ThisdocumentisauthorizedforuseonlybyAchalSingh.Copyorpostingisaninfringementofcopyright.
ManagementCommunicationManagementCommunication:Introduction
Nomatterhowstrongone'sfinancialmodelis,
ifonecannotwritealogical,compellingstory,
theninvestorsaregoingtolookelsewhere.
Andinmybusiness,thatmeansdeath.
DarrenWhissen,directorofresearchatWavelandLLC1
Whenyou'remanagingasmuchchangeascorporationsgloballymustdealwithtoday,theabilitytocommunicate,andcommunicateeffectively,issoimportantthatitoughttobeacorecapabilityinabusinessschoolcurriculum.
RichardAnderson,CEOofDeltaAirLines2
CommunicationandYourBusinessCareer
CommunicationandYourBusinessCareerAccordingtoalonglineofresearch,leadersandmanagersspendmostoftheirtimeatworkcommunicating.Theycommunicateup,down,andlaterallyinsidetheorganizationandoutsidetoaudiencessuchasvendors,regulators,customers,andshareholders.Theytalkoneonone,runmeetings,andgiveandlistentopresentations.Theywriteemails,reports,texts,Tweets,blogposts,wikientries,andavarietyofotherworkrelateddocuments.
Butitisnotjustfrequencythatmakesbusinesscommunicationskillssoimportant.
Theoldmodelofbusinessleadersandmanagersemphasizedtheirpowerandauthority:Theytoldemployeeswhat,when,andhowtodotheirjobs.Thisstereotypewasprobablyneverentirelyaccurateinanycase,however,thisstyleofmanagementdoesn'tfittheneedsofmodernorganizations.
Leadersstillneedtogetthingsdone,buttheyhavetotrustotherstodothework.Inafastpaced,complexworld,employeesmustknowhowtothinkandactontheirown,notwaitfortheboss'sorders.Now,accordingtoHenryMintzberg,awellknownbusinessprofessor,managingisaboutinfluencingaction.3
Communication,writtenororal,istheprimarymeansforleadersandmanagerstoinfluenceaction.
CommunicationDrivesSuccess
Therearethreekeystosuccessinbusiness.Oneofthemisskillincommunicating.
LeadersSaythatTheyLackSkills
LeadersSaythatTheyLackSkills
A2004studyprovidedevidencethatleadersinbusinessorganizationsthinktheyaren'tpreparedtocommunicatewell.Eightysixpercentoftherespondentsratedcommunicationskillsasacriticalleadershipcompetencybutonlythirtyfivepercentratedtheircommunicationabilityasastrength,atenpercentdeclinefromasimilarsurveyfouryearsearlier.4
Bystudyingandpracticingcommunicationskillsnow,youwillbebetterpreparedtolead.
MakeCommunicationaStrengthNow
TomKahldescribeshowheusedhisMBAexperiencetoimprovehowhecommunicated.
BusinessLeadersValueCommunication
BusinessLeadersValueCommunication
Giventhecriticalfunctionsofcommunication,it'snotsurprisingthat,foranumberofyears,employersrespondingtotheGraduateManagementAdmissionCouncil(GMAC)surveyhavenamedcommunicationastheirmostsoughtafterskillinMBAhires.
Similarsurveyshavehadsimilarresultsforalongtime.ThegraphcalledWhatRecruitersWantinMBAsshowsresultsfromarecentGMACsurvey.5
Businessleadershaveahighregardfortheabilitytocommunicate.Ifyoucan'tconveyyourthinkingclearlyandlogically,ithaslittlevalue.
JoeThompsonofProcter&Gambleexplainswhyhiscompanyvaluesclarityofcommunication.
ACultureofClarity
ElisabethBentelCarpentersaysthatinstartupscommunicationisasurvivalskill.
StartupCommunicationNeeds
Andthesedaysyouhavetoknowhowtocommunicateinmultiplemedia.Beingagreatpresenterdoesn'tcompensateforpoorwritingskills,nordoeshavinggreatwritingskillscompensateforbeingapoorpresenter.
HavinganMBAdegreedoesn'tassureyouajobifyoucan'tcommunicate.Beingabletospeakandwritewellcanmakethedifferencebetweengettingajobyouwantandsettlingforajobthat'soffered.
GoodCommunicationDifferentiates
TomKahl,CFOofatechnicalconsultingcompany,speakstothevalueofcommunicationskillsasadifferentiatorinthejobmarket.
WhatYouWillLearninThisCourse
WhatYouWillLearninThisCourseThisonlinemanagementcommunicationcourseteachesconceptsandtoolsthatcanhelpyoubeabetterbusinesscommunicator.Itcoversthreebroadareas:
PlanningCommunication
ThemodulecalledPlanningCommunication"introducesyoutoconceptsforunderstandingsituationsinwhichcommunicationisneeded.Knowinghowtousetheseconceptswillhelpyoucreateasuccessfulmessage.
Theendresultofplanningisanunderstandingofhowtoachieveyourspecificpurposethroughaparticularaudience.(Sometextbooksrefertothisresultasacommunicationstrategy.)
PlanningCommunicationappliestobothwritingandpresenting.
WritinginBusiness
Someyearsago,RobertEccles,NitinNohria(nowdeanofHarvardBusinessSchool),andJamesBerkleysaidthis:
Inanutshellmanagerslivein...auniversewherelanguageisconstantlyusednotonlytocommunicatebutalsotopersuade,andeventocreate.6
ThemodulecalledWritinginBusinessteachesconceptsforcreatingwrittenmessages,withemphasisonpersuasion.Topicsrangefromthewritingprocesstosentencestyle.Thecoursehasmanyexamplesandexercisestoaidyouingraspingandapplyingtheconcepts."WritinginBusiness"usesdifferentformsofwrittenmessages,suchasmemos,emails,texts,andreports.
PresentinginBusiness
ThemodulecalledPresentinginBusinessteachesbasicskillsforthespokendeliveryofcontentpreparedinadvance.Itcoversorganizing,preparing,anddeliveringapresentation.Thecontentemphasizesspeakingpersuasivelyandengagingtheaudience."PresentinginBusiness"alsohasmanyexamplesandexercises.
Unlesstoldotherwise,youcanstudythewritingandpresentingunitsinanyorder.
PracticingYourSkills
PracticingYourSkillsThiscourseprovidesafoundationforcommunicationskills.Skillsareaformofaction.Tobecomebetteratthem,youhavetodosomething.Inotherwords,youneedtowriteandpresent.Youwillbecomemoreexpertatbothifyouregardtheuseofthemasanongoinglearningexperience.
RecruitingandCommunicationSkills
Practicingwritingandpresentingskillscanpayoffinajobofferyouwant.
PlanningCommunicationAndasforpurpose,don'tsettlefor'Iwantmywordstowork.'Visualizespecificallywhatyouwantthewordstodo.Makethereadersseesomething?Makethemfeelcertainemotions?Performcertainactions?Changetheirminds?
PeterElbow,WritingwithPower1
Introduction
IntroductionIntheworkworld,everyonefeelsshortoftime.Managersfireoffemailsandtexts,takecallsoneafteranother,seepeopleintheiroffices,andrushofftomeetings.Oftendailycommunicationdoesnotrequirealotofthought.Butsometimesitdoes,eventhoughmanagersfindithardtoresistplungingintoawrittenorspokencommunication.Takingthetimetoproperlycomposethoughtsbeforecommunicatinghelpssendthemessagemoreeffectively.
Businessisaboutresults.Planningyourcommunicationbyanalyzingthesituationandorganizingyourmessageoftendeliversbetterresultsthanoperatingoninstinct.
WhatGoodAreModels?
WhatGoodAreModels?Inthiscourse,youwilllearnaboutafewmodelsconsistingofconceptsapplicabletocommunication.Manyareasofbusinesseducationemploymodelsandframeworks,fromMichaelPorter'sFiveForcestomarketing's4Ps.
Intheshortterm,youmemorizethemodelsandlearnhowtoapplytheminthebusinesssituationstheyweredesignedfor,suchasindustryanalysisordevisingamarketingplan.Forthistypeoflearning,youcanfindthesituationsincases,textbooks,simulations,andsimilareducationalmaterials.
Youmayfeelthatthemeticulous,stepbystepapplicationofmodelsisn'tpracticalintherealworld.However,learninghowtoapplymodelscanembedtheminyourmemory.It'snodifferentfromlearningadance.Youareshownthestepsandpracticeuntilyoudon'thavetothinkaboutthemyouknowwhattodoalmostautomatically.
Thiscourseteachesconceptsthat,throughpractice,youcanincorporateintoyourworkasarealworldbusinesscommunicator.
CaseStudy:PlanningCommunication
CaseStudy:PlanningCommunicationAcasestudywillbeusedinplanningcommunicationasavehicleforshowingyouhowtouseconcepts.Let'sconsidertwocommunicationtasksfacingTasha,aassociatevicepresidentofmarketing,sales,andcustomerservice.Shehasresponsibilityforseveraldepartments,includingthecallcenter.
TashaworksforAppsGo,amediumsizecompanythatdevelopssoftwareapplicationsformobiledevices,includingcellphonesandtablets.Ithasaprofitablenicheintheindustryanddistinguishesitselffrommanyofitscompetitorswithfirstclasscustomerservice.Tashaisworkingontwoissuesrequiringcommunication,onewithcallcenterrepresentativesandonewithherboss,Dmitri.
MeetTasha
Tashaworksasanexecutiveatamediumsizecompanythatspecializesinmobiledevicesoftware.
InformingtheCallCenterRepresentatives
InformingtheCallCenterRepresentatives
Thecompany'sinformationtechnology(IT)departmentwillsoonrolloutanewversionofthecustomerrelationshipmanagement(CRM)softwareusedinthecallcenter.Manyofthe
changesareminor.Ontheotherhand,afewnewfeatureswillallowasmoother,easierworkflowsomethingtherepswillwelcome.
IThasgivenTashaatenpagereportdescribingallthechangesinminutedetail.Normallythesupervisorofthecallcenterwouldhandlethetransitiontoanewversion,buthehashishandsfullandTashahasvolunteeredtotakecareofit.
Frompastexperience,Tashaknowstheteamdoesnotliketoreadlongdocuments,whateverthecontent.Requiringteammemberstoreadthereportisn'tlikelytoworkbecausethey'llskimitandnottakeinmuchdetailornotreaditatall.Inaddition,beforethelastsoftwareupgrade,theITinformationhadsomeinaccuraciesthatledtoconfusion,wastedtime,andgrumblingamongthereps.Tashadoesnotwantherteammembersinanegativeframeofmindbeforetherolloutactuallyhappens.They'realreadyunderalotofstressfromoverwork.
Tashadecidesthatbeforetherollout,she'llgivetherepsashortsummaryofthenewfeaturesmostrelevanttotheirjobs.Thebrevityandattentiontochangesmeaningfultotherepsshouldmakethemmorewillingtoreadthedocument.
AudienceofanInformativeMemo
Tashagetsafriend'sperspectiveonheraudience.
PersuadingDmitri
PersuadingDmitri
Likemostmanagers,Tashajugglesmultipleprojects.Onethatconcernsherisaproposalshe'sbeenworkingonwiththecallcentersupervisor.TheproposalrecommendshiringtwonewcustomerrepsfluentinEnglishandSpanish.ThecompanylaunchedSpanishlanguageversionsofitsappsnearlytwoyearsagoandrampedupthemarketingofthemayearago.
ThenumberofcallcentercustomerswhopreferSpanishorspeakonlySpanishhasbeenincreasing.Ricardo,theoneSpanishspeakingrep,hasbeenswampedwithcallersandhasbecomeresentfulabouthisworkload.Overallthecenterisreceivingmorecustomercontactsfrommultiplechannels(phone,fax,email,livechat)thaneverbefore.Asthepressureonemployeeshasmounted,experiencedrepshavebeenquittingorretiringinalarmingnumbers.
Ahiringrequestwillbeatoughsell.BusinessisstillrecoveringfromadowneconomyandTasha'sboss,Dmitri,vicepresidentofmarketing,sales,andcustomerservice,runshisdepartmentsasleanlyaspossible.TheCEOwantsdepartmentbudgetstobeatorbelowindustrybenchmarks.However,Tashaworriesthatthecallcenterwillsoonbeunabletofulfillthecompany'sheavilymarketedclaimsofgreatcustomerservice.
AudienceofaPersuasiveMemo
TashaencountersDmitri'sreluctancetodealwithcallcenterstaffing.
AnalyzingaCommunicationSituation
AnalyzingaCommunicationSituation
Thisdiagramtellsyoutwobasicfactsaboutcommunication.First,sendersneedtoknowwhatthepurposeorintentionoftheirmessageisandtheyneedtoknowitwithsomeprecision.Second,becausesendersneedtheaudiencetoaccomplishthepurpose,theymustknowwhateverinformationabouttheiraudiencethatcanhelpattainthepurposeofthemessage.
