries later, the people of
Holland improved the basic design of the windmill. They gave
it propeller-type blades, still made with sails. Holland's
windmills are world renowned.
American colonists used windmills to grind wheat and corn, to
pump water, and to cut wood at sawmills. As late as the 1920s,
Americans used small windmills to generate electricity in
rural areas without electric service. When power lines began
to transport electricity to rural areas in the 1930s, local
windmills were used less and less, though they can still be
seen on some Western ranches.
Energy from Moving Air
Wind is simply air in motion. It is caused by the uneven
heating of the Earth's surface by the sun. Because the Earth's
surface is made of very different types of land and water, it
absorbs the sun's heat at different rates.
The Daily Wind Cycle
During the day, the air above the land heats up more quickly
than the air over water. The warm air over the land expands
and rises, and the heavier, cooler air rushes in to take its
place, creating wind. At night, the winds are reversed because
the air cools more rapidly over land than over water.
In the same way, the atmospheric winds that circle the earth
are created because the land near the Earth's equator is
heated more by the sun than the land near the North and South
Poles.
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Small "Hybrid" Solar and Wind Electric Systems
According to many renewable energy experts, a small "hybrid"electric system that combines wind and solar (photovoltaic)
technologies offers several advantages over either single
system.
In much of the United States, wind speeds are low in the
summer when the sun shines brightest and longest. The wind is
strong in the winter when less sunlight is available. Because
the peak operating times for wind and solar systems occur at
different times of the day and year, hybrid systems are more
likely to produce power when you need it.
Many hybrid systems are stand-alone systems, which operate"off-grid"not connected to an electricity distribution
system. For the times when neither the wind nor the solar
system are producing, most hybrid systems provide power
through batteries and/or an engine generator powered by
conventional fuels, such as diesel. If the batteries run low,
the engine generator can provide power and recharge the
batteries.
Adding an engine generator makes the system more complex, but
modern electronic controllers can operate these systems
automatically. An engine generator can also reduce the size ofthe other components needed for the system. Keep in mind that
the storage capacity must be large enough to supply electrical
needs during non-charging periods.
Battery banks are typically sized to supply the electric load
for one to three days.
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Electricity Generation from Wind
How Wind Turbines Work
Like old fashioned windmills, todays wind machines (also
called wind turbines) use blades to collect the winds kinetic
energy. The wind flows over the blades creating lift, like the
effect on airplane wings, which causes them to turn. The
blades are connected to a drive shaft that turns an electric
generator to produce electricity.
With the new wind machines, there is still the problem of what
to do when the wind isn't blowing. At those times, other typesof power plants must be used to make electricity.
Wind Power Production
In 2008, wind machines in the United States generated a total
of 52 billion kilowatt-hours, about 1.3% of total U.S.
electricity generation. Although this is a small fraction of
the Nation's total electricity production, it was enough
electricity to serve 4.6 million households or to power theentire State of Colorado.
The amount of electricity generated from wind has been growing
rapidly in recent years. Generation from wind in the United
States nearly doubled between 2006 and 2008.
New technologies have decreased the cost of producing
electricity from wind, and growth in wind power has been
encouraged by tax breaks for renewable energy and green
pricing programs. Many utilities around the country offer
green pricing options that allow customers the choice to pay
more for electricity that comes from renewable sources tosupport new technologies.
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Types of Wind Turbines
There are two types of wind machines (turbines) used today,
based on the direction of the rotating shaft (axis):
horizontal-axis wind machines and vertical-axis wind
machines. The size of wind machines varies widely. Small
turbines used to power a single home or business may have
a capacity of less than 100 kilowatts. Some large
commercial-sized turbines may have a capacity of 5
million watts, or 5 megawatts. Larger turbines are often
grouped together into wind farms that provide power to
the electrical grid.
Horizontal-axis Turbines Look Like Windmills
Most wind machines being used today are the horizontal-axis
type. Horizontal-axis wind machines have blades like airplane
propellers. A typical horizontal wind machine stands as tall
as a 20-story building and has three blades that span 200 feetacross. The largest wind machines in the world have blades
longer than a football field. Wind machines stand tall and
wide to capture more wind.
Vertical-axis Turbines Look Like Egg Beaters
Vertical-axis wind machines have blades that go from top to
bottom. The most common type the Durries wind turbine, named
after the French engineer Georges Durries who patented the
design in 1931 looks like a giant, two-bladed egg beater.
This type of vertical wind machine typically stands 100 feet
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tall and 50 feet wide. Vertical-axis wind machines make up
only a very small share of the wind machines used today.
Wind Power Plants Produce Electricity
Wind power plants, or wind farms, as they are sometimes
called, are clusters of wind machines used to produceelectricity. A wind farm usually has dozens of wind machines
scattered over a large area. The world's largest wind farm,
the Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center in Texas, has 421 wind
turbines that generate enough electricity to power 220,000
homes per year.
Many wind plants are not owned by public utility companies.
Instead, they are owned and operated by business people who
sell the electricity produced on the wind farm to electric
utilities. These private companies are known as Independent
Power Producers.
