Download pdf - Mauryan Architecture

FROM the second century BCE onwards, various rulersestablished their control over the vast Mauryan Empire:

the Shungas, Kanvas, Kushanas and Guptas in the northand parts of central India; the Satvahanas, Ikshavakus,Abhiras, Vakataks in southern and western India.Incidentally, the period of the second century BCE alsomarked the rise of the main Brahmanical sects such asthe Vaishnavas and the Shaivas. There are numerous sitesdating back to the second century BCE in India. Some ofthe prominent examples of the finest sculpture are foundat Vidisha, Bharhut (Madhya Pradesh), Bodhgaya (Bihar),Jaggayyapeta (Andhra Pradesh), Mathura (Uttar Pradesh),Khandagiri-Udaigiri (Odisha), Bhaja near Pune and Pavaninear Nagpur (Maharashtra).

Bharhut

Bharhut sculptures are tall like the images of Yaksha andYakhshini in the Mauryan period, modelling of thesculptural volume is in low relief maintaining linearity.Images stick to the picture plane. In the relief panelsdepicting narratives, illusion of three-dimensionality isshown with tilted perspective. Clarity in the narrative isenhanced by selecting main events. At Bharhut, narrativepanels are shown with fewer characters but as the timeprogresses, apart from the main character in the story,others also start appearing in the picture space. At timesmore than one event at one geographical place is clubbedin the picture space or only a single main event is depictedin the pictorial space.

Availability of the space is utilised to the maximum bythe sculptors. Folded hands in the narratives as well assingle figures of the Yakhshas and Yakshinis are shownflat clinging to the chest. But in some cases, especially inlater times, the hands are shown with the naturalprojection against the chest. Such examples show howartisans who were working at a collective level had to

POST-MAURYAN TRENDS ININDIAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE

Yakshini, Bharhut

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AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART28

understand the method of carving. Initially, dressing thesurface of stone slabs appears as the main concern. Laterthe human body and other forms were sculpted. Due toshallow carving of the picture surface, projection of handsand feet was not possible, hence, the folded hands andawkward position of the feet. There is a general stiffnessin the body and arms. But gradually, such visualappearance was modified by making images with deepcarvings, pronounced volume and a very naturalisticrepresentation of human and animal bodies. Sculpturesat Bharhut, Bodhgaya, Sanchi Stupa-2, and Jagayyapettaare good examples.

Narrative reliefs at Bharhut show how artisans usedthe pictorial language very effectively to communicate stories.In one such narrative, showing Queen Mayadevi’s (motherof Siddhartha Gautam) dream, a descending elephant isshown. The queen is shown reclining on the bed whereasan elephant is shown on the top heading towards the wombof Queen Mayadevi. On the other hand, the depiction of aJataka story is very simple—narrated by clubbing the eventsaccording to the geographical location of the story like thedepiction of Ruru Jataka where the Boddhisattva deer isrescuing a man on his back. The other event in the samepicture frame depicts the King standing with his army andabout to shoot an arrow at the deer, and the man who was

Queen Maya’s dream, BharhutJataka panel , Bharhut

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POST-MAURYAN TRENDS IN INDIAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE 29

rescued by the deer is also shown along with the kingpointing a finger at the deer. According to the story, theman promised the deer after his rescue that he would notdisclose his identity to anybody. But when the king makesa proclamation of reward for disclosing the identity of thedeer, he turns hostile and takes the king to the same junglewhere he had seen the deer. Such Jataka stories becamepart of stupa decoration. Interestingly, with the rise in theconstruction of stupas in various parts of the country,regional stylistic variations also began to emerge. One maincharacteristic in all the male images of first–secondcenturies BCE is the knotted headgear. In many sculpturesit is very consistent. Some of the sculptures found atBharhut are displayed in Indian Museum, Kolkata.

Sanchi

The next phase of sculptural development at Sanchi Stupa-1,Mathura, and Vengi in Andhra Pradesh (Guntur District)is noteworthy in the stylistic progression. Stupa-1 at Sanchihas upper as well as lower pradakshinapatha orcircumambulatory path. It has four beautifully decoratedtoranas depicting various events from the life of the Buddhaand the Jatakas. Figure compositions are in high relief,filling up the entire space. Depiction of posture getsnaturalistic and there is no stiffness in the body. Headshave considerable projection in the picture space. Rigidity

Chhatri

Harmika

Anda

Medhi

Vedika

Pradakshinapatha

Torana Plan of Stupa-1, Sanchi

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in the contours gets reduced and images are givenmovement. Narration gets elaborated. Carving techniquesappear more advanced than Bharhut. Symbols continueto be used representing the Buddha and the ManushiBuddhas or the past Buddhas (according to the textualtradition, there are twenty-four Buddhas but only the firstone, Dipankar, and the last six are pictorially represented).At Sanchi Stupa-1, narratives get more elaborated;however, the depiction of the dream episode remains verysimple showing the reclining image of the queen and theelephant at the top. The historical narratives such as thesiege of Kushinara, Buddha’s visit to Kapilavastu, visit ofAshoka to the Ramgrama Stupa are carved withconsiderable details. In Mathura, images of this periodbear the same quality but are different in the depiction ofphysiognomic details.

Mathura, Sarnath and Gandhara Schools

The first century CE onwards, Gandhara (now in Pakistan),Mathura in northern India and Vengi in Andhra Pradeshemerged as important centres of art production. Buddhain the symbolic form got a human form in Mathura andGandhara. The sculptural tradition in Gandhara had theconfluence of Bactria, Parthia and the local Gandharatradition. The local sculptural tradition at Mathura becameso strong that the tradition spread to other parts of northernIndia. The best example in this regard is the stupa sculpturesfound at Sanghol in the Punjab. The Buddha image atMathura is modelled on the lines of earlier Yaksha imageswhereas in Gandhara it has Hellenistic features.