Aneffectivecommunicatorisagoodlearner.Theknowledgegainedfromthinkingaboutthepurposeandaudiencecanenhancethemessage,givingitagreaterchanceofsucceeding.Effectivecommunicatorsalsoknowthattheycanalwayslearnmoreabouttheaudience,eveniftheyworkwithaudiencememberseveryday.Thenextsectionshowshowyoucanlearnwhatyouneedtoknowwhencreatinganimportantmessage.
ThreeQuestionsforAnalyzingaSituation
ThreeQuestionsforAnalyzingaSituation
Afewsimplequestionswillorganizeyourthinkingaboutasituationandresultinausefulunderstandingofit:
Question ExplanationoftheQuestion
Why? Purpose:WhatIwanttoaccomplishbycommunicating
Who? Audience:ThepeopleIwillbecommunicatingwith
How? Message:ThecontentIcommunicatetotheaudience
Thesethreequestionswillbeexplainedfurtherandwillalsobeappliedtoexamples.
Checklist:AnalyzingaCommunicationSituation
Why?KnowingYourPurpose
Why?KnowingYourPurpose
Sowhydoyouneedtocommunicateinaparticularsituationinthefirstplace?YouaskyourselfthequestionWhy?toidentifyyourpurpose:theoutcomeyouwanttoachievethroughcommunication.
OnFebruary11,2009,JohnJ.Mack,chairandCEOofMorganStanley,appearedbeforeacommitteeoftheU.S.Congress.Hehadacommunicationneed:Heneededtotellhisbank'ssideofthestoryafteritacceptedalargeamountoftaxpayermoneyfromtheTroubledAssetsRecoveryProgram(TARP).
Mack'spurposewasspecific.HismessagewasintendedtoshowCongressandotheraudiencessuchasthemediaandtaxpayersthatthebankwasusinggovernmentmoneyproductively.Hispurposewastorestorethereputationofthebankasaresponsibleandtrustworthyorganizationafterthedisastersofthefinancialcrisis.
Inbusiness,managersfrequentlycommunicateforoneoftworeasons:totransferinformation(toinform)ortomotivatetheaudiencetochangetheiropinionortotakeanaction(topersuade).
ThePurposeofInforming
ThePurposeofInforming
Informativecommunicationdescribesorexplainssomeaspectofreality.Examplesaredescriptions,forexample,ofanorderentryprocessoranexplanationofhowachemicalprocesscreatesaninputforthemanufacturingofaproduct.Informativecommunicationcanbothdescribeandexplain.Forexample,amanagermightwanttodescribethestatisticalmethodsthecompanyusesforqualitycontrol,thatis,namethemandtelltheaudiencewhattheycando.Hemightalsoexplainhowtousethem,takingtheaudiencestepbystepthrougheachmethodandshowingthemwhatdataarenecessary,howtomakecalculations,andwhattheresultingvaluesmean.
ThePurposeofPersuadingThePurposeofPersuading
Persuasionistheuseoflanguagetomotivateanaudiencetothink,feel,oractinthewaythecommunicatorintends.Seethetableforexamples.
PersuasiveCommunication PurposeConferencecallwithstockmarketanalysts
Think:Motivatetothinkthecompanyisasoundinvestment.
CEOatanannualshareholdersmeeting
Feel:MotivatetheshareholderstofeelconfidenceinanewCEO.
Videopresentationtoemployees
Act:Motivateemployeestoactinaspecificway:signupforafitnessprogram.
PresentationtoCEOThink,feel,andact:ConvincetheCEOthatthecompanysstrategyisflawedandtofeeldoubtaboutit,andthentoauthorizeateamtoproposechanges.
ThePurposeofPersuading
LeadershipbyInfluence
Anexperiencedmanagerunderscoresthevitalroleofinfluencebypersuasion.
GettingThingsDonewithPersuasionGettingThingsDonewithPersuasion
Amanagementwriter,JayConger,hascalledpersuasionthelanguageofbusinessleadership.Persuasionisacatalystforgettingworkdoneandforachievingoutcomesthatleaderscan'trealizeontheirown.
UsingVideotoPersuade
Here'savideoofanexecutivedescribinghowsheusedpersuasionwithherworldwidesalesteam.
Persuasion CatalystforWork OutcomeYouCan'tRealizeonYourOwnSalespresentation Sellingonlinevideoservices SellingintheUnitedStates,LatinAmerica,andAsia
Leadersandmanagersusepersuasiononadailybasis.Withoutpersuasion,verylittleworkwouldgetdoneandorganizationswouldn'texistbecausetherewouldbenowaytoensurethatpeoplesharedthesamegoalsandworkedcooperativelytowardthem.Thealternativestopersuasionareauthoritarianismoranarchy,bothofwhichhaveseveredrawbacks.
Persuadingpeopleusuallydoesn'thappenonthefirsttry.Popularliteratureonpersuasionpromisestoteachtechniquestowineverytime.Inbusiness,issuesarecomplicatedandaudienceshavediverse,andoftenstronglyheld,ideasoftheirown.Theseconditionsaren'tusuallyconducivetoquickoreasywins.
Businesspersuasionisusuallyaprocess,notanevent:ittakesmultiplecommunicationsaswellasothertypesofinfluence.Intheprocesstheinitialpurposecanchangeastheaudiencemembersaskquestions,raiseobjections,andputforwardtheirownideas.
Audienceresistanceisactuallyagoodsign,althoughitcanbehardonacommunicator!Whenpersuasionstimulatesadiversityofviewpoints,theendresultisoftenbetterthantheoneproposedatthebeginningoftheprocess.
Tohelpyoudefineyourpurpose,usethesetwoquestions:
Informative PersuasiveWhatistheimportanceoftheinformation? Whatistheimportanceofthetopic?WhatspecificinformationgapdoIwanttofill? WhatdoIwanttheaudiencetothink,feel,anddo?
Example:Tasha'sPurposes
Applyingthequestionstothetwocommunicationsituationsshefaces,Tashasettlesontwodistinctpurposes:
Informative
1. Importance:Someofthenewsoftwarefeaturesmakethereps'workmoreefficient.
2. Gaptofill:Iwantthemtoknowwhatthefeaturesareandhowtheywork.
Persuasive
1. Importance:Thecallcenterisseriouslyunderstaffed.2. Think,feel,anddo:IwantDmitritounderstandthatwehaveaseriousproblem,feelsomediscomfortabouttheproblem,andultimatelyhiremoreSpanishspeakingreps.
Clarifyingyourpurposeisessential.Ifyoudon'tknowwhatyouaretryingaccomplish,youcan'texpecttocreatecommunicationthatachievesmuchofanything.Infact,ifyouaren'tclearabouttheintentionofyourmessage,therecouldbeharmfulunintendedconsequences.
Exercise:TheCommunicationCampaign
Who?KnowingYourAudience
Who?KnowingYourAudience
Communicationisnotaboutthepersoncommunicatingit'sabouttheaudience.
Soonceyou'veclarifiedthepurposeofyourmessage,thinkabouttheaudience.Understandingyouraudiencewillhelpyouachievethepurposeyouhavedefined.
Youdon'tneedorwanttoknoweverythingaboutthepeoplewhowillreceivethemessage.Youwantonlyinformationthatwillbehelpfulinrealizingyourpurpose.
Professors,textbooks,andpopularbooksoncommunicationallexhortcommunicatorstounderstandtheiraudience,buttheadviceoftenisn'tfollowed.Thewriterorspeakermaythinksheknowstheaudiencewellenoughalreadyorbelievesthatknowingmoreaboutthemwouldn'tmakeadifference.However,evenanemailtosomeonethewriterknowswellbenefitsfromforethought,whensomethingimportantisatstake.
WomensCommunicationStrengths
EarlyinhiscareerSriniKrishnamurthylearnedtheconnectionbetweenmessageandaudience.
Example:TheCostofNotKnowingYourAudience
Aconsultingteampresentsanevaluationofacompany'sbusinessunits.Thepresentationculminatesinanopinionabouttheoverallperformanceofeachunit.Theteamnotesthatonedivisioncouldhaveexceededitsgoalsbyahealthymarginbutwasheldbackbyitsmanagement,whichtheteamcriticizesaspreoccupiedwithinternalpolitics.
Theteamisn'tawarethattheheadofthatbusinessunitisaclosepersonalfriendofthecompanyCEO.TheCEOdefendshisfriend,whichshiftsattentionawayfromperformanceandinjectstensionintothemeeting.
Hadtheteamaskedquestionsabouttheiraudience,theymighthavelearnedoftherelationshipbetweentheCEOandtheheadofthebusinessunitandpresentedtheirjudgmentofthebusinessunitmorediplomatically.
Thinkingabouttheaudiencecanonlyhelpyourcommunication.Trythis:Beforeyoustartcreatingthecontentofawrittenorspokenmessage,taketenminutestothinkonlyaboutyouraudience.Recordthepointsthatseemmostworthwhile.Assoonasyoucan,compareyourperceptionsoftheaudiencewithsomeonetrustworthythatknowssomeoralloftheaudiencemembers.Theoddsareveryhighthatwhatyoulearnwillaffectwhatandhowyoucommunicate.
WhenJohnMack,chairandCEOofMorganStanley,wentbeforeaU.S.congressionalcommittee,heknewtheaudiencewashostileandsuspiciousofhim.Soheincorporatedameasuredapologyinhisopeningstatement.Apologiestendtoplacatepeopleandmakethemreceptive.Notsurprisingly,thecommitteewasmorerestrainedintheirreactiontohim
thantoother,lesscontriteWallStreetexecutives.
Toexploreyouraudience,thesequestionsarehelpful:
Whoismyaudience?Whatdoaudiencemembersknowaboutthetopic?Whatistheirattitudetowardthetopic?Dotheyhaveanybiasesrelatedtothetopic?Whatistheirattitudetowardme?Whatismyattitudetowardtheaudience?
PrimaryandSecondaryAudiencesPrimaryandSecondaryAudiences
Insomesituations,youmayhavemorethanoneaudience,whichisanimportantfactorwhenthecommunicationneedstoaddressdifferentaudiences.
Let'ssaythatyou'rethechairofacrossfunctionalteamchargedwithmakingadecision.Youfavoramoderatelyaggressiveoptionandknowthatamajorityoftheteamagrees.Butanadamantminorityopposesthatoptionandadvocatesamoreconservativedecision.Youarewritingamemotothecommitteerecommendingadecisionthatwillbediscussedatthenextmeeting.
Inthissituation,themajorityofthecommitteeisthesecondaryaudience.Theyalreadyagreewithyou.Theopponentsaretheprimaryaudiencebecausetheyneedtobeconvinced.Preachingtothechoirfeelsgoodbutwon'tachieveyourpurposeinthissituation.
Let'sreturntotheexampleofJohnMack,chairandCEOofMorganStanley.Mack'sprimaryaudiencewasthecommitteemembers.Hehadmultiplesecondaryaudiences:othermembersofCongress,shareholders,voters,themedia,regulators,andWallStreet.Infact,it'sdebatablewhetherthecommitteewashisprimaryaudienceatallbecausehisbankhadmuchatstakewithsomeofthe"secondary"audiences,suchasregulatorsandshareholders.
Exercise:GettingtoKnowHerAudience
BarrierstoCommunicationBarrierstoCommunication
Asyouthinkabouttheaudience,bealertforobstaclestocommunicationfactorsthatcanmakeachievingapurposemoredifficultor,inextremecases,impossible.Thegoalofidentifyingbarriersistoremovethemorlessentheirimpact.
Inbusiness,therearemanypotentialbarrierstocommunication:
Hostilitytotheconclusion,thecommunicator,orboth.Audiencebeliefthatthewriterorspeakerisn'ttrustworthy.Lackofbackgroundknowledgeinthewriterspeakerortheaudience.Biasinthespeakerwriterorintheaudience.Ethicalandlegalissuesrelatedtothetopic.Powerandotherorganizationalissues,suchasaspeakeraddressinganaudienceoverwhomhehasnopowerbutwantsthemtodosomething.Culturalfactorssuchasdifferentattitudestowardconflictinthepresenterandtheaudience.Languageissues,suchastheinabilityofanaudiencetofollowsomeonespeakingtoofastintheirsecondlanguage.
RecognizingCulturalBarriers
AProcter&Gambleexecutivespeaksofdealingwithculturaldifferencesincommunication.
Example:RecognizingBarrierstoCommunication
Imaginethatyouareanentrepreneurwhowillpresenttoagroupofpotentialinvestors.
Considerhowtheywillperceiveyou.Theinvestorshavefarmorebusinessexperiencethanyoudoandhaveheardmanypitchesforfunding.
Youareconvincedyouhaveagoodbusinessplanthattakesadvantageofalargeopportunity.
Makingsureyouraudienceseesyouascrediblewillstrengthenyourpitch.
Herearesomeideasforbuildingcredibility:
Giverealisticnumbersandprepareforpredictablequestionsaboutthemsoyouarereadytorespond.Don'tpretendtoknowsomething.Knoweverythingthereistoknowaboutyourbusinessandthemarketinwhichyouwanttocompete.