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Parts used
Vertical blades as wind turbine
Dynamo for generating electricity
Solar panel for generating electricity
Light emitting diodes (LED) as street light
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Vertical blades as wind turbine
Vertical-axis wind turbines(or VAWTs) have the main rotorshaft arranged vertically. Key advantages of this arrangement
are that the turbine does not need to be pointed into the wind
to be effective. This is an advantage on sites where the winddirection is highly variable. VAWTs can utilize winds from
varying directions.
With a vertical axis, the generator and gearbox can be placed
near the ground, so the tower doesn't need to support it, and
it is more accessible for maintenance. Drawbacks are that some
designs produce pulsating torque. Drag may be created when the
blade rotates into the wind.
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It is difficult to mount vertical-axis turbines on towers,
meaning they are often installed nearer to the base on which
they rest, such as the ground or a building rooftop. The wind
speed is slower at a lower altitude, so less wind energy is
available for a given size turbine. Air flow near the ground
and other objects can create turbulent flow, which can
introduce issues of vibration, including noise and bearing
wear which may increase the maintenance or shorten the service
life. However, when a turbine is mounted on a rooftop, the
building generally redirects wind over the roof and this can
double the wind speed at the turbine. If the height of the
rooftop mounted turbine tower is approximately 50% of the
building height, this is near the optimum for maximum wind
energy and minimum wind turbulence.
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Dynamo for generating electricity
Oil may be the world's favorite fuel, but not for much longer.
Modern homes are powered mostly by electricity and it won't be
much longer before most of us are driving electric cars as
well. Electricity is superbly convenient. You can produce itin all kinds of different ways using everything from coal and
oil to wind and waves. You can make it in one place and use it
on the other side of the world if you want to. And, once
you've produced it, you can store it in batteries and use it
days, weeks, months, or even years later. What makes electric
power possibleand indeed practicalis a superb
electromagnetic device called an electricity generator: a kind
of electric motor working in reverse that converts ordinary
energy into electricity. Let's take a closer look at
generators and find out how they work!
Where does electricity come from?
The best way to understand electricity is to start by giving
it its proper name: electrical energy. If you want to run
anything electrical, from a toaster or a toothbrush to an MP3
player or a television, you need to feed it a steady supply of
electrical energy. Where are you going to get that from?
There's a basic law of physics called the conservation of
energy that explains how you can get energyand how you can't.
According to this law, there's a fixed amount of energy in the
universe and some good news and some bad news about what we
can do with it. The bad news is that we can't create moreenergy than we have already; the good news is that we can't
destroy any energy either. All we can ever do with energy is
convert it from one form into another.
If you want to find some electricity to power your television,
you won't be making energy out of thin air: the conservation
of energy tells us that's impossible. What you'll be doing is
using energy converted from some other form into the
electrical energy you need. Generally, that happens in a power
plant some distance from your home. Plug in your TV and
electrical energy flows into it through a cable. The cable ismuch longer than you might think: it actually runs all the way
from your TVunderground or through the airto the power plant
where electrical energy is being prepared for you from an
energy-rich fuel such as coal, oil, gas, or atomic fuel. In
these eco-friendly times, some of your electricity will also
be coming from wind turbines, hydroelectric power plants
(which make power using the energy in dammed rivers), or
geothermal energy (Earth's internal heat). Wherever your
energy comes from, it'll almost certainly be turned into
electricity with the help of a generator. Only solar cells
make electricity without using generators.
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How generators work
An electric motor is essentially just a tight coil of copper
wire wrapped around an iron core that's free to rotate at high
speed inside a powerful, permanent magnet. When you feed
electricity into the copper coil, it becomes a temporary,
electrically powered magnetin other words, an electromagnet
and generates a magnetic field all around it. This temporary
magnetic field pushes against the magnetic field that the
permanent magnet creates and forces the coil to rotate. By a
bit of clever design, the coil can be made to rotate
continuously in the same direction, spinning round and round
and powering anything from an electric toothbrush to an
electric train.
So how is a generator different? Suppose you have an electrictoothbrush with a rechargeable battery inside. Instead of
letting the battery power the motor that pushes the brush,
what if you did the opposite? What if you turned the brush
back and forth repeatedly? What you'd be doing would be
manually turning the electric motor's axle around. That would
make the copper coil inside the motor turn around repeatedly
inside its permanent magnet. If you move an electric wire
inside a magnetic field, you make electricity flow through the
wirein effect, you generate electricity. So keep turning the
toothbrush long enough and, in theory, you would generate
enough electricity to recharge its battery. That, in effect,is how a generator works. (Actually, it's a little bit more
tricky than this and you can't actually recharge your
toothbrush this way, though you're welcome to try!)