Images of Vaishnava (mainly Vishnu and his variousforms) and Shaiva (mainly the lingas and mukhalingas)faiths are also found at Mathura but Buddhist images arefound in large numbers. It may be noted that the imagesof Vishnu and Shiva are represented by their ayudhas(weapons). There is boldness in carving the large images,the volume of the images is projected out of the pictureplane, the faces are round and smiling, heaviness in thesculptural volume is reduced to relaxed flesh. The garmentsof the body are clearly visible and they cover the leftshoulder. Images of the Buddha, Yakshas, Yakshinis,Shaivite and Vaishnavite deities and portrait statues areprofusely sculpted. In the second century CE, images inMathura get sensual, rotundity increases, they becomefleshier. In the third century CE, treatment of sculpturalvolume changes by reducing the extreme fleshiness,movement in the posture is shown by increasing distance

Part of railing, Sangol

Stone carving, Stupa-1,Sanchi

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between the two legs as well as by using bents in the bodyposture. Softness in the surface continues to get refined.The trend continues in the fourth century CE but in thelate fourth century CE, the massiveness and fleshiness isreduced further and the flesh becomes more tightened,the volume of the drapery also gets reduced and in thefifth and sixth centuries CE, the drapery is integrated intothe sculptural mass. Transparent quality in the robes ofthe Buddha images is evident. In this period, two importantschools of sculptures in northern India are worth noting.The traditional centre, Mathura, remained the main artproduction site whereas Sarnath and Kosambi also emergedas important centres of art production. Many Buddhaimages in Sarnath have plain transparent drapery coveringboth shoulders, and the halo around the head has verylittle ornamentation whereas the Mathura Buddha imagescontinue to depict folds of the drapery in the Buddha imagesand the halo around the head is profusely decorated. Onecan visit museums at Mathura, Sarnath, Varanasi, NewDelhi, Chennai, Amaravati, etc. to study the features ofearly sculptures.

Bodhisattva, Gandhar, fifth–sixth century CEMeditating Buddha, Gandhar,third–fourth century CE

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Early Temples

While construction of stupas continued, Brahmanicaltemples and images of gods also started gettingconstructed. Often temples were decorated with the imagesof gods. Myths mentioned in the Puranas became part ofnarrative representation of the Brahmanical religion. Eachtemple had a principal image of a god. The shrines of thetemples were of three kinds—(i) sandhara type (withoutpradikshinapatha), (ii) nirandhara type (withpradakshinapatha), and (iii) sarvatobhadra (which can beaccessed from all sides). Some of the important templesites of this period are Deogarh in Uttar Pradesh, Eran,Nachna-Kuthara and Udaygiri near Vidisha in MadhyaPradesh. These temples are simple structures consistingof a veranda, a hall and a shrine at the rear. They will bediscussed in detail in the next chapter.

Among the important stupa sites outside the Gangeticvalley is Devnimori in Gujarat. In the subsequent centuriessculptures had little variations while slender images withtransparent drapery remained a dominant aestheticsensibility.

Shiva temple, Nachna-Kuthara, Madhya Pradesh, fifth century CE

Buddhist Monuments of South India

Vengi in Andhra Pradesh has many stupa sites likeJagayyapetta, Amaravati, Bhattiprolu, Nagarjunkonda,Goli, etc. Amaravati has a mahachaitya and had manysculptures which are now preserved in Chennai Museum,

Chatur Mukhlinga,Nachna- Kuthara (Inset)

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Amaravati Site Museum, National Museum, New Delhi andthe British Museum, London. Like the Sanchi Stupa, theAmaravati Stupa also has pradakshinapatha enclosedwithin a vedika on which many narrative sculptures aredepicted. The domical stupa structure is covered with reliefstupa sculptural slabs which is a unique feature. The toranaof the Amaravati Stupa has disappeared over a period oftime. Events from the life of the Buddha and the Jatakastories are depicted. Though in the Amaravati Stupa thereis evidence of construction activity in the third centuryBCE, it was best developed in the first and second centuriesCE. Like Sanchi, the early phase is devoid of Buddha imagesbut during the later phase, in the second and thirdcenturies CE, the Buddha images are carved on the drumslabs and at many other places. Interior space in thecomposition is created by different postures of the figuressuch as semi-back, back, profile, frontal, semi-frontal,side, etc.

Sculptural form in this area is characterised by intenseemotions. Figures are slender, have a lot of movement,bodies are shown with three bents (i.e. tribhanga), and thesculptural composition is more complex than at Sanchi.Linearity becomes flexible, dynamic movement breaks thestaticness of form. The idea of creating three-dimensionalspace in the relief sculpture is devised by using pronouncedvolume, angular bodies and complex overlapping. However,

Carving on outer wall of Stupa, Amaravati Stupa drum slab, Amravati, secondcentury CE

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absolute attention has been paid to the clarity of formdespite its size and role in the narrative. Narratives areprofusely depicted which include events from the life ofthe Buddha and the Jataka stories. There are a number ofJataka scenes that have not been completely identified. Inthe depiction of the birth event, the queen is shownreclining on a bed surrounded by female attendants and asmall-sized elephant is carved on the upper frame of thecomposition showing the dream of Queen Mayadevi. Inanother relief, four events related to the birth of the Buddhaare shown. These represent varied ways of depicting thenarratives.

The animated movement in the figures gets reduced inthe sculptures of Nagarjunkonda and Goli in the thirdcentury CE. Even within the relatively low relief volumethan in the Amaravati sculptures, artists atNagarjunkonda and Goli managed to create the effect ofprotruding surfaces of the body which is suggestive innature and look very integral. Independent Buddha imagesare also found at Amaravati, Nagarjunkonda andGuntapalle. Guntapalle is a rock-cut cave site near Eluru.Small apsidal and circular chaitya halls have beenexcavated belonging to the second century BCE. The otherimportant site where rock-cut stupas have been excavatedis Anakapalle near Vishakhapatanam. In Karnataka,Sannati is the largest stupa site excavated so far. It alsohas a stupa like the one in Amaravati decorated withsculptural relief.