Exercise:EvaluatingBarrierstoCommunication
CognitiveBias
CognitiveBias
Researchersinpsychologyhavefirmlyestablishedoverthelastfortyyearsthathumansareprofoundlybiasedintheirthinking.Thebiasestheyrefertoareneitherconsciousnordeliberatethey'reinherentinpeople'sthoughtprocesses.Theimplicationsofbiasforcommunicationareprofound.
Asacommunicatoryoufacebiasintwoways:yourownbiasesthatinfluenceyourmessageandthebiaseswithwhichtheaudiencereceivesyourcommunication.Ineithersensesenseitisdifficulttocopewithbias.Peoplegenerallyaren'tawareofitandwilloftendenythatithasanyinfluence.Biashasrelevanceforcommunicationbecauseitcanleadtodistortedviewsofasituation,tensionbetweenthecommunicatorandtheaudience,andmisunderstandings.
Thescienceofbiasisextensiveandgrowing.Here,you'llfindexplanationsofthefollowingfourbiases,withmajorpotentialimpactoncommunication:
Falsegeneralization(thelawofsmallnumbers)AnchoringbiasAvailabilitybiasRepresentativenessbias
FalseGeneralizationFalseGeneralization
Falsegeneralization,alsocalledthelawofsmallnumbers,meansdrawingaconclusionfromasmallsetofdatatheresultingconclusionisoftenwrong.TheNobelprizewinningpsychologistDanielKahnemansaysthatthetendencyarisesfromourneedtobelievethattheworldisorderlyandconsistentmoresothanitactuallyis.
Example:ABadSellingYear
Asalesmanagerishavingdoubtsabouttheabilityorcommitmentofoneofhissalespeople,Mireille,becauseshe'snotmakinghernumbersinthecurrentyear.Fromabroaderperspectiveofthelastsevenyears,however,shehasbeenatopperformer.
DealingwithFalseGeneralizationDealingwithFalseGeneralization
Youcanavoidthebiasoffalsegeneralizationasacommunicatorbytakingintoaccountalargersetofdata.Toaddressfalsegeneralizationinaudiencemembers,youcanshowthemanexpandeddatasetandwhatyouregardasamoreaccurateconclusion.
Example:ProvidingMoreData
Mireillehasbeendemoralizedabouthersalesperformance.Hermanagerhasbecomeincreasinglyimpatient,andseveraltimesshehastoldhimthatshewillworkharder.
Afriendmentionsthatshe'shadastringofgoodyearsandwasnamedsalespersonoftheyearnotlongago.Mireillegathersthesalesnumbersforthelastsevenyearsandcalculatesheraverageyearoveryearincrease.Shecomparesthatnumbertotheaveragefortheentiresalesstaffhersislargerbyseveralpercentagepoints.Inashortmemoshesharestheinformationwithherboss.
AnchoringBiasAnchoringBias
Anchoringbias(orsimplyanchoring)isexcessiverelianceononeorafewvalues,particularlywhenjudging,deciding,oracting.Anotherwayofputtingitisthatoneorafewvalueshaveunjustifiedinfluenceoverjudgment,decisionmaking,oraction.Anchoringoccursinfinancialmarketswhenastockpricefallsprecipitouslyandinvestorsbuyatthenewlowerprice,believingthatthestockisnowundervalued.However,thestockpricemayfallbecausethecompanyisactuallyworthlessduetopoordecisionmakingorfailureofsomekind.
Example:TheDomineeringSalesGoal
ThesalesmanagersetanaggressivesalesgoalforMireilleforthecurrentyear,wellbeforeherregionencounteredeconomicstressesandherterritorywasreconfigured,whicheliminatedseveralofherlargestcustomers.Nevertheless,thesalesgoalisthereferencepoint,oranchor,fordiscussionsaboutMireille'sperformance.
DealingwithAnchoringBiasDealingwithAnchoringBias
Tofendoffanchoringbias,youhavetobealerttoyourownreferencepoints.Whenyoutrytoconvinceanaudiencewithanargument,examineitscontentforreferencepointsorbenchmarksthatyouassumeareaccurate.Aretheytrulyaccurate?
Likewise,assesstheanchorsthatyouraudiencemayhave.Arguingaconclusionrootedinanassumptionthatcontradictsanaudienceanchorcanrunintotroubleifyouaren'tawareoftheanchor.Youshouldfirstdealwithafallaciousanchorbyprovingwhyit'sfallacious.
Example:PullingtheAnchorUp
Mireillepreparesabriefpresentationforthesalesmanagerandassistantmanagerabouthersellingefforts.Sheplanstoshowthemhowthelossofherlargestcustomersaccountsfornearly75percentofthegapbetweenhercurrentsalesandthegoal.Shewillalsoestimatethesaleslossesduetolocaleconomicproblemsinherterritory,whichaccountforanother15percent.Herconclusionwillproposealowergoalcoupledwithapromisetoworkhardertodevelopnewaccounts.
AvailabilityBiasAvailabilityBias
Thisbiasisthetendencytobaseajudgmentordecisionontheeasewithwhicharelevantfactoreventcanberecalled.Oftenrecencyplaysamajorroleit'seasiertorecallaneventthatjusthappenedthanonethathappenedatanearliertime.Acommonexampleofavailabilitybiasisthefearpeoplehaveofflyingafteracommercialairlinercrashesversusthecomforttheyhavewithdrivingtotheairport.Drivingismanytimesmoredangerousthanflyingatalltimes.
Example:TheRiskofSuccess
Thecompanyhashadseveralyearsofbriskgrowth.Mireilleseeseconomicshiftsthatmayreversethisgrowthtrendifthecompanydoesn'tadjustitsofferingsandpricing.However,thesalesmanagerandthestaffmembershavegreatconfidenceinthestatusquobecauseoftherecenttrackrecord.
DealingwithAvailabilityBiasDealingwithAvailabilityBias
Researchersoftencontrastconclusionsinfluencedbyavailabilitybiaswiththoseguidedbybaserates,atermthatmeanstheprobabilityofsomethingbeingdeterminedbyrationalmeans,suchasstatistics.Anexampleisthefatalityratesforflyingincommercialairlinesversusthosefordrivingacar.
Youcanavoidavailabilitybiasbybuildingyourargumentsonbaserates.Foraudiencememberswhohaveavailabilitybias,youneedtoprovetothemthattheirviewisn'tderivedfromthebaserateandthenargueamoreaccurateview.
Example:BroadeningtheView
Mireilleassemblesthesalesrecordsforthepasttenyears.Althoughtheoveralltrendispositive,sheuncoversafairlyregularoscillation.Shetracksthemagainstsomeinternalbenchmarksandafewmacroeconomicmeasurements.Shefindsafewcorrelations,whichsheexplainsinamemotohercolleagues.Inthisway,shemovesthediscussionfromthesimpleassumptionthatthegoodtimeswillcontinuetoadatadrivenevaluation.
RepresentativenessBiasRepresentativenessBias
Representativenessbiasallowspeopletojudgewhethersomethingbelongsinaspecificcategoryaccordingtocharacteristicstheybelieverepresentmembersofthecategory.Afamiliarexampleofrepresentativenessbiasisstereotyping,suchasthinkingthatayoungmanwhoisverytallmustbeabasketballplayer.
Example:CherryPickingGoodNews
ThesalesmanagercountersMireille'spositionthatthecompanyshouldbepreparedtomakeseriouschanges.Hecitesseveralfactorsrelatedtothecompanythathavebeenconsistentthroughouttheupswinginsalesandthatremainso.Becauseofthesalespeople'srepresentativenessbias,theydon'tthinkMireille'swarninghasmerit.
DealingwithRepresentativenessBiasDealingwithRepresentativenessBias
Tospuryourawarenessofrepresentativebias,askyourselfwhetheraclassificationyouhavemadeincludesalltherelevantfactors.Inpersuasiveformsofcommunication,concentrateonclassificationsvitaltoyourargument.
Asfarasaudiencesareconcerned,addressingrepresentativenessbiasissimilartocounteringfalsegeneralization:Expandthenumberoffactorstheaudienceisusingtoclassifysomething.
Example:CreatingaBetterPicture
Mireilletriedtochangehowhermanagerandpeersseethepresent.Sherealizesshehasherownrepresentativenessbiassheregardsthenegativefactorsasbeingmoresalientthanthepositiveones.
Insteadofarguingagainsttheoptimisticviewofheraudience,shepreparesasetofcriteriaforevaluatingthesustainabilityofsalesgrowth.Thecriteriaincludethefactorsthesalesmanagerreliedonandtheadditionalfactorsshethinksareimportant.Shethenpreparesasustainabilityscorecardthat'sneitherasoptimisticashercolleaguesviewnoraspessimisticashers.
Exercise:DetectingBias
Example:InformingtheReps
Forherinformativecommunication,Tashausestheaudiencequestionstoidentifycharacteristicsoftherepsrelevanttothemessage.
Whoismyaudience?
Myprimaryaudienceisthelessexperiencedcustomerservicereps.Asecondaryaudienceisveteranreps.
Whatdoaudiencemembersknowaboutthetopic?
Therepsdon'tknowaboutthenewfeaturesthat'stheinformationgapI'mfilling.I'llneedtodescribethebenefitsofthechangesinenoughdetailfortheinexperiencedreps.Imightlosealittleoftheattentionofthelongerservicereps,butthat'sariskworthtaking.
Whatistheirattitudetowardthetopic?Dotheyhaveanybiasesrelatedtothetopic?
Theyhatetheamountofinformationtheygetandtendtodeleteemailsbeforetheyreadthem.ThiscouldbethemostimportantbarriertocommunicationthatIface.Ontheotherhand,theywelcomeanythingthatmakestheirworkeasier.
TheaudiencemighthaveanavailabilitybiasabouttheITdepartment.Beforethelastupdatetothesystem,thedepartmentgaveconfusingandcontradictoryinformation.Therepsmightignoretheinformationbecausetheydon'ttrustit.
Whatistheirattitudetowardme?
TheyknowI'montheirside.Isuspecttheydon'tthinkIfullyunderstandthedemandsoftheirjob.It'strueIhaven'tspentalotoftimeinthecenter,butIknowtheworkflow.
Whatismyattitudetowardtheaudience?
Thecallcenterisessentialtothesuccessofourcompany,andthecurrentteammembers,especiallytheveterans,arecompetent.Irespectandlikethem.But,honestly,sometimestheyirritatemewhentheyimmediatelyresistorcomplainaboutachange.
Conclusions
Becausetheinformationisdetailed,Iwillputitinmemoformandsenditasanemailattachment.Theywon'treadalongemail.Thememoshouldbeasshortaspossible.Itshouldfocusoninformationofhighestvaluetothereps.Intheemailandatthebeginningofthememo,I'llemphasizehowtheinformationwillhelpthemdotheirjobmoreeasily.Getthedetailsright!
Theitemaboutaccuracyisanexampleofwhyitisimportanttopayattentiontotheaudience.Anaccuratereportwillhelpovercomethereps'biasabouttheITdepartment.
Anothermajorbarrierisinformationoverload.Thememoneedstoemphasizethebenefitofthecommunicationtotherepsinthesubjectlineandinthefirstsentence.
Example:PersuadingDmitri
Tasha'sothercommunication,theoneshehopeswillwinherboss'ssupporttohiremoreSpanishspeakingreps,requirespersuasion.Toreview,persuasionistheuseoflanguagetomotivateanaudiencetothink,feel,oractinthewaythecommunicatorintends.
TashawantstochangethewayDmitrithinksabouthiringandgethimtotakeaction:hiretwomorereps.Hewillneedtoclearitwithhisboss,directorofthebusinessunit.IfDmitrithinksTasha'smemocontainssolidevidence,he'llprobablysharethememowiththedirector.
Tashanowtypesanswerstotheaudiencequestions.
Whoismyaudience?
Dmitriismyprimaryaudience,butIhavetoconsiderasecondaryaudience:Dmitri'sboss,thedirector.IfIconvinceDmitri,hewillwanttogettheapprovalofthedirector.
Whatdoaudiencemembersknowaboutthetopic?
Dmitriknowsthecallcenteroperationwellandmostofthereps,especiallytheveterans.Hedoesn'tknowalotaboutwhat'sbeengoingoninthecenterrecently.Thedirectorknowsthecallcenterfrom30,000feetnodetails.BasedonwhatDmitrisays,thedirectorisanumbersguy.
Whatistheirattitudetowardthetopic?Dotheyhaveanybiasesrelatedtothetopic?
IhavetoassumeDmitri'sinitialattitudeisgoingtobenegative.Thedirectorissimilar,exceptthathedoesntseemtovaluethecallcenterasmuchasDmitriheseesitasacostcenter,notasanasset.
Dmitriandthedirectormayhaveananchorbias:theindustrystandardbenchmarkforcostpercall.Corporatehasbeentoldmanytimesthattheindustrybenchmarkhaslittlemeaningbecauseithidesalargenumberofvariables.Andyet,ineverydiscussionofthecallcenter,corporateexecutivesrefertothebenchmark.
Whatistheirattitudetowardme?