In practice, you need to put in a huge amount of physical
effort to generate even small amounts of electricity. You'll
know this if you have a bicycle with dynamo lights powered
from the wheels: you have to pedal somewhat harder to make the
lights glowand that's just to produce the tiny amount of
electricity you need to power a couple of torch bulbs. A
dynamo is simply a very small electricity generator. At theopposite extreme, in real power plants, gigantic electricity
generators are powered by steam turbines. These are a bit like
spinning propellers or windmills driven using steam. The steam
is made by boiling water using energy released from burning
coal, oil, or some other fuel. (Note how the conservation of
energy applies here too. The energy that powers the generator
comes from the turbine. The energy that powers the turbine
comes from the fuel. And the fuelif it's coal or oil
originally came from plants powered by the Sun's energy. The
point is simple: energy always has to come from somewhere.)
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generation of electricity by rotation of axis
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Stepper motor Using as a Dynamo
1. Stepping Motor Types
Introduction
Variable Reluctance Motors
Unipolar Motors
Bipolar Motors
Bifilar Motors
Multiphase Motors
Introduction
Stepping motors come in two varieties, permanent magnet and
variable reluctance (there are also hybrid motors, which are
indistinguishable from permanent magnet motors from the
controller's point of view). Lacking a label on the motor, you
can generally tell the two apart by feel when no power is
applied. Permanent magnet motors tend to "cog" as you twistthe rotor with your fingers, while variable reluctance motors
almost spin freely (although they may cog slightly because of
residual magnetization in the rotor). You can also distinguish
between the two varieties with an ohmmeter. Variable
reluctance motors usually have three (sometimes four)
windings, with a common return, while permanent magnet motors
usually have two independent windings, with or without center
taps. Center-tapped windings are used in unipolar permanent
magnet motors.
Stepping motors come in a wide range of angular resolution.
The coarsest motors typically turn 90 degrees per step, while
high resolution permanent magnet motors are commonly able to
handle 1.8 or even 0.72 degrees per step. With an appropriate
controller, most permanent magnet and hybrid motors can be run
in half-steps, and some controllers can handle smaller
fractional steps or microsteps.
For both permanent magnet and variable reluctance stepping
motors, if just one winding of the motor is energised, the
rotor (under no load) will snap to a fixed angle and then hold
that angle until the torque exceeds the holding torque of the
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motor, at which point, the rotor will turn, trying to hold at
each successive equilibrium point.
Variable Reluctance Motors
If your motor has three windings, typically connected as shown
in the schematic diagram in Figure 1.1, with one terminalcommon to all windings, it is most likely a variable
reluctance stepping motor. In use, the common wire typically
goes to the positive supply and the windings are energized in
sequence.
The cross section shown in Figure 1.1 is of 30 degree per step
variable reluctance motor. The rotor in this motor has 4 teeth
and the stator has 6 poles, with each winding wrapped around
two opposite poles. With winding number 1 energised, the rotor
teeth marked X are attracted to this winding's poles. If the
current through winding 1 is turned off and winding 2 is
turned on, the rotor will rotate 30 degrees clockwise so thatthe poles marked Y line up with the poles marked 2. An
animated GIF of figure 1.1 is available.
To rotate this motor continuously, we just apply power to the
3 windings in sequence. Assuming positive logic, where a 1
means turning on the current through a motor winding, the
following control sequence will spin the motor illustrated in
Figure 1.1 clockwise 24 steps or 2 revolutions:
Winding 1 1001001001001001001001001
Winding 2 0100100100100100100100100
Winding 3 0010010010010010010010010
time --->
The section of this tutorial on Mid-Level Control provides
details on methods for generating such sequences of control
signals, while the section on Control Circuits discusses the
power switching circuitry needed to drive the motor windings
from such control sequences.
There are also variable reluctance stepping motors with 4 and
5 windings, requiring 5 or 6 wires. The principle for driving
these motors is the same as that for the three winding
variety, but it becomes important to work out the correctorder to energise the windings to make the motor step nicely.
The motor geometry illustrated in Figure 1.1, giving 30
degrees per step, uses the fewest number of rotor teeth and
stator poles that performs satisfactorily. Using more motor
poles and more rotor teeth allows construction of motors with
smaller step angle. Toothed faces on each pole and a
correspondingly finely toothed rotor allows for step angles as
small as a few degrees.
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Unipolar Motors
Unipolar stepping motors, both Permanent magnet and hybrid
stepping motors with 5 or 6 wires are usually wired with a
center tap on each of two windings. In use, the center taps of
the windings are typically wired to the positive supply, and
the two ends of each winding are alternately grounded toreverse the direction of the field provided by that winding.
The motor cross section is of a 30 degree per step permanent
magnet or hybrid motor -- the difference between these two
motor types is not relevant at this level of abstraction.
Motor winding number 1 is distributed between the top and
bottom stator pole, while motor winding number 2 is
distributed between the left and right motor poles. The rotor
is a permanent magnet with 6 poles, 3 south and 3 north,
arranged around its circumfrence.
For higher angular resolutions, the rotor must haveproportionally more poles. The 30 degree per step motor in the
figure is one of the most common permanent magnet motor
designs, although 15 and 7.5 degree per step motors are widely
available. Permanent magnet motors with resolutions as good as
1.8 degrees per step are made, and hybrid motors are routinely
built with 3.6 and 1.8 degrees per step, with resolutions as
fine as 0.72 degrees per step available.
