There are techniques for finding the system response of a system described by a differential equation, based on the replacement of functions of a real variable (usually time or distance) by certain frequency-dependent representations, or by functions of a complex variable dependent upon frequency. The equations are converted from the time or space domain to the frequency domain through the use of mathematical transforms.
Differentialequations
Inputexcitation e(t)
Outputresponse r(t)
Time Domain Frequency Domain
Algebraicequations
Inputexcitation E(s)
Outputresponse R(s)
Laplace Transform
Inverse Laplace Transform
Let f(t) be a real function of a real variable t (time) defined for t>0. Then
is called the Laplace transform of f(t). The Laplace transform is a function of a complex variable s. Often s is separated into its real and imaginary parts: s=+j , where and are real variables.
After a solution of the transformed problem has been obtained in terms of s, it is necessary to "invert" this transform to obtain the solution in terms of the time variable, t. This transformation from the s-domain into the t-domain is called the inverse Laplace transform.
Let F(s) be the Laplace transform of a function f(t), t>0. The contour integral
where c>0 (0 as above) is called the inverse Laplace transform of F(s).
It is seldom necessary to perform the integration in the Laplace transform or the contour integration in the inverse Laplace transform. Most often, Laplace transforms and inverse Laplace transforms are found using tables of Laplace transform pairs.
Time Domainf(t), t>0
Frequency DomainF(s)
1. 12. K K/s3. Kt K/s2
4. Ke-at K/(s+a)5. Kte-at K/(s+a)2
6. Ksint K/(s2+2)
7. Kcost Ks/(s2+2)8. Ke-atsint K/((s+a)2+2))
9. Ke-atcost K(s+a)/((s+a)2+2))
Time Domain f(t), t>0
Frequency Domain F(s)
10. t s 11. f(t) F(s) 12. L-1{F(s)}=f(t) L{f(t)}=F(s) 13. Af1(t) + Bf2(t) AF1(s)+BF2(s)
14. t
df0
)(
F s
s
( )
15. df t
dt
( )
sF s f( ) ( ) 0
The inverse Laplace transform is usually more difficult than a simple table conversion.
X ss s
s s s( )
( )( )
( )( )
8 3 8
2 4
If we can break the right-hand side of the equation into a sum of terms and each term is in a table of Laplace transforms, we can get the inverse transform of the equation (partial fraction expansion).
X ss s
s s s
K
s
K
s
K
s( )
( )( )
( )( )
8 3 8
2 4 2 41 2 3
In general, there will be a term on the right-hand side for each root of the polynomial in the denominator of the left-hand side. Multiple roots for factors such as (s+2)n will have a term for each power of the factor from 1 to n.
Y ss
s
K
s
K
s( )
( )
( ) ( )
8 1
2 2 221 2
2
Complex roots are common, and they always occur in conjugate pairs. The two constants in the numerator of the complex conjugate terms are also complex conjugates.
Z ss s
K
s j
K
s j( )
.
( ) ( )
*
52
2 5 1 2 1 22
where K* is the complex conjugate of K.
The solution of each distinct (non-multiple) root, real or complex uses a two step process.
The first step in evaluating the constant is to multiply both sides of the equation by the factor in the denominator of the constant you wish to find.The second step is to replace s on both sides of the equation by the root of the factor by which you multiplied in step 1
X ss s
s s s
K
s
K
s
K
s( )
( )( )
( )( )
8 3 8
2 4 2 41 2 3
Ks s
s s s
1
0
8 3 8
2 4
8 0 3 0 8
0 2 0 424
( )( )
( )( )
( )( )
( )( )
Ks s
s s s
2
2
8 3 8
4
8 2 3 2 8
2 2 412
( )( )
( )
( )( )
( )
Ks s
s s s
3
4
8 3 8
2
8 4 3 4 8
4 4 44
( )( )
( )
( )( )
( )
The partial fraction expansion is:
X ss s s
( )
24 12
2
4
4
The inverse Laplace transform is found from the functional table pairs to be:
x t e et t( ) 24 12 42 4
Any unrepeated roots are found as before.The constants of the repeated roots (s-a)m are found by first breaking the quotient into a partial fraction expansion with descending powers from m to 0:
B
s a
B
s a
B
s am
m( ) ( ) ( )
2
21
The constants are found using one of the following:
BP a
Q s s am m
s a
( )
( ) / ( )
1)/()(
)(
)!(
1
1 as
mim
im
i assQ
sP
ds
d
imB
Y ss
s
K
s
K
s( )
( )
( ) ( )
8 1
2 2 221 2
2
Ks s
ss
ss2
2
22
2
8 1 2
28 1 8
( )( )
( )( )
The partial fraction expansion yields:
Y ss s
( )( )
8
2
8
2 2
8)2/()2(
)1(8
)!12(
1
222
s
i ss
s
ds
dB
The inverse Laplace transform derived from the functionaltable pairs yields:
y t e tet t( ) 8 82 2
Y ss
s
K
s
K
s( )
( )
( ) ( )
8 1
2 2 221 2
2
21 )2()1(8 KsKs
211 288 KKsKs
Equating like terms:
211 288 KKandK
211 288 KKandK
2828 K
28168 K
Thus
22
8
2
8)(
sssY
tt teety 22 88)(
221
2 22)2(
)1(8)(
s
K
s
K
s
ssY
Ks s
ss
ss2
2
22
2
8 1 2
28 1 8
( )( )
( )( )
As before, we can solve for K2 in the usual manner.
2212
22
2
8)2(
2)2(
)2(
)1(8)2(
s
ss
Ks
s
ss
ds
Ksd
ds
sd 82)1(8 1
18 K
22 2
8
2
8
)2(
)1(8)(
sss
ssY
tt teety 22 88)(
Unrepeated complex roots are solved similar to the process for unrepeated real roots. That is you multiply by one of the denominator terms in the partial fraction and solve for the appropriate constant.Once you have found one of the constants, the other constant is simply the complex conjugate.
Z ss s
K
s j
K
s j( )
.
( ) ( )
*
52
2 5 1 2 1 22
Ks j
s j s jj
s j
5 2 1 2
1 2 1 213
1 2
. ( )
( )( ).
K j* . 13
)21(
3.1
)21(
3.1
52
2.5)(
2 js
j
js
j
sssZ
)21()21()(
3.13.1
js
e
js
esZ
jj