DmitrithinksI'manexcellentmanager.Buthemayfeelthatmyobjectivityiscompromisedbyloyaltytothereps.Idon'tknowthedirectorexceptwhatI'vegleanedfromDmitri.Heprobablydoesn'thaveawelldefinedattitudetowardme.
Whatismyattitudetowardtheaudience?
Thisoneishardtoanswer.Dmitrihasadvocatedforthecallcenterbefore,butthere'sarumorthathellbepromotedsoon,sohemightwanttoleavetheproblemforthenextguy.Idon'tlikethatpossibility.Thedirector?Ivegotabiasagainstthecorporatetypes.Toomanyofthemthinktheyknoweverything.
TakingNoteofWhatYouLearn
TakingNoteofWhatYouLearn
Ananalysisofacommunicationsituationhasaproduct:valuablelearningaboutthecontentofthecommunication.Tryingtorememberallofthelearningviamemoryintroducestheriskthatyouwilllosesomeofit.Takingnotesinsomeformreducestherisk.
Everyonehashisorherownwayofrecordingthoughts.Somepeopleliketotakedetailedhandwrittennotesothersprefervisualrepresentationsusingcomputermindmappingapplicationsorjustdrawingonasheetofpaper.Regardlessofthemeans,theobjectiveisthesame:topreservewhatyoulearnaboutasituationsothatyoucancreatecommunicationefficiently.
How?ChoosingaChannel
How?ChoosingaChannel
Neverbeforehavebusinesspeoplehadsomanywaystocommunicate.Theproliferationofoptionsisanassetforlinkingeveryoneinanorganizationtogetheracrosslongdistancesandforcreatingopportunitiesforfasttransmissionofinformationandactivitiessuchascollaboration,innovation,andmentoring.
Youprobablydon'toftenhavetothinkaboutchannelchoicebecauseit'sagiven:Someoneemailsyou,andyouemailareply.Someonecallsyouandyoutalkonthephone.
Buteveninthesecommonplaceinstances,channelchoicecancropup.Forinstance,haveyouevertoldsomeoneyouaretalkingwithonthephonetosendyouanemailwiththedetails?Allthatmeansisthatyoupreferadifferentmodeorchannelforthecontentofaparticularcommunication,suchasthecaller'sfullcontactinformationorthedetailsofaperson'srequest.
Forhighvaluecommunicationwhereyouhaveachoice,itpaystopauseandthink.
QuestionsAboutChannelsQuestionsAboutChannels
Herearequestionsthatcanassistyouinselectingachannel:
Whatchannelisbestformypurpose?Whatchannelisbestformyaudience?Whatchannelisbestforconveyinginformationormakinganargument?Whatchannelisbestforanemotionalimpactontheaudience?Whatchannelisbestforme?
Foralistofcommunicationchannelsandfactorsthatcaninfluencechoicesofthem,seetheChannelCharacteristicstable.
Briefcase:ChannelCharacteristics
Exercise:ChannelChoice
Message:
BestChannel:
Feedback:
ChannelChoices:
PreviousNext
ResetExercise
Example:PersuadingDmitri
Let'sapplythesequestionstoTasha'scommunicationwiththebossaboutaddingnewrepstothecallcenter.
Whatchannelisbestformypurpose?
IwantDmitritounderstandmyargument,askquestionsaboutit,andchallengeitifheneedsto.Ialsowanthimtobepersonallyengaged.Acombinationofawrittendocument(sohecanabsorbtheargument)andafacetofacemeeting(toincreasehispersonalengagement)willworkbest.
Whatchannelisbestformyaudience?
Dmitriisatalker.Hesnotoriousfornotansweringemailsanddoesntlikereadingreportsandotherdocuments.Buthewantsproposalslikeminethatdependonevidenceinwritingfirst.Hewantstoseeeverythinglaidoutinalogicalway.
Whatchannelisbestforconveyinginformationormakinganargument?
Definitelywriting,fortworeasons:(1)Detailedevidenceandconclusionsarehardtorememberunlessthey'reinwritingand(2)Dmitricangooverthememoseveraltimesuntilhefullyunderstandstheargument.Thisprocesshelpspersuadehimandmakeshimamoreeffective"missionary"fortheargument.
Whatchannelisbestforanemotionalimpactontheaudience?
ThereportcangetDmitriworriedandpartlymotivatedtomakemyconclusionhisown.ButtalkingtohimfacetofaceisabetterwaytoshowhimhowconcernedIam.
Whatchannelisbestforme?
Writingisthebestchannelforme,definitely.IthinkI'madecentwriterandIliketoputthepuzzlepiecestogether.Idontlikestanduppresentations.Aoneononeconversationonadifficulttopiccanbetense,butI'lltalktohimafterhe'sreadmyreportandabsorbedmyargumentandevidence.
How?UsingReasoningintheMessage
How?UsingReasoningintheMessage
Peopleinbusinesshaveanincentivetorelyonreasoning.Businessactingonthebasisofirrationalthinkingwillsuffersoonerorlater.Manyoftheplayersinthefinancialcrisisof2008,forexample,believedthatrealestatepriceswouldcontinuetoriseindefinitely,despiteampleevidencetothecontrary.Inthelongrun,theirthinkingwasirrationalandanentireindustry,manyeconomies,andmillionsofpeoplesufferedforit.
Ontheflipside,businesspeoplewieldreasontogreateffect.Facingimminentcollapse,theU.S.autoindustryusedreasontoreconstructitself,developinghighquality,innovative,andfuelefficientvehicles.Biotechnologyanddrugcompaniesusereasontofindandcommercializenewtherapiesforformerlyintractablediseases.
Reasonisthemostfundamentaltoolforcreatingbusinesscommunication.Workplaceaudiencesexpectthecontentofpresentations,memos,emails,andotherformsofcommunicationtobewellreasonedandlogical.
Exercise:UsingCommunicationToolsSpontaneously
InformativeCommunicationInformativeCommunication
Reasonhasalargeroleininformativecommunication.First,itisusedtoselecttheinformationofgreatestvaluetotheaudience.Usuallythehardestpartofselectingisdecidingwhattoleaveout.
Weliveintheinformationage.Collecting,storing,andtransmittingdataissoadvancedthatvastamountsofitarebeingwarehousedbecausewedon'thavethecapacitytoassessitsvalue,muchlessuseit.
Butasreceivers,humanshaven'thadtimeyettoadapttheirbrainstotheinformationage.Itiseasyforustoenterastateofcognitiveoverload.Toofrequentlycommunicatorsdon'trecognizeourcognitivelimits.Theybelievethatthemoreinformationtheypushataudiences,thebetterinformedtheaudiencewillbe.
Uptoapoint,thatbeliefistrue,butafterthatpoint,audiencesbecomeconfused,tired,andunreceptive.Especiallyinbusiness,communicatorsoweittotheiraudiencestobestrictaboutselectinginformationonthisprinciple:needtoknow,notnicetoknow.
Second,reasonisusedininformativecommunicationtobuildalogicalorganizationthathelpstheaudienceunderstandthecontent.Unstructuredinformationcanbecommunicatedandtheaudiencemayevenbeabletounderstandit,butitwon'tstayintheirmemories.Communicatinginformationthattheaudiencewon'trememberispointless.
Let'sconsiderafriendlyneighborwhovolunteerstoteachyouhowtochangeatire.Shetellsyouwhatyouneedtodobutnotinthecorrectorder.
Monthslater,you'reonaroadalongwayfromhomeandhavetochangeatirefrommemory.Verysoonyou'refrustratedbecauseyoucan'tremembertheorderofsomeofthesteps.Doyoujackupthetirebeforeyouloosenthelugnutsordoyouloosenthemfirstandthenjackupthetire?
Usingreasoninaninformativemessageprimarilyhastodowithselectingandorderinginformation:
Whatinformationdoestheaudienceneedtoknowtoachievemypurpose?Whatisthemostlogicalwayofpresentingtheinformation?
Example:InformingtheReps
Let'sreturntoTasha'scommunicationtothecallcenterrepresentatives.Tashahastostructuretheinformationlogically.Ithasanorganicorder:theprocesstherepsfollowwhentheyusethecallcentersoftware.
Tashatakesamomenttoconsiderthecontentinrelationtoitsvaluetotheaudience.
IcouldjustfollowtheITreport,whichgoesthrougheachcomputersteptherepstakewhenthey'reonacallandshowswhichoneshavechanged.Idon'tthinkthatwilldoitforthereps.Mostofthemcandothebasicstepsintheirsleepeventheinexperiencedonessotheydon'tneedtoberemindedoftheorder.Theywanttoknowthechangesthatmattertothem.
PersuasiveCommunicationPersuasiveCommunication
Businessaudiencesexpectpersuasiontoberational.Theytypicallydon'trespondwelltopersuasionthat'sprimarilyemotional.Rationalpersuasionconsistsofarguments.Theabilitytoargueskillfullyisvaluedinbusiness(andinbusinessschool).
UsingArgumentsUsingArguments
Thereareallsortsofdefinitionsofargument,butinpracticalterms,argumentisreachingaconclusionbyusingevidence.Evidencecomprisesqualitativeandquantitativefacts,calculations,inferencesbasedonfacts,theoreticalknowledge,personalexperience,andexpertopinion.
Aconciseevidencestatement,combinedwiththeconclusion,canbeanexcellentopeningforapresentationorawrittencommunication.Theexampleillustrateshowtoconstructastrongargument.Businessargumentscanbemorecomplicated,buttheprocessfollowedintheexampleappliestothem,too.
Exercise:BuildingtheLogicalOrderofanArgument
UsingAssumptionsUsingAssumptions
Youhaveprobablyheardofinductiveanddeductivereasoning.Inductionistheprocessofconcludingthatsomethingisprobablytruebasedonrelevantobservations.Deductionistheprocessofconcludingthatsomethingisprobablytruebyreferencetoaprinciplethatisgenerallyacceptedastrue.
Noticetheuseofthewordprobablyinthedefinitions.Realworldreasoningusuallydoesn'tgiveyouaresultthatistruebeyondanydoubt.Eventhestrongestconclusionsareprobablytrue.
Neitherconceptofreasoningisdirectlyusefulforcreatingpractical,realworldarguments.Moreusefulistheevidenceconclusionformofargumentexplainedintheprevioussection.Deductivelogic,however,doeshaveaconceptofgreatvalueforrealworldreasoning.Deductionworksbecauseagenerallyacceptedprinciplejustifiesrelatedstatements.Indeduction,thegenerallyacceptedprincipleiscalledthemajorpremise.Itisalsocalledanassumption.
TheFunctionofAssumptions
Theassumptionmakestheconclusionpossiblebyconnectingtheevidenceandtheconclusion.Ofcourse,theargumentintheTadexampleissoobviousthattheassumptiondoesnotseemimportant.
Butwhentheargumentisnotsoobvious,knowingtheassumptioncanhelpawriterorspeakerdecidewhethertheargumentwillbeacceptabletotheaudience.
Reset
FortheargumentaboutTad,whatistheassumption?DragthecorrectideaslistedbelowintotheLogicBoxtocreatetheassumption.Incorrectchoiceswillreturntotheiroriginalposition.
Ahumanbeing
Tad
canthink
hasabrain
LogicBoxEvidence Tad isahumanbeing.Assumption Conclusion Therefore,Tad hasabrain.
Clickheretocontinue.
TounderstandtherelationshipsintheTadargument,let'sputthestatementsintoa"logicbox."Theboxshowshowthethreemainideasintheargumentareconnected.
LogicBox(A)Tad (B)isahumanbeing.(A)Tad (C)hasabrain.
Thetwosentencesexpresstheserelationships:
IdeaA=IdeaB
IdeaA=IdeaC
Giventheserelationships,itfollowsthatIdeaB=IdeaC.TheassumptionisthestatementthatlinksideasBandC.
Clickheretocontinue.
Let'sstartwithasimpleexampleofanargument:
Tadisahumanbeing.
Therefore,Tadhasabrain.
WeknowthatTadisahumanbeing.That'sastatementofevidenceitisafact.Fromthatfactweconcludehehasabrain.Buttheconclusiondependsonanassumption.
Clickheretoseetheassumption.
CheckingYourAssumptions
Tochecktheassumptionofanargument,followthesesteps.
Whattodo. Howtodoit.Definetheassumption. Determinethelogicallinkbetweentheevidenceandconclusion.
Evaluatetheassumption'sacceptabilitytotheaudience. Decidewhethertheintendedaudiencewillbelievetheassumption.
Usetheargumentorchangeit.Iftheassumptionisacceptable,usetheargument.
Iftheassumptionisnotacceptable,changetheargument.
CheckingYourAssumptions:DefiningThem
Youcandefineyourassumptionspreciselybystatingyourevidenceandconclusionssothattheyhavethreeuniqueideas.WewillusetheLogicBoxtodefinetheassumptionofabusinessargument.
Thisistheargumentwewilluse:
FiliaFoodshasspentmillionsofdollarsontheKnoxPointplant.Therefore,FiliaFoodsshouldfinishtheplant.