As shown in the figure, the current flowing from the center
tap of winding 1 to terminal a causes the top stator pole to
be a north pole while the bottom stator pole is a south pole.This attracts the rotor into the position shown. If the power
to winding 1 is removed and winding 2 is energised, the rotor
will turn 30 degrees, or one step.
To rotate the motor continuously, we just apply power to the
two windings in sequence. Assuming positive logic, where a 1
means turning on the current through a motor winding, the
following two control sequences will spin the motor
illustrated in Figure 1.2 clockwise 24 steps or 2 revolutions:
Winding 1a 1000100010001000100010001
Winding 1b 0010001000100010001000100Winding 2a 0100010001000100010001000
Winding 2b 0001000100010001000100010
time --->
Winding 1a 1100110011001100110011001
Winding 1b 0011001100110011001100110
Winding 2a 0110011001100110011001100
Winding 2b 1001100110011001100110011
time --->
Note that the two halves of each winding are never energized
at the same time. Both sequences shown above will rotate a
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permanent magnet one step at a time.The top sequence onlypowers one winding at a time thus, it uses less power. The
bottom sequence involves powering two windings at a time and
generally produces a torque about 1.4 times greater than the
top sequence while using twice as much power.
The section of this tutorial on Mid-Level Control providesdetails on methods for generating such sequences of control
signals, while the section on Control Circuits discusses the
power switching circuitry needed to drive the motor windings
from such control sequences.
The step positions produced by the two sequences above are not
the same; as a result, combining the two sequences allows half
stepping, with the motor stopping alternately at the positions
indicated by one or the other sequence. The combined sequence
is as follows:
Winding 1a 11000001110000011100000111Winding 1b 00011100000111000001110000
Winding 2a 01110000011100000111000001
Winding 2b 00000111000001110000011100
time --->
Bipolar Motors
Bipolar permanent magnet and hybrid motors are constructed
with exactly the same mechanism as is used on unipolar motors,
but the two windings are wired more simply, with no center
taps. Thus, the motor itself is simpler but the drive
circuitry needed to reverse the polarity of each pair of motor
poles is more complex. The schematic in Figure 1.3 shows how
such a motor is wired, while the motor cross section shownhere is exactly the same as the cross section
The drive circuitry for such a motor requires an H-bridge
control circuit for each winding; these are discussed in more
detail in the section on Control Circuits. Briefly, an H-
bridge allows the polarity of the power applied to each end of
each winding to be controlled independently. The control
sequences for single stepping such a motor are shown below,
using + and - symbols to indicate the polarity of the power
applied to each motor terminal:
Terminal 1a +---+---+---+--- ++--++--++--++--
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Terminal 1b --+---+---+---+- --++--++--++--++
Terminal 2a -+---+---+---+-- -++--++--++--++-
Terminal 2b ---+---+---+---+ +--++--++--++--+
time --->
Note that these sequences are identical to those for a
unipolar permanent magnet motor, at an abstract level, andthat above the level of the H-bridge power switching
electronics, the control systems for the two types of motor
can be identical.
Note that many full H-bridge driver chips have one control
input to enable the output and another to control the
direction. Given two such bridge chips, one per winding, the
following control sequences will spin the motor identically to
the control sequences given above:
Enable 1 1010101010101010 1111111111111111
Direction 1 1x0x1x0x1x0x1x0x 1100110011001100
Enable 2 0101010101010101 1111111111111111
Direction 2 x1x0x1x0x1x0x1x0 0110011001100110
time --->
To distinguish a bipolar permanent magnet motor from other 4
wire motors, measure the resistances between the different
terminals. It is worth noting that some permanent magnet
stepping motors have 4 independent windings, organized as two
sets of two. Within each set, if the two windings are wired in
series, the result can be used as a high voltage bipolar
motor. If they are wired in parallel, the result can be used
as a low voltage bipolar motor. If they are wired in series
with a center tap, the result can be used as a low voltage
unipolar motor.
Bifilar Motors
Bifilar windings on a stepping motor are applied to the same
rotor and stator geometry as a bipolar motor, but instead of
winding each coil in the stator with a single wire, two wires
are wound in parallel with each other. As a result, the motor
has 8 wires, not four.
In practice, motors with bifilar windings are always powered
as either unipolar or bipolar motors. Figure 1.4 shows the
alternative connections to the windings of such a motor.
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Figure 1.4
To use a bifilar motor as a unipolar motor, the two wires of
each winding are connected in series and the point of
connection is used as a center-tap. Winding 1 in Figure 1.4 is
shown connected this way.
To use a bifilar motor as a bipolar motor, the two wires of
each winding are connected either in parallel or in series.
Winding 2 in Figure 1.4 is shown with a parallel connection;this allows low voltage high-current operation. Winding 1 in
Figure 1.4 is shown with a series connection; if the center
tap is ignored, this allows operation at a higher voltage and
lower current than would be used with the windings in
parallel.