Panel, Nagarjunkonda

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Construction of a large number of stupas does not meanthat there were no structured temples or viharas or chaityas.We do get evidences but no structured chaitya or viharasurvived. Among the important structured viharas, mentionmay be made of the Sanchi apsidal chaitya structure, i.e.,temple 18, which is a simple shrine temple having frontpillars and a hall at the back. Similar structured templesat Guntapalle are also worth mentioning. Along with theimages of the Buddha, other Buddhist images ofBoddhisattvas like Avalokiteshvara, Padmapani, Vajrapani,Amitabha, and Maitreya Buddha started getting sculpted.However, with the rise of Vajrayana Buddhism manyBoddhisattva images were added as a part of the personifiedrepresentations of certain virtues or qualities as propagatedby the Buddhist religious principles for the welfare ofthe masses.

Cave Tradition in Western India

In western India, many Buddhist caves dating back to thesecond century BCE onwards have been excavated. Mainlythree architectural types were executed—(i) apsidal vault-roof chaitya halls (found at Ajanta, Pitalkhora, Bhaja); (ii)apsidal vault-roof pillarless hall (found at Thana-Nadsur);and (iii) flat-roofed quadrangular hall with a circularchamber at the back (found at Kondivite). The front of thechaitya hall is dominated by the motif of a semi-circularchaitya arch with an open front which has a wooden facadeand, in some cases, there is no dominating chaitya archwindow such as found at Kondivite. In all the chaitya cavesa stupa at the back is common.

In the first century BCE some modifications were madeto the standard plan of the apsidal vault-roof variety wherethe hall becomes rectangular like at Ajanta Cave No. 9

Unfinished chaitya cave, Kanheri Chaitya hall, Karla

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with a stone-screen wall as a facade.It is also found at Bedsa, Nashik,Karla and Kanheri. Many cave siteshave the standard first type of chaityahalls in the subsequent period. InKarla, the biggest rock-cut chaityahall was excavated. The cave consistsof an open courtyard with two pillars,a stone screen wall to protect fromrain, a veranda, a stone-screen wallas facade, an apsidal vault-roofchaitya hall with pillars, and a stupaat the back. Karla chaitya hall isdecorated with human and animal

figures. They are heavy in theirexecution, and move in the picture space. Furtherelaboration over the Karla chaitya hall plan is observed atKanheri Cave No.3. Though the cave’s interior was notfully finished, it shows how the carving progressed fromtime to time. Subsequently, the quadrangular flat-roofedvariety became the most preferred design and is extensivelyfound at many places.

The viharas are excavated in all the cave sites. Theplan of the viharas consists of a veranda, a hall and cellsaround the walls of the hall. Some of the important viharacaves are Ajanta Cave No. 12, Bedsa Cave No. 11, NashikCave Nos. 3, 10 and 17. Many of the early vihara caves arecarved with interior decorative motifs like chaitya archesand the vedica designs over the cell doors of the cave.Facade design in Nashik Cave Nos. 3, 10, and 17 became adistinct achievement. The vihara caves at Nashik were

excavated with front pillars carvedwith ghata-base and ghata-capitalwith human figures. One such viharacave was also excavated at Junnarwhich is popularly known asGaneshleni because an image ofGanesha belonging to a later periodwas installed in it. Later, a stupa wasadded at the back of the hall of thevihara and it became a chaitya-vihara.The stupas in the fourth and fifthcenturies CE have Buddha imagesattached. Junnar has the largestcave excavations— more than twohundred caves around the hills of thetown—whereas Kanheri in Mumbai

Chaitya, Cave No. 12, Bhaja

Nashik Cave No. 3

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has a hundred and eight excavated caves. The mostimportant sites are Ajanta, Pitalkhora, Ellora, Nashik,Bhaja, Junnar, Karla, Kanheri. Ajanta, Ellora, and Kanhericontinue to flourish. Earlier it was presumed that becauseof the absence of the Buddha image, the caves wereconsidered belonging to the orthodox faith of Buddhism,i.e., the Thervadins, but with the discovery of the KonkanMaurya inscription mentioning the Saka era 322, i.e., 400CE, it is now satisfactorily proved that the cave activity inwestern Deccan was an ongoing process and many caveshad been carved with Buddha images where the imagedoes not exist any more. It may also be noted that manycaves are converted into modern Hindu shrines and havebecome popular worshipping sites.

Ajanta

The most famous cave site is Ajanta. It is located inAurangabad District of Maharashtra State. Ajanta hastwenty-nine caves. It has four chaitya caves datable to theearlier phase, i.e., the second and the first century BCE(Cave Nos. 10 and 9) and the later phase, i.e., the fifthcentury CE (Cave Nos. 19 and 26). It has large chaitya-viharas and is decorated with sculptures and paintings.Ajanta is the only surviving example of painting of thefirst century BCE and the fifth century CE. The caves atAjanta as well as in western Deccan in general have noprecise chronology because of the lack of known datedinscriptions.

Cave Nos. 10, 9, 12 and 13 belong to the early phase,Caves Nos. 11, 15 and 6 upper and lower, and Cave No. 7belong to the phase earlier than late fifth century CE. Therest of the caves belong to late fifth century CE to earlysixth century CE. The chaitya Cave Nos. 19 and 26 areelaborately carved. Theirfacade is decorated withBuddha and, Boddhisattvaimages. They are of theapsidal-vault-roof variety.Cave No. 26 is very big andthe entire interior hall iscarved with a variety ofBuddha images, the biggestone being the Mahaparinibbanaimage. The rest of the cavesare vihara-chaitya caves. Theyconsist of a pillared veranda,a pillared hall and cells along

View, Ajanta Caves

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the walls. The back wall has the main Buddha shrine.Shrine images at Ajanta are grand in size. Some of thevihara caves are unfinished such as Cave Nos. 5, 14, 2324, 28 and 29. Among the important patrons at Ajantawere Varahadeva (patron of Cave No. 16), the prime ministerof the Vakataka king, Harishena; Upendragupta (patron of

Cave Nos. 17–20) the local king of the region andfeudatory of the Vakataka king, Harishena;Buddhabhadra (patron of Cave No. 26); andMathuradasa (patron of Cave No. 4). Manypaintings have survived in Cave Nos. 1, 2, 16and 17.