Hereistheargumentinalogicbox:
LogicBox(A)FiliaFoods (B)hasspentmillionsofdollarsontheKnoxPointplant.(B)Acompanythathasspentmillionsofdollarsonaplant (C)shouldfinishit.(A)Therefore,FiliaFoods (C)shouldfinishtheplant.
Doyouthinkthatmostbusinessaudienceswouldagreewiththeassumption,"Acompanythathasspentmillionsofdollarsonaplantshouldfinishit"?
Return
LogicBox(A)FiliaFoods (B)hasspentmillionsofdollarsontheKnoxPointplant.(A)Therefore,FiliaFoods (C)shouldfinishtheplant.
Theassumptionmustlinkideas(B)and(C).Canyoustateit?
Clickheretoseetheassumption.
CheckingYourAssumptions:EvaluatingAcceptability
Judgingtheacceptabilityofassumptionsdependsontheaudienceandallthevariablesthataffectit,suchasculture,values,history,bias,andknowledge.Knowingyouraudiencewellallowsyoutoaccuratelyevaluateanassumption'sacceptability.
Example:EvaluatinganAssumption'sAcceptability
Inthelastsection,wedefinedtheassumptionofanargumentaboutfinishingaplant:
Acompanythathasspentmillionsofdollarsonaplantshouldfinishit.
Theassumptionisaversionofthesunkcostfallacy:thinkingthatmoneyalreadyspentjustifiesmorespending.Mostaudiencesawareofthefallacywouldnotfindtheargumentconvincing.
Exercise:JudgingtheAcceptabilityofanAssumption
CheckingYourAssumptions:UsinganArgumentorChangingIt
Recalltheargumentaboutfinishingtheplant:
FiliaFoodshasspentmillionsofdollarsontheKnoxPointplant.Acompanythathasspentmillionsofdollarsonaplantshouldfinishit.Therefore,FiliaFoodsshouldfinishtheplant.
Theassumptionisnotgoingtobeacceptabletoasmartbusinessaudience.Considerforamomentwhatwouldbeastrongerargumentforfinishingtheplantandthenclickheretoseenewevidence.
Hereisanargumentwithnewevidencebutthesameconclusion:
FiliaFoodscannotmeetworldwidedemandwithoutanewplant.Therefore,FiliaFoodsshouldfinishtheplant.
Withtheassumptioninthemiddle,theargumentisasfollows:
FiliaFoodscannotmeetworldwidedemandwithoutanewplant.
Acompanythatcannotmeetworldwidedemandwithoutanewplantshouldfinishtheoneithasbeenbuilding.
Therefore,FiliaFoodsshouldfinishtheplant.
Theassumptionseemsacceptabletoabusinessaudienceaslongastheevidenceaboutdemandisconvincing.
Exercise:StrengtheningArguments
Close
PreviousNext
ResetExercise
ThreeQuestionsforCreatingArgumentsThreeQuestionsforCreatingArguments
Herearequestionsthatareusefulforconstructinganargument:
WhatargumentscanImaketoachievemypurpose?WhatevidencedoIhaveorneedtosupportthearguments?WhatassumptionsamImaking?Aretheyacceptabletotheaudience?
Example:PersuadingDmitri
WeknowthatTashawantstochangeDmitri'sthinkingaboutstaffingthecallcenterandgethimtotakeanactiontohiretwomoreSpanishspeakingreps.Shehasbuiltanunderstandingofheraudience,althoughitisinsomewayscontradictory.Humanbeingsarecomplicated!
Shecanuseherunderstandingoftheaudiencetocreateanargumentthatwillpersuadethem.
Example:PersuadingDmitri(Continued)
WhatargumentscanImaketoachievemypurpose?
Mymainargumentisthatthecallcenterisunderstaffed:Therearen'tenoughrepstohandlethecallvolume.ThebiggestneedisSpanishspeakersbecausemostoftheincreasedvolumeiscomingfromSpanishspeakingcallers.Anotherargumentisthatturnoverhasskyrocketedandisinflatingourcosts,andtheturnoveriscausedmostlybyworkload.Finally,I'llgatherinformationaboutservicequality.
Ishouldthinkaboutthealternativestonothiringnewfulltimereps.I'veheardthatansweringargumentsforotherpossibilitiesmakespeoplemorelikelytoacceptyouroption.
WhatevidencedoIhaveorneedtosupportthearguments?
Ialreadyhavenumbersoncallvolumeandturnover.Ineedtoaskhumanresourcestotellmehowmuchtheturnovercosts.Icouldjustsaythecostishigh,butanumberismoreconvincingtoDmitriandthedirectorthanageneralstatementaboutrisingexpenses.
WhatassumptionsamImaking?Aretheyacceptabletotheaudience?
Themainargumentsareunderstaffingandturnover.Bothargumentshavethisform:
EvidenceThecallcentersuffersfromseveralrelatedproblems(understaffing,turnover,servicequality).
ConclusionThecallcenterneedsmorerepresentatives.
TheAssumptionWheneverthecallcentersuffersfromtheproblem,itneedsmorerepresentatives.
TheassumptionwillbeacceptabletoDmitriandotherexecutivesonlyif,intheirview,theproblemsaresignificant.
Example:PersuadingDmitri(Continued)
Dmitri'scurrentpositionisnottohireanycallcenteremployeesexcepttofillopenpositionscausedbypeoplequittingorretiring.ButifTashacanfurnishafactbasedargument,shecouldpersuadehimandgivehimconfidencethathiringistherightchoice.
Ontheotherhand,Tashafearshemaywanttoducktheissueandleaveitforthenextpersonwhosucceedshim.Shecan'tbesurehowaccuratetherumorsarethatcorporatewantstopromotehim.ShespeculatesDmitriwillmakeajudgmentabouthowsoontheproblemwillbecomeunavoidable.
Tashawillneedafactualargumentwithquantitativeevidence.NumbershaveaparticularappealtoDmitriandseniorexecutives.Writingonlyaboutunhappycustomersandlowemployeemoralewillnotpersuadethem.
Tasha'sconclusionis:
WeshouldhiretwocustomerrepsfluentinEnglishandSpanish.
BeforeTashaidentifiesevidence,shethinksaboutthecriteriarelevanttothedecisionsheisrecommendingandsettlesonthree:
TurnoverCostsQualityofcustomerservice
Shetypestheevidenceshegathersinadocument.Hereissomeoftheevidencethecriteriahelpedherfindandquestionsthatshehastoanswer.Finally,inlightoftheassumptionofthearguments,shethinksabouthowtoprovetheproblemsareharmfultothecompany.
NotesaboutevidenceforapersuasivememotoDmitri
Turnover
Turnoveris100percenthigherthanlastyear.ThisnumbershouldconvinceDmitrithattheproblemisserious.Welostsomeofourmostexperiencedandproductivereps.Moremayquit.Experiencedrepsarequittingorretiringduetooverworkandstress.
Whatarethecauses?
Thenumberofcallsintothecenterexceedscapacitybyanaverageof15percent.SixtypercentoftheincreasedcallvolumeisfromcustomerswhorequestaSpanishspeakingrep.
Whyhighercallvolume?
Overallsaleshaveincreased.BigjumpinsalestoSpanishspeakersisitrelatedtomarketingcampaign?Needtoresearch!
Costs
Thehumanresourcesdepartmentsaysthatnetcostofturnoverthisyearisestimatedtobe$200,000.That'sabouta17percentincreaseinourtotalbudget.Theincreaseisdetrimentaltothecompany.
Servicequality
Standardindicatorsshowadeclineinquality.Thenumbersprovetheproblemisharmful.Numberofcallersputonholdup15percent.Numberofabandonedcallsup13percent.Averagecalllengthup2minutes.Customercomplaintsaboutserviceareup27percent.
AfterTashaanswersherquestionsaboutthemarketingcampaign,shewritesadraftoftheargument.Readherdraftmemo.Noticehowshestatesherconclusionatthebeginningandusestheevidenceshegatheredtocomposeanargument.DoyouthinkitwillconvinceDmitri?
Tasha'sPersuasiveMemo,Version1
How?UsingEmotionintheMessage
How?UsingEmotionintheMessage
Scholarsinpsychology,neuroscience,economics,andotherfieldssaythatemotioninfluenceseverythingwedo,includingthinkingandacting.
DanAriely,abehavioraleconomist,tellsofanexperimentinwhichadaycareoperatordecidedtoimposeafineonparentswhopickedtheirchildrenuplatethegoalwastoincreasethenumberofparentswhocameontime.Thechangehadanunintendedconsequence:Latepickupsincreasedafterthefinewasimposed.
Rationally,thesituationhadn'tchangedatall.Thedaycarecenterwasnottryingtomakemoremoneyitwastryingtodeterlatepickups,asithadwhentheyaskedparentstocomplyvoluntarily.
Whatchangedweretheparents'feelings.Aftertheimpositionofalatefee,theylookedatlatepickupasatransactionratherthanaspartofarelationshipwithagroupofpeoplecaringfortheirchildrenpeoplewhowantedtobeabletoleaveworkontime.
Emotionisgenerallynotanessentialfactorininformativecommunication,butitmattersagreatdealinpersuasion.Emotioninfluenceshowanaudiencereactstoacommunication.Italsoinfluenceshowwritersandspeakersexpressthemselvesintheirmessages.
Considerthesethreequestions:
Howdoaudiencemembersfeelaboutmytopic?Whataudiencefeelingscanhelpmeachievemypurpose?HowcanIelicitthesefeelings?
Example:PersuadingDmitri
Tashaknowsthatshehastodealwithaudienceemotions.She'salreadyawareofDmitri'slikelyemotionalresponsetoherhiringrequest:discomfortandevenslighthostility.Thedangeristhathisfeelingsmaycausehimtorejectherargumentwithoutseriouslyconsideringit.
Howdoaudiencemembersfeelaboutmytopic?
Dmitriandthedirectorwilldislikeaproposalfornewhires.
Whataudiencefeelingscanhelpmeachievemypurpose?
Ideally,IdlikeDmitriandthedirectortohaveapositivefeelingaboutmyproposal.Failingthat,IwantDmitritobeasworriedaboutthesituationasIamandtoseetheissueasurgent.Iwantthedirectortroubledenoughtoacceptmyrecommendation,evenifhedoesntlikeit.
HowcanIelicitthesefeelings?
Ishouldntusestrongemotionallanguage.Thatwouldmakemeseembiased.AndDmitriandthedirectormighthavesomestereotypesaboutwomen.Ijustdontknow.
TashawillargueheropinionthewayDmitrilikes:withfacts.Shecouldrelyontheargumentalonetomotivatehim,butshewantstomaximizetheoddsofsuccessandknowsthatemotionsareinplayanyway,whethershewantstodealwiththemornot.
Shetriestoestablishtheurgencyofthehiringissue.ThesoonerDmitrithinksthecallcenterwillhaveamajorproblem,themorelikelyhewillbetoact.Dmitrisrumoredpromotioncouldbeanasset.Hewillnotwanthislastactoverseeingthecallcentertobeadebacle.
Exercise:WhatAudienceEmotionWillHelpYouPersuade?
PleasereadTashasPersuasiveMemo,Version2.Thesentencesthatdirectlyevokeemotionarehighlighted.
TashasPersuasiveMemo,Version2
Businessaudiencescanfoolthemselvesthattheyreimmunetofeelingsaffectingtheirjudgment.Emotionsarerealitiesinfact,theyarepartofhowwemakeourjudgmentsanddecisions,andwearentconsciousofsomeofthem.(Formoreonthistopic,seeCognitiveBias.)
Practically,then,youarebetteroffhavingtheaudiencesemotionsworkingforyou.Emotionsenergizepersuasionandcanhaveamultipliereffectonamessage.DmitricanbemoremotivatedasaresultofthefeelingsTashaevokesinhermemothanhewouldifhereadamemothatavoidedevokingemotionasmuchaspossible.
AudienceEmotions
Dmitrihasstrongfeelingsabouthiringtosolvethecallcenterproblem.Tashacan'teliminatehisfeelingsagainstthatsolution,butshecanintensifyhisfeelingsaboutdoingnothing.
How?UsingCharacterintheMessage
How?UsingCharacterintheMessage
Characteristheaudience'sattitudetowardaspeakerorwriter.Audiencesformattitudesofthepersoncommunicatingnotonlyfromthecontentofthemessagebutalsofromothersourcessuchasbodylanguageandfacialexpression(speakers),toneandvocabulary(writers),andtheaudience'spreviousimpressionsoftheperson(bothwritersandspeakers).
Audiencesareespeciallyreactivetotheknowledgeandcredibilityofaspeakerorwriter:
Knowledge
Anaudiencewantstobesurethecommunicatorknowswhatheorsheistalkingabout.Tobereceptivetoamessage,anaudiencemusthavesomerespectfortheintellectualauthorityofthecommunicator.
Credibility
Anaudiencewantstobesurethatcommunicatorscanbetrusted,thattheytellthetruthastheyseeit,andthattheyaretransparentwiththeirevidenceandabouttheirmotives.