It should be noted that essentially all 6-wire motors sold for
bipolar use are actually wound using bifilar windings, so that
the external connection that serves as a center tap is
actually connected as shown for winding 1 in Figure 1.4.
Naturally, therefore, any unipolar motor may be used as a
bipolar motor at twice the rated voltage and half the rated
current as is given on the nameplate.
The question of the correct operating voltage for a bipolar
motor run as a unipolar motor, or for a bifilar motor with the
motor windings in series is not as trivial as it might first
appear. There are three issues: The current carrying capacity
of the wire, cooling the motor, and avoiding driving the
motor's magnetic circuits into saturation. Thermal
considerations suggest that, if the windings are wired in
series, the voltage should only be raised by the square root
of 2. The magnetic field in the motor depends on the number ofampere turns; when the two half-windings are run in series,
the number of turns is doubled, but because a well-designed
motor has magnetic circuits that are close to saturation when
the motor is run at its rated voltage and current, increasing
the number of ampere-turns does not make the field any
stronger. Therefore, when a motor is run with the two half-
windings in series, the current should be halved in order to
avoid saturation; or, in other words, the voltage across the
motor winding should be the same as it was.
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For those who salvage old motors, finding an 8-wire motor
poses a challenge! Which of the 8 wires is which? It is not
hard to figure this out using an ohm meter, an AC volt meter,
and a low voltage AC source. First, use the ohm meter to
identify the motor leads that are connected to each other
through the motor windings. Then, connect a low-voltage AC
source to one of these windings. The AC voltage should be
below the advertised operating voltage of the motor; voltages
under 1 volt are recommended. The geometry of the magnetic
circuits of the motor guarantees that the two wires of a
bifilar winding will be strongly coupled for AC signals, while
there should be almost no coupling to the other two wires.
Therefore, probing with an AC volt meter should disclose which
of the other three windings is paired to the winding under
power.
Multiphase Motors
Figure 1.5
A less common class of permanent magnet or hybrid steppingmotor is wired with all windings of the motor in a cyclic
series, with one tap between each pair of windings in the
cycle, or with only one end of each motor winding exposed
while the other ends of each winding are tied together to an
inaccessible internal connection. In the context of 3-phase
motors, these configurations would be described as Delta and Y
configurations, but they are also used with 5-phase motors, as
illustrated in Figure 1.5. Some multiphase motors expose all
ends of all motor windings, leaving it to the user to decide
between the Delta and Y configurations, or alternatively,
allowing each winding to be driven independently.Control of either one of these multiphase motors in either the
Delta or Y configuration requires 1/2 of an H-bridge for each
motor terminal. It is noteworthy that 5-phase motors have the
potential of delivering more torque from a given package size
because all or all but one of the motor windings are energised
at every point in the drive cycle. Some 5-phase motors have
high resolutions on the order of 0.72 degrees per step (500
steps per revolution).
Many automotive alternators are built using a 3-phase hybrid
geometry with either a permanent magnet rotor or an
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electromagnet rotor powered through a pair of slip-rings.
These have been successfully used as stepping motors in some
heavy duty industrial applications; step angles of 10 degrees
per step have been reported.
With a 5-phase motor, there are 10 steps per repeat in the
stepping cycle, as shown below:
Terminal 1 +++-----+++++-----++
Terminal 2 --+++++-----+++++---
Terminal 3 +-----+++++-----++++
Terminal 4 +++++-----+++++-----
Terminal 5 ----+++++-----+++++-
time --->
With a 3-phase motor, there are 6 steps per repeat in the
stepping cycle, as shown below:
Terminal 1 +++---+++---
Terminal 2 --+++---+++-
Terminal 3 +---+++---++
time --->
Here, as in the bipolar case, each terminal is shown as being
either connected to the positive or negative bus of the motor
power system. Note that, at each step, only one terminal
changes polarity. This change removes the power from one
winding attached to that terminal (because both terminals of
the winding in question are of the same polarity) and applies
power to one winding that was previously idle. Given the motor
geometry suggested by Figure 1.5, this control sequence willdrive the motor through two revolutions.
To distinguish a 5-phase motor from other motors with 5 leads,
note that, if the resistance between two consecutive terminals
of the 5-phase motor is R, the resistance between non-
consecutive terminals will be 1.5R.
Note that some 5-phase motors have 5 separate motor windings,
with a total of 10 leads. These can be connected in the star
configuration shown above, using 5 half-bridge driver
circuits, or each winding can be driven by its own full-
bridge. While the theoretical component count of half-bridge
drivers is lower, the availability of integrated full-bridge
chips may make the latter approach preferable.
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Stepper Motor Control
A stepper motor is a motor controlled by a series of
electromagnetic coils. The center shaft has a series of
magnets mounted on it, and the coils surrounding the shaft are
alternately given current or not, creating magnetic fields
which repulse or attract the magnets on the shaft, causing the
motor to rotate.