Paintings have a lot of typological variations.Outward projections are used in the Ajantapaintings of the fifth century CE. Lines are clearlydefined and are very rhythmic. Body colour getsmerged with the outer line creating the effect ofvolume. The figures are heavy like the sculpturesof western India.

The caves of the early phase also have paintingsespecially Cave Nos. 9 and 10. Paintings in CaveNo. 10 are an afterthought as is evident from theplastering over the early inscriptions inside thecave. On the other hand the paintings in Cave No.9 are part of the preplanning. They belong to thefirst century BCE. The figures are broad with heavyproportion and arranged in the picture space in alinear way. Lines are sharp. Colours are limited.

Sculptural panel in the veranda of Cave No. 2, Ajanta

Painting of the Buddha,Yashodhra and Rahul,Cave No. 17, Ajanta

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Figures in these caves are paintedwith considerable naturalism andthere is no over -stylisation.Events are grouped togetheraccording to geographicallocation. Tiered, horizontally-arranged figures appear as aconvenient choice of the artisans.Separation of geographic locationhas been indicated by usingoutward architectural bands.Figures appear like the Sanchisculptures which indicate howthe lithic and painting traditionswere progressing simultaneously.The frontal knot of the headgear of the figures follows thesame pattern as that of the sculptures. However, thereare a few different patterns of headgear.

The second phase of paintings can be studied from theimages of the Buddhas painted on the walls and pillars ofCave Nos. 10 and 9. These Buddha figures are differentfrom the figures painted in the fifth century CE. Suchdevelopments in paintings need to be understood in thecontext of the religious requirement. Cave excavation and

Apsara, Cave No. 17, Ajanta

Painted ceiling, Cave No. 10, Ajanta

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painting were simultaneous processes and dating of thepaintings follows the date of the cave excavations. Thenext stage of development is observed mainly in thepaintings of Cave Nos. 16, 17, 1, and 2. However, it doesnot mean that pictures had not been painted in other caves.Infact almost in all the finished excavations, pictures havebeen painted but very few have survived. Paintings havetypological variations in these caves. It may also beobserved that various skin colours are used in the paintingssuch as brown, yellowish brown, greenish, yellow ochre,etc. which represent a multicoloured population. Paintingsof Cave Nos. 16 and 17 have precise and elegant painterlyquality. They do not bear the ponderous volume of thesculptures in the caves. Movements in the figures are veryrhythmic. Brown thick dark lines are used as contours.Lines are forceful and full of energy. Attempts are alsomade to give highlights in the figural compositions.

The paintings of Cave Nos. 1 and 2 are very orderly andnaturalistic, well integrated with the sculptures in the caves.Architectural setting is simple and the arrangement offigures is delineated in the circular form to create three-dimensionality and the special effects. Half-closed, elongatedeyes are employed. Different guilds of artisans seem to haveworked on the paintings of these caves which can be inferredfrom their typological and stylistic variations. Naturalisticpostures and unexaggerated facial features are used asexceptional types.

The themes of the paintings are the events from thelife of the Buddha, the Jatakas and the Avadanas. Some

Paintings, Cave No. 9, Ajanta

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paintings such as Simhala Avadana, Mahajanaka Jatakaand Vidhurpundita Jataka cover the entire wall of the cave.It is worth noting that Chaddanta Jataka has been paintedin the early Cave No. 10 with many details and eventsgrouped according to their geographical locations. Eventsthat happened in the jungle and events that happened inthe palace are separated by their locations. In Cave No. 10Chaddanta faithfully follows the Pali text whereas the onepainted in Cave No. 17 is very different. In one of the events,the Boddhisattva, Chaddanta, is shown removing his owntusk and giving it to the hunter, Sonuttar. The otherimportant paintings are the famous Padmapani andVajrapani in Cave No. 1. However, it may be observed thatthe images of Padmapani and Vajrapani are very commonin Ajanta but the best preserved paintings are in Cave No.1. Some figures in Cave No. 2 have affiliation with theVengi sculptures and at the same time, the influence ofthe Vidarbha sculptural tradition is also observed in thedelineation of some sculptures. The subsequentdevelopment of the painting tradition has been discussedin the next chapter.

Ellora

Another important cave site located in Aurangabad Districtis Ellora. It is located a hundred kilometres from Ajantaand has thirty-two Buddhist, Brahmanical and Jain caves.It is a unique art-historical site in the country as it hasmonastries associated with the three religions dating fromthe fifth century CE onwards to the eleventh century CE.

Seated Buddha, chaitya hall,Cave No. 10, Ellora

Courtyard, Kailash Temple,Cave No.16, Ellora

Part of Mahajanaka Jatakapanel, Cave No. 1, Ajanta

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It is also unique in terms of stylistic eclecticism, i.e.,confluence of many styles at one place. The caves of Elloraand Aurangabad show the ongoing differences between thetwo religions—Buddhism and Brahmanical. There aretwelve Buddhist caves having many images belonging toVajrayana Buddhism like Tara, Mahamayuri, Akshobhya,Avalokiteshwara, Maitrya, Amitabha, etc. Buddhist cavesare big in size and are of single, double and triple storeys.Their pillars are massive. Ajanta also has excavateddouble-storeyed caves but at Ellora, the triple storey is aunique achievement. All the caves were plastered andpainted but nothing visible is left. The shrine Buddhaimages are big in size; they are generally guarded by theimages of Padmapani and Vajrapani. Cave No. 12, whichis a triple-storey excavation, has images of Tara,Avalokiteshwara, Manushi Buddhas and the images ofVairochana, Akshobhya, Ratnasambhava, Amitabha,Amoghsiddhi, Vajrasatva and Vajraraja. On the other hand,the only double-storey cave of the Brahmanical faith isCave No. 14. Pillar designs grow from the Buddhist cavesand when they reach the Jain caves belonging to the ninthcentury CE, they become very ornate and the decorativeforms gain heavy protrusion.