Readthefollowingexcerptfromarecentlettertoshareholders.ImagineyouhaveinvestedinBuffett'scompany,BerkshireHathaway.Howwouldyoufeelaboutthemessageinthisexcerpt?
TotheShareholdersofBerkshireHathawayInc.,20091
Andnowapainfulconfession:Lastyearyourchairmanclosedthebookonaveryexpensivebusinessfiascoentirelyofhisownmaking.
FormanyyearsIhadstruggledtothinkofsideproductsthatwecouldofferourmillionsofloyalGEICOcustomers.Unfortunately,Ifinallysucceeded,comingupwithabrilliantinsightthatweshouldmarketourowncreditcard.IreasonedthatGEICOpolicyholderswerelikelytobegoodcreditrisksand,assumingweofferedanattractivecard,wouldlikelyfavoruswiththeirbusiness.Wegotbusinessallrightbutofthewrongtype.
Ourpretaxlossesfromcreditcardoperationscametoabout$6.3millionbeforeIfinallywokeup.Wethensoldour$98millionportfoliooftroubledreceivablesfor55onthedollar,losinganadditional$44million.
Buffett'shonestyelicitstrust,aninvaluableassetforanexecutiveandleader.Hisselfdeprecatinghumorandhishumilityoffsetthebadnews.Weareusuallywillingtoforgivepeoplewhotakeresponsibilityforfailures.ThecharacterBuffettprojectsinhisshareholdersletterisstablefromyeartoyear.Consistencyisanotherkeytoapersuasiveethos.
OnDemandCharacter?OnDemandCharacter?
Incommunicationshouldyoupresentyourselfasyoureallyareorshouldyoupresentyourselfinwhateverwayyouthinkfurthersyourpurpose,evenifthatmeansdisguisingormisrepresentingyourcharacter?
Inaway,thequestiondoesnotmattermuch.Itisveryhardforsomeonetoconstructafallaciouscharacter.Askilledactorcanloseherorhimselfinarole,butfortherestofus,ourcharacterstendtobestubbornlyfixed.Theriskoftryingtoexpressfalsecharacteristhattheaudiencewilldetectit,atwhichpointthepersuader'scredibilityevaporates.
However,wecanstressdifferentaspectsofourcharactertosuitourpurpose.Inhishighlyeffectivemarketingpresentations,SteveJobscameacrossasaproudandexcitedparent,withnewdevicesashischildren.IninternalmeetingsatApple,herevealedothersidesofhischaracter:demanding,impatient,sometimesdenigrating.
Whenyouareconsideringwhatethosyouwanttoconvey,askthesequestions:
Whatistheaudience'sattitudetowardmycharacter?WhatdoIwanttheaudiencemembers'attitudetobe?HowcanImovetheaudiencetothedesiredattitude?
Example:PersuadingDmitri
HereareTasha'sthoughtsaboutcharacterandherattempttopersuade:
WhatisDmitri'sattitudetowardmycharacter?
HerespectsmeandIcanbuildonthat.ButeveryoneknowsI'mveryloyaltothereps,andhemightquestionmyobjectivity.Thedirectormightassumethesamething.
WhatdoIwanttheaudiencemembers'attitudetobe?
First,IwantDmitriandthedirectortoknowthatI'mamanagementteamplayer.Next,IwantthemtoknowthatI'manexpert.Ispeaktheirlanguage(numbers)andknowwhatI'mtalkingabout!
HowcanImovetheaudiencetothedesiredattitude?
Icandothisbybeingobjectiveandlogical.I'veresearchedalotofevidence,includingnumbers.Maybesomebackgroundonourdepartment'scostcuttingwould
helpmyteamplayerimage.
Example:PersuadingDmitri(Continued)
Tasha'ssecondaryaudience,Arthur,thedirectorofcorporatemarketingandsales,doesntknowherwell.Shethinksthatpositioningherselfandherdepartmentascostcutterswillmakeafavorableimpressiononhim.
Inreality,Tashasfeelingsdomotivateher.Theplightofheroverworkedandstressedemployeesisupsettingandsheispainedtoloseveteranreps(needlessly,inheropinion)thatshelikesandrespects.YetshespragmaticenoughtounderstandthatinthememohercharactershouldcomeacrossasanalyticalandmethodicaltogiveherabetterchanceofpersuadingDmitriandhissuperior.
SeeTasha'sPersuasiveMemo,Version3.Thestatementsthatdirectlyaffecttheaudience'sattitudetowardherarehighlighted.
Tasha'sPersuasiveMemo,Version3
Exercise:MatchingCharactertotheCommunicationSituation
TheEthicsofPersuasion
TheEthicsofPersuasion
Toconvinceanaudience,anindividualcanfudgedata,manipulatefeelings,andprojectafalsecharacter.Unfortunately,thesemisusesofpersuasionarealltoocommon,includinginbusiness.
Manypeoplearesuspiciousofpersuasion,regardingitasawaytowinoveranaudiencethroughdeceptionorpureemotion.Nonetheless,businesspeopleengageinpersuasioneverydaybecauseitstheartofthepractical:theuseoflanguagetogetthingsdone.Humanshaveengagedinitsinceweacquiredlanguage.
Persuasionissensitivetotheethicsofbothsidesofacommunication.Tashacouldusefalseormisleadingevidencetopersuade.Ontheotherhand,Dmitricouldclaimthatthereasonforthebacklogofcallsisnotunderstaffingbutthepoorperformanceofcallcenterrepsandusethatasanexcusetofirearephehasneverliked.Thepointisthatbothcommunicatorsandaudienceshaveethicalresponsibilities.
Wheneverpersuasionisused,ethicsareinplay.Speakerscanchangedatatosupporttheiropinion.Writerscanuseinflammatoryorexaggeratedlanguage.Bothcanmanipulateanaudiencebyexploitingabias.Yet,audiencesaren'thelpless.Theycanlistenorreadcritically.
Everyonehasopportunitiestoexploitcommunicationforthesakeofsomekindofperceivedadvantage.Whenindoubt,askyourselfwhatoutcomeisbestforyouandthecommongoodinthelongaswellastheshortrun.
OrganizingaMessage
OrganizingaMessageAnanalysisofacommunicationsituationtellsyouagreatdealaboutthemessageyouareplanning.Thatknowledgeinformswhatyoudonext:Createandorganizecontent.
InformativeCommunication
InformativeCommunication
Tocreateaninformativemessage,gathertheinformationnecessarytoaccomplishyourpurpose.Youalsoneedtounderstandtheinformation.Ifyoudonotunderstandsomeoralloftheinformation,takewhateveractionyouneedtomasterit.
Theguidingprincipleforinformativecommunicationistoincludeeverythingtheaudienceneedstoknowandnomore.Limitinginformationtotheessentialssoundsstraightforward,butthereisastrongtendencytothinkthatmoreinformationisbetterthanless.
Goodexamplesareanalystreportsonstocks.Thesereportsoftencontainanastonishingamountofinformation,suchaseighteenpagesonasinglebankstock,withfifteenexhibits,someofwhichfillapage.Butdistillingamassofinformationintoacompactpackagecanbedone.
Aleadingfinancialfirmrequiresthatinternalanalystreportswrittenforportfoliomanagersbenolongerthantwopages.Analystsidentifyandincludeonlytheinformationofgreatestvaluetotheaudienceofportfoliomanagerssuchinformationcouldincludeexpectedearningspersharegrowth,thestrengthofacompany'scoreproductsorservices,andlongtermpotentialforgrowth.
Example:InformingtheReps
TheITreportTashahasreceivedcoverssoftwarechangesmadeintheupdate.Herfirststepisextractingthecontentrelevanttocallcenterreps.Shefindsacoupleofchangestothesoftwarethatshedoesnotunderstandcompletely,soshesendsanemailtotheITpersonwhowrotethereportforclarification.
TashaleavesoutfarmoreoftheITreportthansheusesinhermemo.Butevenwiththereductionincontent,Tashahasmorefilteringtodo.Someofthechangestothesoftwareareminor,havinglittleeffectonthereps'work.Shedecidesnottoincludesuchchanges.Theycoulddistracttheaudienceor,worse,signalthatthecontenthasminimalworth.Theminorchangescanbecoveredquicklyinameeting.
AsTashaassemblesthecorecontentforhermemo,shefacesthecriticaldecisionofinformativecommunication:howtoorganizeittoachieveherpurpose.
InformationOrganizersInformationOrganizers
Aneffectivewriterorspeakerputsinformationinanorderthatbestfacilitatesaudiencecomprehension.
Manycommunicationsfailbecauseofpoororganization.Byputtingdowntheirthoughtsinanillogicalorder,writersleavethetaskoforganizingtoreaders.Nodoubtyouhavereceivedwritingthatisdisorganized.Doyourememberyourresponse?Mostreaderswillmakeanefforttounderstand,buteventuallytheyreachathresholdoffrustrationandquitreading.
Everybodyofinformationisunique,yettherearetwobroadcategoriesoforganizersthatcanhelp:
OrganicorganizersAnalyticorganizers
InformationOrganizers:OrganicInformationOrganizers:Organic
Organicorganizersarethosethatderivefromthenatureofthetopic.Asacommunicator,youreproducetheorganizationfortheaudience.Herearesomeofthemostcommontypesoforganiclogic:
OrganicOrganizer Definition Example
Physicalarrangement Arrangementofphysicaldetails.
Describetheorganizationofaproductionlineandexplainwhyitisorganizedthatway.
Chronology Timesequence Describethehistoryofaproductlineandexplaindecisionsthatshapeditshistory.
Process Seriesofstepsthatleadtoaspecificoutcome.
Describethestepsforenteringinformationintoacomputerdatabaseandexplaintherationalefortheorderofthesteps.
Hierarchy Structureofauthority,power,responsibility,orsimilarcharacteristicsofanorganization.
Describeanorganizationchartandexplainthereportingrelationships.
InformationOrganizers:AnalyticInformationOrganizers:Analytic
Sometimesinformationyouhavetocommunicatedoesnothaveanobviousstructure.Inthesesituations,useanalyticorganizers,inwhichyouorganizeinformationusingconceptsappropriatetothecontentandaudience.
Afrequentlyusedanalyticorganizerisorderofimportance.Atodolistarrangedfromthemostimportanttasktotheleastimportantisanexample.Soisasetofrecommendationsforimprovinganemployee'sperformancearrangedinpriorityorder.Anothercommontypeofanalyticorganizerislevelofdifficulty(basictoadvanced)andfrequency(highfrequencytolowfrequency).
Businessconceptsoftenserveasanalyticorganizers.Let'ssaythatyouhavenewemployeesonyourmarketingteamandwanttodescribethecurrentmarketingplanforaproduct.ThereisawelldefinedwayofcommunicatingamarketingplanthateveryMBAcandidatelearns:the4Ps(product,price,promotion,andplace).The4Psframeworkisaninstanceofanorganizertailormadeforaparticulartypeofinformation.
Herearesomeexamplesofanalyticorganization:
AnalyticOrganizer Definition Example
Importance Arrangebyvalue,worth,andurgency.Listofcriticalsafetypractices(mostimportanttoleastimportant).
Difficulty Arrangebylevelofdifficulty. Trainingmanualforoperationofmachine(basictoadvanced).
FrequencyArrangebythenumberofoccurrencesoveraperiodoftime.
Numberofmentionsofcompanyinvarioussocialmedia(hightolowfrequency).
Businessconcepts
Arrangebyorderofconceptsinabusinessmodel. Amarketingplanorganizedaroundthe4Ps.
Exercise:OrganizingInformation
Example:InformingtheReps
Tashahasalreadygivensomethoughttoorganizingthemessageaboutthenewsoftwarefeatures.Shecouldfollowanorganicorder:thesequenceofstepstherepstakewhentheyusethesoftwareforatypicalcustomercall.
Sherejectsthatorder.First,therepsknowtheprocessextremelywellanddon'thavetobetoldwhichfeatureappliestowhichstep.Second,theyhaveastrictstandardfortheirhighestlevelofattention:Doesitmakemylifeeasier?Ifitdoesnot,theytendtoignoretheinformation.
SoananalyticorganizerlookstoTashalikethebestbet:theorderofimportancetothereps.
ReadTasha'sinformativememoandanalyzetheorganization.Thenmovethecursoroverthetextofthememoforexplanations.
Tasha'sInformativeMemo
PersuasiveArguments
PersuasiveArguments
Likeinformativecommunication,persuasivecommunicationrestsonthefoundationofawelldefinedpurposeandanunderstandingoftheaudience.Butpersuasionismorecomplicated.Thegoalofinformativecommunicationisaudiencecomprehensionofthecontent.Notsowithpersuasion:Communicatorsseektomotivateanaudiencetothink,feel,ordosomethingspecific.
Toinformanaudience,thecommunicatorjustgivesanaudiencethenecessaryfacts.Topersuadeanaudience,shenotonlyhastoprovidethefacts,shemustalsotellthemwhythefactsshouldpromptthemtothink,feel,oractinacertainway.