This design allows for very precise control of the motor: by
proper pulsing, it can be turned in very accurate steps of set
degree increments (for example, two-degree increments, half-
degree increments, etc.). They are used in printers, disk
drives, and other devices where precise positioning of the
motor is necessary.
There are two basic types of stepper motors, unipolar steppers
and bipolar steppers.
Unipolar Stepper Motors
The unipolar stepper motor has five or six wires and four
coils (actually two coils divided by center connections on
each coil). The center connections of the coils are tied
together and used as the power connection. They are called
unipolar steppers because power always comes in on this one
pole.
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Bipolar stepper motors
The bipolar stepper motor usually has four wires coming out of
it. Unlike unipolar steppers, bipolar steppers have no common
center connection. They have two independent sets of coils
instead. You can distinguish them from unipolar steppers by
measuring the resistance between the wires. You should find
two pairs of wires with equal resistance. If youve got the
leads of your meter connected to two wires that are not
connected (i.e. not attached to the same coil), you should see
infinite resistance (or no continuity).
Like other motors, stepper motors require more power than a
microcontroller can give them, so youll need a separate power
supply for it. Ideally youll know the voltage from the
manufacturer, but if not, get a variable DC power supply,
apply the minimum voltage (hopefully 3V or so), apply voltage
across two wires of a coil (e.g. 1 to 2 or 3 to 4) and slowly
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raise the voltage until the motor is difficult to turn. It is
possible to damage a motor this way, so dont go too far.
Typical voltages for a stepper might be 5V, 9V, 12V, 24V.
Higher than 24V is less common for small steppers, and
frankly, above that level its best not to guess.
To control the stepper, apply voltage to each of the coils in
a specific sequence. The sequence would go like this:
Step wire 1 wire 2 wire 3 wire 4
1 High low high low
2 low high high low
3 low high low high4 high low low high
To control a unipolar stepper, you use a Darlington Transistor
Array. The stepping sequence is as shown above. Wires 5 and 6
are wired to the supply voltage.
To control a bipolar stepper motor, you give the coils current
using to the same steps as for a unipolar stepper motor.
However, instead of using four coils, you use the both poles
of the two coils, and reverse the polarity of the current.
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Solar panel
Solar energy begins with the sun. Solar panels, also known as
photovoltaics, are used to convert light from the sun, which
is composed of particles of energy called "photons", intoelectricity that can be used to power elecrical loads. Light
from the sun is a renewable energy resource which provides
clean energy, produced by solar panels.
Solar panels can be used for a wide variety of applications
including remote power systems for cabins, telecommunications
equipment, remote sensing, and of course for the production of
electricity by residential and commercial solar panel systems.
On this page, we will discuss the history, technology, and
benefits of solar panels. We will learn how solar panels work,
how solar panels are made, where you can buy solar panels, andhow solar panels create electricity.
How Do Solar Panels Work ?
Solar panels collect clean renewable energy in the form of
sunlight and convert that light into electricity which can
then be used to provide power for electrical loads. Solar
panels are comprised of several individual solar cells which
are themselves composed of layers of silicon, phosphorous(which provides the negative charge), and boron (which
provides the positive charge). Solar panels absorb the photons
and in doing so initiate an electric current. The resulting
energy generated from photons striking the surface of the
solar panel allows electrons to be knocked out of their atomic
orbits and released into the electric field generated by the
solar cells which then pull these free electrons into a
directional current This entire process is known as the
Photovoltaic Effect.
An average home has more than enough roof area for the
necessary number of solar panels to produce enough solarelectricrity to supply all of its power needs. Assisted by an
inverter, a device that converts the direct current (or DC
current), generated by a solar panel into alternating current
(or AC current), solar panel arrays can be sized to meet the
most demanding electrical load requirements. The AC current
can be used to power loads in your home or commercial
building, your recreational vehicle or your boat (RV/Marine
Solar Panels), your remote cabin or home, and remote traffic
controls, telecommunications equipment, oil and gas flow
monitoring, RTU, SCADA, and much more.
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The Benefits of Solar Panels
Using solar panels is a very practical way to produce
electricity for many applications. The obvious would have to
be off-grid living. Living off-grid means living in a location
that is not serviced by the main electric utility grid. Remote
homes and cabins benefit nicely from solar power systems. No
longer is it necessary to pay huge fees for the installation
of electric utility poles and cabling from the nearest main
grid access point. A solar electric system is potentially less
expensive and can provide power for upwards of three decades
if properly maintained.
Besides the fact that solar panels make it possible to liveoff-grid, perhaps the greatest benefit that you would enjoy
from the use of solar power is that it is both a clean and a
renewable source of energy. With the advent of global climate
change, it has become more important that we do whatever we
can to reduce the pressure on our atmosphere from the emission
of greenhouse gases. Solar panels have no moving parts and
require little maintenance. They are ruggedly built and last
for decades when porperly maintained.
