References Schmidt - Nielsen K (1997) Animal
physiology McNeill Alexander R (1995) CD Rom
How Animals move Journals & Web links: see:http://biolpc22.york.ac.uk/632/movelectures/fly/
Extra reference: Videler, J (1993) Fish swimming Chapman &
Hall
Jumping What limits how far we can jump? At take off have all energy stored as KE conversion of kinetic energy to
potential (gravitational) energy KE = ½ m v2
PE = mgh
How high depends on KE at take off PE = KE therefore mgh = ½ mv² or gh =
½ v²
If muscle is M, let work done be kM mgh = kM or h =kM/(mg) = (k/g)*(M/m) If same proportion of body is jumping
muscle, height should be the same no effect of mass on how high you jump
neglects air resistance
How far do we go? depends on take off angle d = (v² sin 2) /g
jumping.xls maximum at 45o
Sin 90 = 1 d = v2/g
How far maximum distance =2KE/ (mg) =2 (kM)/(mg)=2(k/g) * (M/m) as before distance not affected by body
massAlice Daddy
age 8 ??
mass 35kg 87kg
distance 1.16m ??
How long to take off? depends on leg length
time to generate force is 2s/v for long jump, time = 2s/(g*d)
s is leg length, d is distance jumped
bushbaby 0.05 to 0.1s frog 0.06s flea 1 ms locust ??
Jumping in locusts If we could jump
as well, we could go over the Empire state building
elastic energy storage
co-contraction
Summary so far Jumping is energetically demanding muscle mass : body mass is most
important store energy in tendons if possible
Lift why don’t birds fall due to gravity? where does lift come from?
speed up air Bernoulli’s Principle Total energy =
pressure potential energy + gravitational potential energy + kinetic energy of fluid
How does air speed up?
air slows down underneath because wing is an obstacle
air speeds up above wing fixed amount of energy
Lift and vortices faster /slower
airflow =circulation extends above /
below for length of wing
creates wake
So to fly… we need to move through the air use PE to glide down
as go down, PE changed to KE use wings to force a forwards
movement
Fly optimally?
speed
po
we
r
Profile power
Induced power
Total power
constantenergy/distance
minimum power
maximum range
Bigger is better? big wings act on more air
called lower wing loading long thin wings have less induced
power called aspect ratio more economical,
but have to fly faster
Bigger is worse As bird size (l) gets bigger
mass l3
wing area l2
wing loading must go up l big birds need more wing area than
little birds harder to flap
Summary so far Jumping is energetically demanding
muscle mass : body mass is most important
store energy in tendons if possible Flying involves generating lift gliding
use PE to get KE to get speed to get lift
Flapping flight large birds fly continuously
down stroke air driven down and back up stroke
angle of attack altered
air driven down and forwards
continuous vortex wake
Discontinuous lift small birds with rounded wings lift only on downstroke vortex ring wake http://www.biology.leeds.ac.uk/
staff/jmvr/Flight/modelling.htm
Bounding flight glide, flap, glide, flap, flap - several times, then glide full muscle power would make bird
climb more efficient to use muscle at best
shortening rate
Hovering flight humming bird hovering generates lift on forward
and back stroke as wings beat, vortices
shed at end of stroke
Insect flight flexibility of wings allows extra
opportunities to generate lift
rotation of wing increases circulation
Insect flight flexibility of wings
allows extra opportunities to generate lift
fast flight of bee downstroke
upward lift upstroke
lift
move wingbee
Clap and fling at top of upstroke two wings “fuse”
unconventional aerodynamics extra circulation extra force
Wake capture wings can interact with the last vortex
in the wake to catch extra lift
first beat second beat
Summary Jumping is energetically demanding
muscle mass : body mass is most important
store energy in tendons if possible Flying involves generating lift gliding
use PE to get KE to get speed to get lift flapping propels air insects often have unconventional
aerodynamics
Exam papers… Neuroscience (i): Matsuda K, Buckingham SD, Kleier D,
Rauh JJ, Grauso M, Sattelle DB. (2001) Neonicotinoids: insecticides acting on insect nicotinic acetylcholine receptors Trends Pharmacol Sci. 22: 573-80
Neuroscience (ii): Cho, W, Heberlein U, Wolf, FW (2004) Habituation of an odorant-induced startle response in Drosophila Genes, Brain, And Behavior 3: 127-137 [paper copy here]
Muscle: Kappler, JA; Starr, CJ; Chan, DK; Kollmar, R Hudspeth, A J (2004) A nonsense mutation in the gene encoding a zebrafish myosin VI isoform causes defects inhair-cell mechanotransduction Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 101:13056-61
Movement: Prestwich, KN & O'Sullivan, K (2005) Simultaneous measurement of metabolic and acoustic power and the efficiency of sound production in two mole cricket species (Orthoptera: Gryllotalpidae) J exp Biol 208, 1495-1512