The Brahmanical cave Nos. 13–28 have manysculptures. Many caves are dedicated to Shaivism, butthe images of both Shiva and Vishnu and their various

Gajasur Shiva, Cave No.15, Ellora

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forms according to Puranic narrative are depicted. Amongthe Shaivite themes, Ravana shaking Mount Kailash,Andhakasurvadha, Kalyanasundara are profusely depictedwhereas among the Vaishnavite themes, the differentavatars of Vishnu are depicted. The sculptures at Elloraare monumental, and have protruding volume that createdeep recession in the picture space. The images are heavyand show considerable sophistication in the handling ofsculptural volume. Various guilds at Ellora came fromdifferent places like Vidarbha, Karnataka and Tamil Naduand carved the sculptures. Thereby it is the most diversesite in India in terms of the sculptural styles. Cave No. 16is known as Kailash leni. A rock-cut temple has been carvedout of a single rock, a unique achievement of the artisans,which will be discussed in the next chapter. Among theimportant Shaivite caves are Cave No. 29 and Cave No. 21.The plan of Cave No. 29 is almost like that of the main caveat Elephanta. The sculptural quality of Cave Nos. 29, 21,17, 14 and 16 is amazing for its monumentality and vigorousmovements in the picture space.

Elephanta Caves and Other Sites

The Elephanta Caves located near Mumbai, were originallya Buddhist site which was later dominated by the Shaivitefaith. It is contemporary with Ellora, and its sculpturesshow slenderness in the body, with stark light and darkeffects. The other noteworthy cave site is Bagh locatednear Indore in Madhya Pradesh.

Entrance to Elephanta Caves

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The tradition of rock-cut caves continued in the Deccanand they are found not only in Maharashtra but also inKarnataka, mainly at Badami and Aiholi, executed underthe patronage of the Chalukyas; in Andhra Pradesh in thearea of Vijayawada; and in Tamil Nadu, mainly atMahabalipuram, under the patronage of the Pallavas. Thepost-sixth-century development of art history in the countrydepended more on political patronage than the collectivepublic patronage of the early historic periods.

Mention may also be made of the terracotta figurinesthat are found at many places all over the country. Theyshow a parallel tradition with the religious lithic sculpturesas well as the independent local tradition. Many terracottafigures of various sizes are found which show theirpopularity. They are toys, religious figurines as well asfigurines made for healing purposes as part of the beliefsystems.

Cave Tradition in Eastern India

Like in western India, Buddhist caves have also beenexcavated in eastern India, mainly in the coastal region ofAndhra Pradesh, and in Odisha. One of the main sites inAndhra Pradesh is Guntapalle in Eluru district. The caveshave been excavated in the hills along with the structuredmonasteries. Perhaps it is among the very unique siteswhere the structured stupas, viharas and the caves areexcavated at one place. The Guntapalle chaitya cave iscircular with a stupa in the circular hall and a chaityaarch carved at the entrance. The cave is relatively smallwhen compared to the caves in western India. A numberof vihara caves have been excavated. The main vihara caves,despite the small dimensions, have been decorated with

Details of the veranda, Udaigiri-KhandagiriUdaigiri-Khandagiri caves near Bhubaneswar

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EXERCISE1. Describe the physical and aesthetic features of Sanchi

Stupa-I.

2. Analyse the stylistic trends of the sculptures in North Indiaduring the fifth and sixth centuries.

3. How did cave architecture develop in different parts ofIndia, from cave shelters to the monolitic temple at Ellora?

4. Why are the mural paintings of Ajanta renowned?

chaitya arches on the exterior. They are rectangular withvaulted roof and are carved single-storeyed or double-storeyed without a large central hall. These excavationsdate back to the second century BCE. There are someexcavations which were added in the subsequent centuriesbut all are of the vihara type. Apart from Guntapalle, theother important cave site is Rampaerrampallam which hasvery moderate small excavations but there are rock-cutstupas on the hillock. At Anakapalli near Vishakhapatnam,caves were excavated and a huge rock-cut stupa was carvedout of the hillock during the fourth–fifth centuries CE. Itis a unique site as it has the biggest rock-cut stupas inthe country. Many votive rock-cut stupas all around thehillock have also been excavated.

The rock-cut cave tradition also existed in Odisha. Theearliest examples are the Udaigiri-Khandagiri caves in thevicinity of Bhubaneswar. These caves are scattered andhave inscriptions of Kharavela kings. According to theinscriptions, the caves were meant for Jain monks. Thereare numerous single-cell excavations. Some have beencarved in huge independent boulders and given the shapeof animals. The big caves include a cave with a pillaredveranda with cells at the back. The upper part of the cellsis decorated with a series of chaitya arches and narrativesthat still continue in the folklores of the region. The figuresin this cave are voluminous, move freely in the picturespace, and are an excellent example of qualitative carving.Some caves in this complex were excavated later, sometime in the eighth–ninth centuries CE.© N

CERT

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STU

PA-1

, S

AN

CH

IAN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART46

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San

chi, a

bou

t 50 k

m fro

m B

hop

al, t

he

capit

al of

Madh

ya P

rades

h,

is a

wor

ld h

erit

age

sit

e. A

lon

g w

ith

oth

er r

elati

vely

sm

all s

tup

as,

ther

e are

th

ree

mai

n s

tupa

s at

San

chi. S

tupa-

1 is

pre

sum

ed to

hav

eth

e re

lics

of t

he

Bu

ddh

a, S

tupa-

2, t

he

relics

of t

en le

ss fa

mou

s a

rha

tsbel

ongi

ng

to t

hre

e diffe

ren

t ge

ner

atio

ns.