Last, but not least, of the benefits of solar panels and solar
power is that, once a system has paid for its initial
installation costs, the electricity it produces for the
remainder of the system's lifespan, which could be as much as
15-20 years depending on the quality of the system, is
absolutely free! For grid-tie solar power system owners, the
benefits begin from the moment the system comes online,
potentially eliminating monthy electric bills or, and this is
the best part, actually earning the system's owner additional
income from the electric company. How? If you use less power
than your solar electric system produces, that excess power
can be sold, sometimes at a premium, to your electric utility
company!
There are many other applications and benefits of using solar
panels to generate your electricity needs - too many to list
here. But as you browse our website, you'll gain a good
general knowledge of just how versatile and convenient solar
power can be.
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A TYPICAL SOLAR PANEL
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LED street lamp
Amidst all the hubbub about tackling global warming and
cultivating green energy, one subject receives little
coverage: streetlights. While an important public service,
streetlights are expensive to maintain and taken together,
suck down a lot of energy. So when a city like Los Angeles
announces that it's converting 140,000 streetlights to light
emitting diodes or LEDs, and Pittsburgh states that it's
considering doing the same with 40,000 lights, it's time to
take notice.
LEDs are gaining traction as a great alternative totraditional lighting because they are relatively
environmentally friendly, don't consume much electricity and
have long life spans.
Some of the world's biggest electronics firms are now touting
LEDs as the next big thing in lighting, whether in a small
appliance or the biggest skyscrapers. By 2013, the LED market,
which covers anything from holiday lights to those on the
Empire State Building, is expected to be worth $1 billion
In the past, LED lights had been seen in devices likeindicator lights in appliances, calculators or in large sports
scoreboards. But now, many large cities around the world --
Los Angeles, San Francisco, Toronto and Tianjin, China, to
name a few -- are now switching to LED streetlights. Portugal
is in the midst of a massive conversion program that is
expected to encompass all of its streetlights.
In this article, we'll take a close look at why LED
streetlights are taking off. We'll also maintain a critical
eye as we discuss some of the lights' disadvantages.
Advantage of LED Streetlights
Chief among the advantages of LEDs is that they have extremely
long lives -- they don't have filaments that can quickly burn
out -- and they don't contain toxic chemicals like mercury,
unlike traditional high-pressure sodium lamps or mercury-vapor
lamps. An LED light can last 100,000 hours [source: Rosenthal
and Barringer]. These lights also have reduced maintenance
costs because of their long lives, and they give off less heat
than other bulbs. Because they last so long, LEDs are suitable
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for places where replacing light bulbs is expensive,
inconvenient or otherwise difficult.
LEDs are highly energy efficient. While compact fluorescent
lamps (CFLs) recently have been touted as the standard in
green lighting, LEDs actually have double their energy
efficiency [source: Rosenthal and Barringer]. They use 15percent of the energy of an incandescent bulb while generating
more light per watt [source: Taub]. LEDs produce 80 lumens per
watt; traditional streetlights can only muster 58 lumens per
watt [source: Bailey].
Because of their energy efficiency and long lifespan, LED
streetlights are advocated as a means for reducing carbon
emissions. According to one estimate, converting all American
light fixtures to LEDs would halve the amount of energy used
for lighting in the country [source: Rosenthal and Barringer].
By integrating solar panels, the lights can become self-sufficient and even send excess energy back to the grid, with
the adoption of so-called "smart" energy grids.
So what else do these lights have going for them? For one,
there's no warm up needed -- they're quick to turn on. They
don't produce ultraviolet light, which is what attracts bugs.
Because they produce "directional" light -- light emitted in
one direction, rather than a diffused glow -- they can be used
to direct light on specific areas. Unlike compact fluorescent
lamps, they can be dimmed, allowing for more flexibility in
controlling light levels. Some cities have harnessed LED
lights to create clever effects, such as increasing in
brightness when a pedestrian walks by or integrating systems
that alert officials when a particular light needs
maintenance. They can also be used to blink rapidly to signal
to emergency responders where they are needed.
http://howstuffworks.com/framed.htm?parent=led-streetlight.htm&url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/30/science/earth/30degrees.htmlhttp://howstuffworks.com/framed.htm?parent=led-streetlight.htm&url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/28/technology/28led.htmlhttp://howstuffworks.com/framed.htm?parent=led-streetlight.htm&url=http://www.ecnmag.com/article-Brainstorm-Solid-State-Lighting-Adoption-060109.aspx?menuid=334http://howstuffworks.com/framed.htm?parent=led-streetlight.htm&url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/30/science/earth/30degrees.htmlhttp://howstuffworks.com/framed.htm?parent=led-streetlight.htm&url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/30/science/earth/30degrees.htmlhttp://howstuffworks.com/framed.htm?parent=led-streetlight.htm&url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/28/technology/28led.htmlhttp://howstuffworks.com/framed.htm?parent=led-streetlight.htm&url=http://www.ecnmag.com/article-Brainstorm-Solid-State-Lighting-Adoption-060109.aspx?menuid=334http://howstuffworks.com/framed.htm?parent=led-streetlight.htm&url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/30/science/earth/30degrees.html8/4/2019 My Final Project Vivek
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A TYPICAL LED PANEL
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Advantages of Wind And Solar Powered Lamp
A massive tower structure is less frequently used, as wind and
solar poweredlamp are more frequently mounted with the lower
bearing mounted near the ground.