Asimpleexampleofthedifferenceinvolvesbeautyproducts.Informinganaudiencewhatproductsadrugstoreordepartmentstoresellsandwheretofindtheminthestoreisnotdifficult.Ontheotherhand,persuadingmembersofanaudiencetobuyspecificproductschallengesthemostskillfulmarketers.Consumerproductcompaniesspendbillionsofdollarsayeartoconvinceshopperstobuytheirproducts.
Businesscommunicationencompassesahugerangeofpersuasivecommunicationthatusesdifferentcombinationsofrationalargumentsandemotionalandcharacterbasedappeals.Reportsbyfinancialanalystsuseonlyrationalargumentstopersuadeclients,althoughbothemotionalandcharacterbasedappealsareimplicit.Areport,forexample,byawellregardanalystwilllikelycarrymoreweightwithanaudienceofinvestorsbecauseoftheanalyst'sperceivedcharacterasanexpert.Ontheotherhand,atelevisioncommercialforaperfumecanhavenorationalargumentatallanddependentirelyonanemotionalappealandcharacterbasedappeals.
Managementcommunication,however,dependsheavilyonrationalargumentsforavarietyofreasons,themostimportantofwhichisaudienceexpectations.Therefore,asfuturemanagersandleaders,youneedtoknowhowtobuildarguments.
Everyrealworldsituationthatcallsforpersuasiveargumentshasuniquecircumstances.However,threetypesofargumentsareextremelycommoninbusiness.
Thethreetypesofargumentsare:
DecisionEvaluationDiagnosis
Youwillbelearningtemplatesforeachtypeofargument.Insteadofviewingeveryargumentasoneofakind,withfewornosimilaritiestoanyotherargument,thetemplatestakeadvantageofelementscommontoeachtypeofargument.
Thesetemplatesarenotintendedtoreducethecomplexityofrealworldbusinessbuthelpyoutomanageit.Thetemplatesdonotaddresseverybusinesssituationforwhichanargumentisrequired,buttheyareusefulinmanysituations.
Example:YouNeedanArgument
ImaginethatyouworkforasoftwaredevelopmentcompanybasedinSingapore.OneofyourteamsprogramssoftwareforaroboticscompanyinCanada.Thatteamhascomeupwithaprogrammingapproachforaroboticmachinethatmakestheoperator'sjobmorestraightforward,thusreducingbothtrainingtimeandoperatorerrors.
Theresacatch,though.TheclientsengineersinCanadawillhavetoadapttheirprogrammingtothenewapproachyourteamhasdeveloped.Becausetheyareemployeesoftheclientcompany,theyhavemorepowerthanyoudo.ThemanageroftheCanadianengineerssaysyoumustpersuadehisengineerstoacceptthenewapproach.
Youhaveaclearpictureinyourmindofthebenefitsandthedatathatsubstantiatesthem.Buthowcanyouorganizethismaterialintoalogicalargument?Theprospectofwritingdownyourideas,tryingtofindthebestorganizationforthem,andpositioningthedatainthebestwaypossibledoesnotappealtoyou.Youreanengineer,afterall,notadebater.
Inthissituation,atemplateormodelfortheargumentwouldbehelpful.Itcouldguideyourthinkingaboutthecontentandstructureofapersuasiveargument.
DecisionArgumentsDecisionArguments
Inyourcareer,howlikelyisitthatyouwilladvocateadecision?Theanswerisverylikely.Managersfindthemselvesinthispositionallthetime.Becausebusinessisaboutaction,decisionsareessentialeventsinanyorganization.
Whenyouchoseyourlastjob,whatdidyouthinkabouttohelpmakethechoice?Youmighthaveconsideredthecompany,thesalary,thejobdescription,theboss,andthechancesofpromotion.Ifyouacceptedthejob,youmadeaconvincingargumenttoyourselfthatitwastherightdecision.
InthefilmTheDarkKnight,Batmanfacesachoice:killTheJokerornot.Tomakethedecision,hecouldusethesecriteria:
BenefitstoGothamEthicsThelawHiscareerasasuperhero
Criteriaarepivotalwhenyouargueadecision.Ifyouarentsureofthecriteria,thereasoningforyourrecommendationwillbeunfocusedandconfused.Theothercrucialcomponentofadecisionargumentisevidence.Whenyouapplythecriteria,youhavetoshowtheaudiencestrongevidencethatclearlysupportsyourrecommendeddecision.
Exercise:KillTheJoker?
Close
ResetExercise
DecisionArgumentTemplate
Althoughtherearemanywaystostructureanargumentaboutadecision,atemplatecanhelpyougetstarted.Thisapproachissimilartolearninghowtocook.Novicesstartwitharecipe.Theylearntheingredientsandfollowtherecipestepbystep,asitiswritten.Astheybecomemoreskilled,cookscanvarytherecipeordevisetheirown.Thistemplateandthetwoothersthatfollowarelikerecipesforarguments.
Briefcase:DecisionArgumentTemplate
TemplateSection DescriptionStateDecision Thedecisionthatneedstobemade
StateDecisionOptions ThedifferentoptionsforthedecisionStateRecommendation TheoptionyoubelieveisbestStateCriteria ThecriteriayouusetomakethedecisionProveDecision TheevidencesupportingthedecisionCriterion1 SupporttheproposeddecisionwithevidencebasedonthefirstcriterionCriterion2 SupporttheproposeddecisionwithevidencebasedonthesecondcriterionCriterion3 ContinuetheproofwiththeremainingcriteriaRebutOtherOptions Showwhytheotheroptionsarenotasgoodastherecommendedone
Example:PlanningaMessageAboutaDecision
Ananalystispreparingareportaboutastockshefollows,GrowthWare.ThecurrentratingisaHoldandshewantstoconvinceinvestorstobuy.Hereisthetemplatesheusestoplanherreport.
TemplateSection DescriptionStateDecision Bestuseofinvestorscapital
StateDecisionOptionsBuyHoldSell
StateRecommendation BuyGrowthWare
StateCriteriaEarningspershare(EPS)StrengthofcurrentbusinessLongtermgrowthpotential
ProveDecisionEarningspershare(EPS) EPSlowinhistoricalterms
Strengthofcurrentbusiness
UniquevaluepropositionWeakcompetitors
LongtermgrowthpotentialBasebusinessgrowingwithnewproductreleasesNewbusinesshasgreatpotential
RebutOtherOptionsHold YouwillmissadditionalgainbydoingnothingSell Youwillmissvaluetoberealizedinnexttwotothreeyears
Exercise:InvestinaWindFarm?
Example:PersuadingDmitri
Tashausesthedecisionargumenttemplatetoorganizeherpersuasivememo.
TemplateSection DescriptionStateDecision Improvecallcenter
StateDecisionOptionsStatusquoHireparttimerepsHirefulltimereps
StateRecommendation Hirefulltimereps
StateCriteriaTurnoverCostsServicequality
ProveDecision
Turnover
100%higherthisyearExperiencedrepsleavingCauseisoverworkMoreSpanishlanguagecustomers
Cost 17%increaseinourtotalbudgetTurnoveraccountsformostoftheincrease
Servicequality Fourmetricsindicatedecline:callersputonhold,abandonedcalls,averagecalllength,andcustomercomplaints.RebutOtherOptionsStatusquo CurrentproblemswillbecomeworseHireparttimerepsforcallcenter Parttimerepstakealongtimetotrain,willendupcostingmorethanfulltimereps
ReadTasha'sdecisionmemoandanalyzetheorganizationoftheargument.Thenmovethecursoroverthetextofthememoforexplanations.Oneparagraphhasbeenaddedtothebasicorganizationofadecisionargument.Whatisitspersuasivefunction?
Tasha'sDecisionMemo
EvaluationArgumentsEvaluationArguments
Asecondtypeofpersuasiveargumentisassessmentorevaluation.Theexampleyoumaybemostfamiliarwithistheperformanceevaluation.Otherexamplesaretheevaluationofapotentialinvestmentbyaprivateequityfirmandabankreportratingaloanapplication.
Youmakeevaluationsinyourpersonallife.Youhaveprobablyspenttimeevaluatingdifferentbrandsandmodelsofcellphones.Youmaynothavethoughtofcharacteristicslikeprice,appearance,screensize,andtouchscreenversusaphysicalkeyboardascriteria,butthatispreciselytheroletheyservedforyou.
Exercise:HowtoChooseanIdol
Close
I'mFinishedResetExercise
EvaluationArgumentTemplate
Thekeystoanevaluationareusinganappropriatesetofcriteria,fullyapplyingthemtothesubjectoftheevaluation,andmakingareasonableoverallevaluationbasedonthecriteriaresults.
Intherealworld,evaluationsrarelyareallpositiveorallnegative.Applyingcriteriameansrecognizingboththenegativesandthepositives.Forinstance,whenabankerevaluatesapotentialloan,criteriaaregoingtoshowbothstrengthsandweaknesses.
Theoverallevaluationrequiresjudgment.Foraloanapplication,isthebalancesheetorcredithistorymoreimportant?Othercriteriacanhelp,butjudgmentisstillrequired.
Briefcase:EvaluationArgumentTemplate
TemplateSection DescriptionStateSubjectofEvaluation
Whatorwhoisbeingevaluatedandonwhatterms
StateCriteria ThecriteriayouusefortheevaluationStateOverallEvaluation YourbottomlineevaluationofthesubjectProvetheEvaluation Theevidencesupportingthedecision
Criterion1 Evaluatesubjectwithevidencebasedonthefirstcriterion.Mayfindnegatives,positives,orboth.
Criterion2 Evaluatesubjectwithevidencebasedonthesecondcriterion.Mayfindnegatives,positives,orboth.Criterion3 Continueproofontheremainingcriteria
Example:PlanninganEvaluation
AHongKongventurecapitalfirmhasevaluatedputtingmoneyintoatechnologystartup.Seetheresultsbelow.
StateSubjectofEvaluation Technologystartupinrobotics.
StateCriteria
MarketProductCompetitionManagementteamFinancialsIntangibles
StateOverallEvaluation
Investmentisnotrecommended.Market,product,andcompetitionarepositive,butthemanagementteamisweakandtheinvestmentistoolargefortherisk.
ProvetheEvaluationMarket +Willgrowrapidlyinthenextfewyears
Product +GoodpotentialtomeetneedUnanswereddesignquestions
Competition +NonenowWilldevelopquicklyManagementteam
NooperatingexperiencetospeakofDontappreciatewhattheydontknow
Financials UnrealisticprojectionsLargeinvestmentrequired
Intangibles+SavvyengineersNavemanagers
Exercise:SizingupTabletComputers
Example:EvaluatingtheCallCenter
AssumethatTashastaskhaschanged.Dmitrihasaskedhertogivehimanupdateontheperformanceofthecallcenter.Soinsteadofadvocatingadecision,shewritesanevaluationargument.
Thefactbasefortheevaluationisthesameastheoneforthedecisionargument.Butitisusedasevidenceforevaluatingtheperformanceofthecallcenter.
TashausestheEvaluationArgumentTemplatetoorganizeherargument:
TemplateSection MyMemoSubjectofEvaluation Performanceofcallcenter
StateCriteriaServicequalityFinancialsHumanresources
ProvetheEvaluation
Servicequality+Currentlevelishigh
Qualityisdeclining
Financials+Newcostreductions
Overbudgetby$300K
Humanresources+Coreofexperiencedreps
Turnoverunsustainable
ReadTashasmemoandnoticehowtheargumenthaschanged.Analyzehowitisorganizedandthenmovethecursoroverthetextofthememoforexplanations.
Tasha'sEvaluationMemo
DiagnosisArgumentsDiagnosisArguments
Tounderstanddiagnosis,thinkofadoctor.Whenyouaresick,yougotoadoctor,whoasksforthesymptomsyouareexperiencing,examinesyou,andpossiblyorderstests.Thedoctorseeksadiagnosisthatbestaccountsforhisorherobservationsandprescribesacourseofactiontoimprovethecondition.
Therearemanyoccasionsinbusinesswhenaproblemneedstobediagnosed.In2009,anabnormallyhighnumberofincidentsofunintendedaccelerationinvolvingToyotavehicleswerereported.Toyotainvestigatedandfoundthatbesidesdrivererror,twoothercauseswereresponsible:stickypedalsandincorrectlyinstalledfloormats.Thefindingsledthemtorecallaffectedcarsandrepairthem.
Lessdramaticdiagnosesoccurinbusinesseseveryday,fromunderstandingwhyyourofficeprinterisn'tworkingtowhyaprojectisstalled.
Adiagnosticargumentisexplanatory.Itisneededwhenasituationoroutcomeneedsacausalexplanation,liketheexamplesjustcited.