Th

eir

nam

es a

re f

oun

d o

nth

e r

eli

c c

ask

et.

Stu

pa

-3 h

as t

he r

eli

cs o

f S

ari

pu

tta

an

dM

aham

ouga

laya

na.

Stu

pa-1

, kn

own

for

th

e ca

rvin

gs o

n i

ts g

ate

ways

is

one

of t

he

fin

est

exam

ple

s of

stu

pa a

rch

itec

ture

. O

rigi

nally

the

stu

pa w

as

asm

all b

rick

str

uct

ure

wh

ich

exp

anded

ove

r a

per

iod a

nd w

as c

over

edw

ith

sto

ne,

ved

ika a

nd t

he

tora

na (

gate

ways

). T

he

Ash

okan

lio

n-

capit

al

pilla

r w

ith

an

in

scri

pti

on i

s fo

un

d o

n t

he

sou

ther

n s

ide

ofth

e st

up

a, in

dic

ati

ng

how

San

chi bec

am

e a c

entr

e of

mon

ast

ic a

nd

art

isti

c act

ivit

ies.

Th

e so

uth

gate

way

was

made

firs

t fo

llow

ed b

y th

eot

her

s. T

he

pra

da

ksh

ina

pa

th a

rou

nd t

he

stu

pa is

cove

red w

ith

th

eve

dik

a. T

her

e is

als

o th

e u

pper

pra

da

ksh

ina

pa

th w

hic

h is

un

iqu

e to

this

sit

e. T

he

fou

r ga

tew

ays

are

dec

orat

ed p

rofu

sely

wit

h s

culp

ture

s.B

uddh

a i

s sh

own

sym

bol

ically

as

an

em

pty

th

ron

e, f

eet,

ch

ha

tra,

stu

pa

s, e

tc.

Tor

an

as

are

con

stru

cted

in

all f

our

dir

ecti

ons.

Th

eir

styl

isti

c diffe

ren

ces

indic

ate

th

eir

pos

sible

ch

ron

olog

y fr

om th

e firs

tce

ntu

ry B

CE

on

ward

s. T

hou

gh S

tupa-1

is

the

oldes

t st

up

a,

the

carv

ing

of im

age

s on

th

e ve

dic

a o

f Stu

pa-2

are

earl

ier

than

th

ose

onS

tupa-1

. Ja

tak

as

als

o bec

ome

an

im

por

tan

t part

of

the

narr

ati

ves

in s

tup

as.

Th

e figu

res

at

San

chi, d

espit

e bei

ng

small in

dim

ensi

on,

show

con

sid

erab

le m

ast

ery

of

scu

lpti

ng.

Th

eir

ph

ysio

gnom

ictr

eatm

ent

of t

he

bod

y sh

ows

bot

h d

epth

an

d d

imen

sion

wh

ich

are

very

natu

ralist

ic.

Th

ere

are

gu

ard

ian

im

age

s on

pilla

rs a

nd t

he

sha

lbh

an

jik

a (i.e.

, la

dy

hol

din

g th

e bra

nch

of a t

ree)

scu

lptu

res

are

rem

ark

able

in

th

eir

trea

tmen

t of

vol

um

e. T

he

rigi

dit

y of

th

e ea

rlie

rsc

ulp

ture

s of

Stu

pa-2

is n

o m

ore

ther

e. E

ach

tor

an

a c

onsi

sts

of tw

ove

rtic

al p

illa

rs a

nd th

ree

hor

izon

tal b

ars

on

th

e to

p. E

ach

hor

izon

tal

bar

is d

ecor

ate

d w

ith

diffe

ren

t sc

ulp

tura

l th

emes

on

th

e fr

ont

as

wel

l as

at

the

back

. S

uppor

tin

g th

e ex

ten

sion

s of

th

e lo

wer

mos

th

oriz

onta

l bar

from

bel

ow a

re t

he

image

s of

sh

alb

ha

njik

as.


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SEATED BUDDHA, KATRA MOUND, MATHURA


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Mathura was a great centre for making sculpturesduring the early historic period and many images havebeen found here. A large number of images datingback to the Kushana Period is from Mathura. Adistinct way of sculpting practised at Mathura makesthe images found here different from those at othercentres in the country. The image of the Buddha fromthe Katra mound belongs to the second century CE.It represents the Buddha with two Boddhisattvaattendants. The Buddha is seated in padmasana(cross-folded legs) and the right hand is in theabhayamudra, raised a little above the shoulder levelwhereas the left hand is placed on the left thigh. Theushanisha, i.e., hair knot, is shown with a verticallyraised projection. Mathura sculptures from this periodare made with light volume having fleshy body. Theshoulders are broad. The sanghati (garment) coversonly one shoulder and has been made prominentlyvisible covering the left hand whereas while coveringthe torso, the independent volume of the garment isreduced to the body torso. The Buddha is seated on alion throne. The attendant figures are identified asthe images of the Padmapani and VajrapaniBoddhisattvas as one holds a lotus and the other avajra (thunderbolt). They wear crowns and are oneither side of the Buddha. The halo around the head of the Buddhais very large and is decorated with simple geometric motifs. Thereare two flying figures placed diagonally above the halo. They bear alot of movement in the picture space. Flexibility replaces the earlierrigidity in the images giving them a more earthy look. Curves of thebody are as delicately carved. The upright posture of the Buddhaimage creates movement in space. The face is round with fleshycheeks. The bulge of the belly is sculpted with controlledmusculature. It may be noted that there are numerous examples ofsculptures from the Kushana Period at Mathura, but this image isrepresentative and is important for the understanding of thedevelopment of the Buddha image in the subsequent periods.