Designs without yaw mechanisms are possible with fixed
pitch rotor designs.
A wind and solar powered lamp can be located nearer the
ground, making it easier to maintain the moving parts.
wind and solar powered lamp have lower wind startup
speeds than HAWTs. Typically, they start creating
electricity at 6 m.p.h. (10 km/h).
wind and solar powered lamp may be built at locations
where taller structures are prohibited.
wind and solar powered lamp situated close to the ground
can take advantage of locations where mesas, hilltops,
ridgelines, and passes funnel the wind and increase wind
velocity.
wind and solar powered lamp may have a lower noisesignature.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesa8/4/2019 My Final Project Vivek
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Disadvantages of Wind And Solar Powered Lamp
Most wind and solar powered lamp produce energy at only 50%
of the efficiency of HAWTs in large part because of the
additional drag that they have as their blades rotate into
the wind. Versions that reduce drag produce more energy,
especially those that funnel wind into the collector area.
A wind and solar powered lamp that uses guy-wires to hold it
in place puts stress on the bottom bearing as all the weightof the rotor is on the bearing. Guy wires attached to the
top bearing increase downward thrust in wind gusts. Solving
this problem requires a superstructure to hold a top bearing
in place to eliminate the downward thrusts of gust events in
guy wired models.
While wind and solar powered lamp parts are located on the
ground, they are also located under the weight of the
structure above it, which can make changing out parts nearly
impossible without dismantling the structure if not designed
properly.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guy-wireshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guy-wires8/4/2019 My Final Project Vivek
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APPLICATIONS
wind and solar powered lamp can be used in many places like:
In our cities in place of street light polls we can use this
wind and solar powered lamp with lights attached to it so
that it can generate electricity any time or any season and
give light.
It can be used in village also.
It can be used in our houses also
It can be used in many other places where there is problem
in reaching sun light or the area is covered with high
buildings and does not got much area to to put horizontal
wind turbines.
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ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
It is pertinent that economic justification should be made
while attempting to optimize the size of integrated powergeneration systems favouring an affordable unit price of power
produced. The economic analysis7 of the hybrid system has been
made and the cost aspects have also been taken into account
for optimization of the size of the systems. Using the model
developed various costs namely, LEC, LUC and LCC have been
computed considering the life period and replacement costs of
the individual systems. Life cycle cost analysis is a tool
used to compare the ultimate delivered cost of technologies
with different cost structures the pay back analysis method
for PV wind hybrid system depends on the various parameters
such as investment, replacement cost, annual operation andmaintenance cost, income etc. Table-1 shows the cost values of
the economic parameters and components for the base case.
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References
greenterrafirma.com
www.alvestaenergy.com
www.vawtmuce.com
www.reuk.co.uk
www.petersonpower.com
www.envirotekpower.co.uk
www.solarpanelinfo.com
www.tatabpsolar.com
www.greenpower4less.com
www.energysavers.gov
CONCLUSION
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In the present scenario standalone solar photovoltaic and wind
systems have been promoted around the globe on a comparatively
larger scale. These independent systems cannot provide
continuous source of energy, as they are seasonal. The solar
and wind energies are complement in nature. By integrating andoptimizing the solar photovoltaic and wind systems, the
reliability of the systems can be improved and the unit cost
of power can be minimized.
A PV wind hybrid systems is designed for rural electrification
for the required load at specified Deficiency of Power Supply
Probability (DPSP). A new methodology has been developed to
determine the size of the PV wind hybrid system using site
parameters, types of wind systems, types of solar photovoltaic
system, number of days of autonomy of battery and life period
of the system.
A primary model was developed to optimize PV-wind hybridsystem for any specific location, by considering the
parameters DPSP and REPG. The developed model processes the
input parameters pertaining to the wind velocity, solar
insolation, environment temperature, load distribution, wind
and PV system parameters like cut-in-speed, cut-off-speed,
rated speed, rotor diameter, hub height, peak module power,
capacity of the PV panel and wind systems. It computes the
output parameters like PV capacity, array configuration,
number of modules, tilt angle, inverter capacity, battery
capacity, charge controller capacity and wind machine
capacity. The optimal size of the hybrid system is determinedbased on the calculated values of REPG for a specified DPSP.
Thus the model suggests the optimum combination of the
capacity of wind, PV and battery units of a chosen type that
can generate power with a minimum REPG by implementation of
iterative technique.
A secondary model developed for optimizing techno economic
aspects like LCC, LEC or LUC considering the parameters like
life period of solar system, wind system, battery discount
rate, escalation rate, cost of the module, wind machine,
battery, inverter BOS components and CO2 mitigation cost for
solar photovoltaic wind hybrid system.
DECLARATION
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I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and that, to the best of my
knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by
another person nor material which to a substantial extent has been accepted for the
award of any other degree or diploma of the university or other institute of higher
learning, except where due acknowledgment has been made in the text.
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