DiagnosisArgumentTemplate
TemplateSection DescriptionDefinetheProblem DescriptionofthemajorsymptomsoftheproblemtobediagnosedSummarizetheCauses BriefdescriptionofeachofthemajorcausesoftheproblemProvetheCauses TheevidencesupportingthediagnosisCause1 UseevidencetoshowhowthefirstcausecontributestotheproblemCause2 UseevidencetoshowhowthesecondcausecontributestotheproblemCause3 Continueproofoftheremainingcauses
Tomakeanaccuratediagnosis,useconceptsandknowledgerelevanttotheproblem,alongwithexperienceandcommonsense.Toexplainthefinancialcrisisof2008,analystsusedanarrayofconceptssuchasmicroandmacroeconomics,theoperationofspecificmarkets,andpsychology.
Briefcase:DiagnosisArgumentTemplate
Example:PlanningaDiagnosis
TheoperationsmanagerofamultinationalcompanyinEuropehasbeenvexedbycustomercomplaintsaboutlatedeliveries.Todiagnosetheproblem,heandhisteambrokeitdownintoproduction,inventory,warehouseoperations,anddeliverytothecustomer.Aninvestigationfoundthreemajorcauses,oneofwhichsurprisedeveryone.
Heplanstomeetwithtopexecutivesaboutthefindingsandorganizeshistalkusingadiagnostictemplate:
TemplateSection DescriptionDefinetheProblem Highnumberofcustomercomplaintsaboutlateproductdeliveries
SummarizetheCauses
Delaysinreplenishinginventory
Useofwarehousefortraining
UnusualnumberofweathereventsdelayingdeliveriesProvetheCausesDelaysinreplenishinginventory
Manufacturingdelaysresultedinslowerreplenishmentofinventoryofafewhighvolumeproducts
Useofwarehousefortraining
Unusualturnoverandretirementsamongforkliftoperators
UseofwarehousetotrainnewoperatorsinterferedwithfulfillmentUnusualnumberofweathereventsdelayingdeliveries
Severewinterandspringweathersloweddowntruckandairdeliveries
Exercise:DiagnosingtheSuccessofaZoo
Example:DiagnosingtheCallCenter
AssumethatTasha'staskhaschangedagain.Thistime,Dmitrihasaskedhertodiagnosewhycallcentercostshaveincreased.Insteadofadvocatingadecisionorevaluatingthecallcenter'sperformance,shewritesadiagnosticargument.
Thefactbaseforthediagnosisisthesameastheoneforthedecisionandevaluationarguments.ButTashawilluseitasevidenceofcausesfortheincreaseincosts.
ReadTasha's"DiagnosisMemoandnoticehowtheargumenthaschanged.Analyzehowthememoisorganizedandthenmovethecursoroverthetextofthememoforexplanations.
Tasha'sDiagnosisMemo
PlanningCommunication:Memos
PlanningCommunication:MemosTasha'sPersuasiveMemo,Version1Tasha'sPersuasiveMemo,Version2Tasha'sPersuasiveMemo,Version3Tasha'sInformativeMemoTasha'sDecisionMemoTasha'sEvaluationMemoTasha'sDiagnosisMemo
TemplatesandChecklists
TemplatesandChecklistsChecklist:AnalyzingaCommunicationSituationChecklist:CommunicationChannelCharacteristicsTemplateDefined:DecisionArgumentTemplateDefined:EvaluationArgumentTemplateDefined:DiagnosisArgument
BlankTemplatesforPlanning
Template:PlanningaDecisionArgumentTemplate:PlanninganEvaluationArgumentTemplate:PlanningaDiagnosisArgument
PlanningCommunication:ExamIntroduction
PlanningCommunication:ExamIntroductionThistestwillallowyoutoassessyourknowledgeofPlanningCommunication.
Allquestionsmustbeansweredforyourexamtobescored.
Navigation:Toadvancefromonequestiontothenext,selectoneoftheanswerchoicesor,ifapplicable,completewithyourownchoiceandclickthe"Submit"button.Aftersubmittingyouranswer,youwillnotbeabletochangeit,somakesureyouaresatisfiedwithyourselectionbeforeyousubmiteachanswer.Youmayalsoskipaquestionbypressingtheforwardadvancearrow.Pleasenotethatyoucanreturnto"skipped"questionsusingthe"Jumptounansweredquestion"selectionmenuorthenavigationalarrowsatanytime.Althoughyoucanskipaquestion,youmustnavigatebacktoitandansweritallquestionsmustbeansweredfortheexamtobescored.
Yourresultswillbedisplayedimmediatelyuponcompletionoftheexam.
Aftercompletion,youcanreviewyouranswersatanytimebyreturningtotheexam.
GoodLuck!
WritinginBusinessWritingskillsarefundamentalinbusiness.Itsincreasinglyimportanttobeabletoconveycontentinatight,logical,directmanner,particularlyinafastpacedtechnologicalenvironment.
Respondent,Writing:ATickettoWork...oraTicketOut:ASurveyofBusinessLeaders1
Introduction
IntroductionThismoduleaddresseseffectivebusinesswriting.Whyshouldyoubeconcernedaboutyourwritingskills?Aren'tpresentationsandotherfacetofacecommunicationmoreimportantthanwriting?
AccordingtoasurveyoflargeU.S.companies,thejobsoftwothirdsofmanagementlevelemployeesincludesignificantwritingsuchasemails,presentations,technicalreports,formalreports,andmemos.
Eightypercentormoreofcompaniesinthefinancialsector(includinginsuranceandrealestate)andaslightlysmallerpercentageintherestoftheserviceindustryconsiderwritingintheirhiringdecisions.
Considerthesequotesfromcorporaterecruiters:1
Poorlywrittenapplicationmaterialswouldbeextremelyprejudicial.Suchapplicantswouldnotbeconsideredforanyposition.
Inmostcases,writingabilitycouldbeyourticketin...oritcouldbeyourticketout.
Thinkaboutyourownworkexperience.Howmuchtimedidyouspendreadingandwritingemailsandattachments,texts,wikientries,memos,andreports?DidyouuseInternetcommunicationlikeTwitterforbusiness?DidyouusetextsandInstantMessagingforwork?
Chancesarethatyouspentmoretimewritingthanyourealized.
WritingIsGettingMoreImportant
WritingIsGettingMoreImportant
Ironically,moderndigitalmediatendtorelyonaveryoldmeansofcommunicating:writing.
In2011,1.88billionpeoplewereusingemailworldwide,sending32billionlegitimateemails(notspam)perday.Inthatyear,25billionTweetsweresentonTwitter,andFacebookhad600millionusers.
In2011,businessusershandledanaverageof110emailmessagesaday.Theysentabout36messagesadayor180perweek.Eventhoughmanymessagesmightbeshort,emailaloneaccountsforsignificantwritingtimeeachday.Addinmemos,reports,texts,andTweets,andthevolumeofwritingbecomesamajorpartof
amanager'sworkload.
Globalizationhasaddedtothewritingbusinesspeopledo.
Workteamsareoftenscatteredthroughouttheworld.Membersmayrarelyornevermeetfacetoface.Duetotimedifferencesandotherobstacles,theycarryonmuchoftheircommunicationinwriting.Skillinwritingnowhasacentralroleinhowwellpeopleworktogether.
CommunicationChallengesintheFuture
Thedigitalageofbusinessneedsgoodwriters.
AlthoughEnglishhasbecomethecommonlanguageofinternationalbusiness,differencesintheculturalnormsofaudiencescomplicatecommunicationacrossborders.Awrittenreportthatseemslaboriousandoverlyformaltomembersofaglobalteaminonecountrymaystriketeammembersfromanotheraswellpacedandrespectful.
Communicationskillsnowmustincorporatesomeawarenessofhowaudiencesdifferaccordingtoculture.Inthiscourse,theexamplesandexercisesincludecrossculturalissues.
WritingClarifiesandPreservesThinking
WritingClarifiesandPreservesThinking
Thetranscriptofaspontaneousconversationtypicallycontainsmanyverbalstumbles,pauses,falsestarts,gapsinlogic,unfinishedthoughts,andunexplainedreferences.
Althoughpeopledomanagetounderstandoneanother,oralspeechisn'twellsuitedforcommunicatinglargequantitiesofinformationorextendedthinkingonacomplicatedtopic,asinareportonfuturemarketopportunitiesforacompany.Also,oncesomethingisspoken,it'sgoneunlesswewriteitdown.Ourmemoryoforalcontentsimplyisn'treliable.
Writingenablespeopletopreservetheirthinking,animportantfunctioninbusiness.Muchofacompanysinstitutionalmemoryresidesinwrittendocumentssuchasanemployeehandbookorfieldreportsontroubleshootingequipment.Whensomeonestartsanewjob,heorsheisoftenhandedastackofdocumentsandreferredtowrittenresourcesonthecompanyintranet.
TheWritingProcess
TheWritingProcessWemayhaveaninnatecapacityforlanguageandspeaking,butwedontseemtohavethatkindofcapacityforwriting.Nearlyeveryonelearnstotalkandcanspeakwithease,butwritingisdifferent.Puttingourthoughtsintowritingthatisreadilyunderstoodbyotherstakesmoreeffortthanspeaking.
Someresearchonworkplacewritingindicatesthatexperiencedwritersuseaconsciousprocessforwritingwhileinexperiencedwritersdon't.Thedifferenceshowsupinthefinishedproductsforonething,thewritingofexperiencedwritersisoftenmorelogicallyorganizedthanthewritingofnovices.
Anotherstudysoughttolearnwhetheragroupofengineeringgraduatesusedthewritingprocesstheyhadbeentaughttoworkplacewriting.Theydid.Infact,theyfounditindispensableforwrittencommunication.
Thisevidenceconfirmsthatstudyofthewritingprocessisntanacademicexercise.Theprocesscanbeapracticaltoolformanagers.
Everywriterhasapersonalwritingprocess.Reflectingonhowyouwrite,asopposedtowhatyouwrite,canmakeyourprocessmorereliableandefficient.
Howdoyouwrite?Describetheprocesstoyourself.Doyouhavetroublegettingstarted?Areyouawareofpointsintheprocesswhereyoustruggle?Thefollowingexplanationofthewritingprocessincludesdiscussionofprocessproblemsthatmakewritingharderthanitshouldbe.
Writerstypicallyhavemessyprocessesthatjumpfromoneactivitytoanotherinunpredictablepatterns.However,experiencedwritersuseamethodtocontrolthemessiness.Theythinkofthewritingprocessasfourinterconnectedactivities:
Butevenexperiencedwritersdon'tnecessarilymovefromactivitytoactivityinastraightline.Theymay,forexample,discoverwhilerevisingthatthedraftneedsmorecontent.Theythengobacktoaltertheirwritingplanandresearchthecontent.Orwhileeditingandcorrecting,theymayrealizefurtherrevisionsneedtobemade.
Preparing
Preparing
Preparingconsistsofdoingresearch(ifnecessary),definingyourpurpose,understandingtheaudience,andorganizingyourthinkinginawritingplan.Youfollowthewritingplantocreatethefirstdraft.
Theproductofpreparingisawritingplanyoucanfollowforthefirstdraft.
Somewritersdispensewiththepreparingstage.Theycomposetheirthoughtsandarrangethemastheygo.Theapproachcanworkwellforwriterswhoknowtheirsubjectextremelywellandhavewrittenaboutitbefore.Theyalreadyhavelogicaltemplatesintheirmemoriesthattheycanapply.
Thedownsideofthisapproachisthatitasksyourbraintodotwodifficulttasksatonce:Putyourthoughtsintowritingandarrangetheminalogicalorder.Youmayhaveexperiencedthestresscausedbyaskingtoomuchofyourbrain.Tofreemoreworkingmemorywhenyouwrite,firstplanwhatyouaregoingtosay.
ResearchandNotesResearchandNotes
Preparingfrequentlybeginswithresearchandnotetaking.Physicaldocuments,thecompanyintranet,onlinedatabases,andthewebcanfurnishvastquantitiesofinformation.Paradoxically,theaccessibilityofsomuchinformationbothfacilitatescommunicationandhampersit.Theinformationcanprovidecompellingevidenceforanargument,butitcanalsoleadtoinformationoverloadthatparalyzesthought.
Everyoneinbusinessexperiencessomedegreeofinformationoverload.Tolimititwhenwriting,usepurposeandaudiencetosetboundariesontheinformationyouneedforamessage.Forexample,ifyouarewritingareportonwhyphonecallsaredeclininginimportance,youwouldrestrictyourresearchtoinformationthatdocumentsthedeclineandhelpsidentifythecauses.
Notescanbeusedformorethanrecordinginformation.Theycanbeadialogwithyourmaterial.Youcanwritedownquestionsyouneedtoanswerwithresearchorinthemessageyouwillwrite.Youcancapturepointstoincludeinthewritingandbegintomapoutanorganization.
Becausemostwritingisdoneoncomputers,youcantakeadvantageofsoftwareforwebresearchsuchasEvernote,Ubernote,ZohoNotebook,andMemonic.
Plagiarism
Plagiarism
AccordingtotheCouncilofWritingProgramAdministrators,plagiarismoccurswhenawriterdeliberatelyusessomeoneelse'slanguage,ideas,orotheroriginal(notcommonknowledge)materialwithoutacknowledgingitssource.
Plagiarismviolatesatrustwiththeaudience.Unlessinformedbyasourc