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BUDDHA HEAD, TAXILA


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The Buddha head from Taxila in the Gandhara region, now inPakistan, dates back to the second century CE and belongsto the Kushana Period. The image shows hybridised pictorialconventions that developed during the Gandhara period.It has Greco-Roman elements in the treatment ofsculpture. The Buddha head has typical Hellenisticelements that have grown over a period of time. Thecurly hair of the Buddha is thick having a coveredlayer of sharp and linear strokes over the head.The forehead plane is large having protrudingeyeballs, the eyes are half-closed and the faceand cheeks are not round like the images foundin other parts of India. There is a certain amountof heaviness in the figures of the Gandhararegion. The ears are elongated especially theearlobes. The treatment of the form bears linearityand the outlines are sharp. The surface issmooth. The image is very expressive. Theinterplay of light and dark is givenconsiderable attention by using the curvingand protruding planes of the eye-socket andthe planes of the nose. The expression ofcalmness is the centre point of attraction.Modelling of the face enhances the naturalismof three-dimensionality. Assimilating varioustraits of Acamenian, Parthian and Bactriantraditions into the local tradition is a hallmarkof the Gandhara style. The Gandhara imageshave physiognomic features of the Greco-Roman traditionbut they display a very distinct way of treating physiognomicdetails that are not completely Greco-Roman. The source ofdevelopment of Buddha images as well as others has itsgenesis in its peculiar geo-political conditions. It may alsobe observed that the north-western part of India, which isnow Pakistan, always had continuous habitation from proto-historic times. It continued in the historical period as well.A large number of images have been found in the Gandhararegion. They consist of narratives of the life of the Buddha,narrations from the Jataka stories, and Buddha andBoddhisattva images.


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SEATED BUDDHA, SARNATH


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This image of the Buddha from Sarnath belonging to the late fifthcentury CE is housed in the site museum at Sarnath. It has beenmade in Chunar sandstone. The Buddha is shown seated on athrone in the padmasana. It represents dhammachackrapravartanaas can be seen from the figures on the throne. The panel below thethrone depicts a chakra (wheel) in the centre and a deer on eitherside with his disciples. Thus, it is the representation of the historicalevent of dhammachakrapravartana or the preaching of the dhamma.

This Buddha image is a fine example of the Sarnath school ofsculpture. The body is slender and well-proportioned but slightlyelongated. The outlines are delicate, very rhythmic. Folded legs areexpanded in order to create a visual balance in the picture space.Drapery clings to the body and is transparent to create the effect ofintegrated volume. The face is round, the eyes are half-closed, thelower lip is protruding, and theroundness of the cheeks hasreduced as compared to the earlierimages from the Kushana Periodat Mathura. The hands are shownin dhammachakrapravartanamudra placed just below the chest.the neck is slightly elongated withtwo incised lines indicating folds.The ushanisha has circular curledhairs. The aim of the sculptors in ancient India had always been torepresent the Buddha as a great human being who achieved nibbana(i.e., cessation of anger and hate). The back of the throne is profuselydecorated with different motifs of flowers and creepers placed in aconcentric circle. The central part of the halo is plain without anydecoration. It makes the halo visually impressive. Decoration in haloand the back of the throne indicates the artisan’s sensitivity.Sarnath Buddha images of this period show considerable softnessin the treatment of the surface and volume. Transparent draperybecomes part of the physical body. Such refinement comes over aperiod of time and these features continued in subsequent periods.

There are many other Buddha images in the standing positionfrom Sarnath having features like transparent drapery, subtlemovement, carved separately andplaced about the memorial stupasaround the Dharmarajika Stupa. Theseimages are now preserved in theSarnath Museum. They are eithersingle or with the attendant figures ofBoddhisattvas, Padmapani andVajrapani.


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PADMAPANI BODDHISATTVAAJANTA CAVE NO. 1


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This painting on the back wall of the interiorhall before the shrine-antechamber in Cave No. 1at Ajanta dates back to the late fifth centuryCE. The Boddhisattva is holding a padma (lotus),has large shoulders, and has three bents in thebody creating a movement in the picture space.The modelling is soft. Outlines are merged withthe body volume creating the effect of three-dimensionality. The figure of the Boddhisattvais wearing a big crown in which detailedrendering is visible. The head is slightly bent tothe left. The eyes are half-closed and are slightlyelongated. The nose is sharp and straight. Lightcolour all over the projected planes of the faceis aimed at creating an effect of three-dimensionality. The beaded necklace too hassimilar features. Broad and expandedshoulders create heaviness in the body. Thetorso is relatively round. Lines are delicate,rhythmic, and define the contours of the body. The right hand isholding a lotus and the left hand is extended in the space. TheBoddhisattva is surrounded by small figures. The foreshortened righthand of the Boddhisattva makes the image more solid, and effectivelydense. The thread over the torso is shown with fine spiral linesindicating its dimensions. Each and every part of the body is givenequal attention. Light red, brown, green and blue colours are used.Nose projections, incised end of lips with lower lip projection andsmall chin contribute to the overall effect of solidity in the figurecomposition. The paintings in Cave No.1 are of good quality and arebetter preserved. One can observe certain typological and stylisticvariations in the paintings of Ajanta indicating different guilds ofartisans working on the cave paintings at Ajanta over the centuries.

On the other side of the image Vajrapani Bodhisattva has beenpainted. He holds a vajra in his right hand and wears a crown. Thisimage also bears the same pictorial qualities as the Padmapani.Cave No. 1 has many interesting paintingsof Buddhist themes such as MahajanakJataka, Umag Jataka, etc. The MahajanakJataka is painted on the entire wall side andis the biggest narrative painting. It may beobserved that the paintings of Padmapaniand Vajrapani and the Bodhisattvas arepainted as shrine guardians. Similar suchiconographic arrangement is also observedin other caves of Ajanta. HoweverPadmapani and Vajrapani in Cave No. 1 areamong the best survived paintings of Ajanta.


Ajanta Cave No. 2

Painting of Mahajanak Jataka,Ajanta Cave No. 1

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MARA VIJAYA, AJANTA CAVE NO. 26


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The theme of Mara Vijaya has been paintedin the caves of Ajanta. This is the onlysculptural representation sculpted on theright wall of Cave No. 26. It is sculpted nearthe colossal Buddha image ofMahaparinibbana. The panel shows theimage of the Buddha in the centresurrounded by Mara’s army along with hisdaughter. The event is part of theenlightenment. It is a personification of thecommotion of mind which the Buddhawent through at the time ofenlightenment. Mara represents desire.According to the narrative, there is adialogue between the Buddha and Mara,and the Buddha is shown with his right hand indicating towardsearth as a witness to his generosity. This relief sculptural panel ishighly animated and shows a very matured sculptural style atAjanta. The composition is very complex with highly voluminousimages. Their complex arrangement in the picture space is highlydynamic and generates considerable movement. The figure on theright shows Mara coming with his army consisting of various kindsof people including some with grotesque animal faces. The dancingfigures at the lower base with the musicians have forward bulgingwaist, and one of the dancing figures has expanded her hands inthe dancing posture with an angular frontal look. On the left lowerend, the image of Mara is shown contemplating how to disturbSiddhartha, the name of the Buddha before enlightenment. Thearmy of Mara is shown marching towards the Buddha in the firsthalf of the panel whereas the lower half of the panel shows thedeparting army of Mara giving him adorations. The centrally placedBuddha is in padmasana and a tree at the back is shown by denseleaves. Some of the facial features of the Mara army has tacitcharacters of the sculptures fromVidarbha. The artisans at Ajanta workedin guilds and their stylistic affiliations canbe traced by identifying such stylisticfeatures. This is the largest sculpturalpanel at Ajanta. Though there are severalbig images in the caves of Ajanta andespecially located in the shrine-antechamber as well as facade walls, sucha complex arrangement of figures isunique. On the other hand, painted panelsexhibit such complexities in theirarrangement. A similar kind ofarrangement of dancing figures in a panelis also observed at the Aurangabad caves.


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MA

HE

SH

MU

RTI,

ELE

PH

AN

TA


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publi

shed

Th

e im

age

of M

ah

esh

mu

rti a

t E

leph

an

ta d

ate

s back

to

the

earl

ysi

xth

cen

tury

CE

. It

is

loca

ted i

n t

he

main

cave

sh

rin

e. I

n t

he

tradit

ion

of

wes

tern

Dec

can

scu

lpti

ng

it i

s on

e of

th

e bes

tex

ample

s of

qu

alit

ativ

e ac

hie

vem

ent in

scu

lpti

ng

imag

es in

roc

k-

cut

cave

s. T

he

image

is

larg

e in

siz

e. T

he

cen

tral

hea

d i

s th

em

ain

Sh

iva f

igu

re w

her

eas

the

oth

er t

wo

visi

ble

hea

ds

are

of

Bh

air

ava

an

d U

ma.

Th

e ce

ntr

al

face

is

in h

igh

rel

ief

havi

ng

aro

un

d f

ace

, th

ick

lip

s an

d h

eavy

eye

lid

s. T

he

low

er l

ip i

spro

min

entl

y pro

tru

ded

sh

owin

g a v

ery

diffe

ren

t ch

ara

cter

isti

c.Th

e all-i

ncl

usi

ve a

spec

t of

Sh

iva is

exh

ibit

ed in

th

is s

culp

ture

by

soft

-mod

ellin

g, s

moo

th s

urf

ace

an

d l

arg

e fa

ce.

Th

e fa

ce o

fS

hiv

a-B

hair

ava

is c

learl

y sh

own

in p

rofile

in a

nge

r w

ith

bu

lgin

gey

e an

d m

ust

ach

e. T

he

oth

er fa

ce s

how

ing

fem

inin

e ch

ara

cter

sis

of

Um

a w

ho

is t

he

con

sort

of

Sh

iva.

On

e of

th

e sh

ilp

a t

exts

men

tion

s five

in

tegr

ate

d face

s of

Sh

iva a

nd t

his

im

age

, des

pit

ebei

ng

show

n w

ith

on

ly th

ree

face

s, is

con

sider

ed a

s of

th

e sa

me

vari

ety

and th

e to

p a

nd b

ack fa

ces

are

dee

med

as

invi

sible

. Eac

hfa

ce h

as

a d

iffe

ren

t cr

own

as

per

its

ico

nog

raph

ic p

resc

ripti

on.

Th

is s

culp

ture

has

bee

n s

culp

ted o

n t

he

sou

th w

all o

f th

e ca

vea

lon

g w

ith

th

e s

cu

lptu

re o

f A

rdh

an

ari

sh

wa

ra a

nd

th

eG

an

gadh

ara

pan

el.

Ele

ph

an

ta s

culp

ture

s are

kn

own

for

th

eir

rem

ark

able

qu

aliti

es o

f su

rface

sm

ooth

nes

s, e

lon

gati

on a

nd

rhyt

hm

ic m

ovem

ent.

Th

eir

com

pos

itio

n i

s ve

ry c

omple

x. T

he

icon

ogra

ph

ic a

rran

gem

ent of

th

is c

ave

is r

eplica

ted in

Cave

No.

29 a

t E

llor

a.


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A

BC

D

E F

MURAL TRADITIONS OF INDIA

A. Anantha from AnanthapadmanabhTemple, Kasarghod

B. Shiva chasing the boar—a scene fromKiratarjuniya, Lepaksh temple

C. Chola king Rajaraja and court poetKaruvar Dever, Thanjavoor, eleventhcentury

D. Shiva killing Tripuraasura, Thanjavoor

E. Rama kills Ravana, a scene fromRamayana panel, Mattancheri Palace

F. Shasta, Padmanabhapuram Palace,Thakkala

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