JAPANESE PRONOUNCIATIONJAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM
んAlthough it is typically translated as “n” in romaji, ん sounds like an “m” when followed by “m,” “p,” or “b.” Also remember that the ん sound is held for the same time as any other syllable, which results in a slight pause after the ん.
NOTES
For double consonants, treat it like one long
sound. Start the beginning of the sound at the
end of the preceding syllable, hold silently for
an interval, then finish with the next syllable.
The vowel “e” can vary slightly in sound. When
at the end of a word or followed by a vowel, it
sounds harder, like “ey” in “hey.”
Some syllables tend to have a weak vowel sound.
For example, “shita” → “shh-tah”, “desu” → “deh-ss”
“f” sounds more like an “h” in Japanese. Try to say
“fu” without touching your teeth to your lips.
“r” is softer in Japanese. Try to say “ru” by flicking
your tongue, not pursing your lips.
Tip: Try clapping your hands at even intervals or
using a metronome to help you practice your
timing.
*
*
*
*
*
*
SyllablesSyllables in Japanese are very regular. Unlike English, there is no stress on any particular syllable of a word. Each syllable is also given equal time to pronounce, including double consonants, individual vowels, and ん.
Keep in mind that because Japanese is spoken quickly, empha-sizing each syllable would sound strange. Instead, focus on the time given to each syllable. The language should sound like a steady flow.
sai
nande
nakatta
Toukyou
kiite
kitte
VowelsVowels can act inconsistently in English, but vowels in Japanese are simple and predictable. Japanese vowels never form diphthongs (combined vowels that form a new sound, like “ai” in “rain”), but remain distinct sounds. There are also “long vowels,” which are when a single vowel sound is held for two intervals.
a ah, like in “raw”
i ee, like in “bee”
u oo, like in “moo”
e eh, like in “meh” or ey, like in “hey”*
o oh, like in “bow”
aoi ah-oh-ee
iie ee~ee-ay
uu (long u) oo~oo
ee or ei (long e) e~ey
oo or ou (long o) o~oh
sah
nah n dey
to~ ~oh kyoh~ ~oh
kee~ ~ee tey
kee t~ ~tey
nah kah t~ ~ta
ee
JAPANESE WRITING: HIRAGANAJAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM
A
KA
SA
TA
NA
HA
MA
YA
RA
WA
KYA
SHA
CHA
NYA
HYA
MYA
RYA
あかさたなはまやらわきゃしゃちゃにゃひゃみゃりゃ
I
KI
SHI
CHI
NI
HI
MI
RI
いきしちにひみ
り
U
KU
SU
TSU
NU
FU
MU
YU
RU
KYU
SHU
CHU
NYU
HYU
MYU
RYU
うくすつぬふむゆる
きゅしゅちゅにゅひゅみゅりゅ
E
KE
SE
TE
NE
HE
ME
RE
えけせてねへめ
れ
O
KO
SO
TO
NO
HO
MO
YO
RO
WO
KYO
SHO
CHO
NYO
HYO
MYO
RYO
おこそとのほもよろをきょしょちょにょひょみょりょ
゙゙゙゙
゙゙゙゙
゚
゚
DAKUTEN
* tsu → dzu shi → ji chi → ji
HANDAKUTEN゚゙N ん
ks
gz* h p
th
d*b
“j” syllables other than ji (じ) combine “ji” and small “y” kana. For example, “ja”: じゃA small tsu (っ) represents a double consonant. For example, かった means “katta.”
A long dash (一) represents a long or double vowel, meaning hold the vowel sound for two intervals.
***
JAPANESE WRITING: KATAKANAJAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM
A
KA
SA
TA
NA
HA
MA
YA
RA
WA
KYA
SHA
CHA
NYA
HYA
MYA
RYA
アカサタナハマやラワキャシャチャニャヒャミャリャ
I
KI
SHI
CHI
NI
HI
MI
RI
ィきシチニヒみ
リ
U
KU
SU
TSU
NU
FU
MU
YU
RU
KYU
SHU
CHU
NYU
HYU
MYU
RYU
ウクスツヌフムュル
キュシュチュニュヒュミュリュ
E
KE
SE
TE
NE
HE
ME
RE
えケセテネへメ
レ
O
KO
SO
TO
NO
HO
MO
YO
RO
WO
KYO
SHO
CHO
NYO
HYO
MYO
RYO
オコソトノホモヨロヲキョショチョニョヒョミョリョ
゙゙゙゙
゙゙゙゙
゚
゚
The “v” sound doesn’t occur naturally in Japanese, so it is often substituted with “b” or represented as a
dakuten form of “u”: ヴ.Other syllables that don’t occur naturally in Japanese are often formed by using a small version of a
vowel. For example, “fu+small o” makes “fo”: フォ. Simularly, ヴぁ makes “va”
A small tsu (ッ) represents a double consonant. For example, カッタ means “katta.”
A long dash (一) represents a long or double vowel, meaning hold the vowel sound for two intervals.
*
*
**
N ン
DAKUTEN
* tsu → dzu shi → ji chi → ji
HANDAKUTEN゚゙ks gz* h p
th
d*b
JAPANESE VERBS: INTRODUCTIONJAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM
Godan Verbs Ichidan Verbs Irregular Verbs
-[vowel]+u
-tsu
-u
-tsu
-su
-u
-ru¹
-tsu
-u
-tsu
-u
-ku²
-gu
-u³/-tsu/-ru
-su
-bu/-nu/-mu
-[v]+wa
-ta
-a
-chi
-shi
-i
-i
-te
-e
-tou
-ou
-ite
-ide
-tte
-shite
-nde
A
I
E
O
TE TA
Godan
-ru
-ru
-ru
-ru
-ru
-ru
ー
ー
-re
-you
-te
-ta
AIEOTETA
Ichidan
suru
kuru
suru
kuru
suru
kuru
suru
kuru
suru
kuru
suru
kuru
shi
ko
shi
ki
sure
kure
shiyou
koyou
shite
kite
shita
kita
A
I
E
O
TE
TA
Suru/Kuru
ConjugationsConjugate each form starting from the dictionary (”u”) form.
Meaning “five stage,” for each vowelstage, and the most common type of verb. They are mostly regular, aside from three special classes: iku/yuku, -aru verbs, and colloquial -u verbs.
Ichidan verbs consist only of verbs that end in -eru or -iru, but not all -eru or -iru verbs are ichidan. The only way to tell is by memorization.
There are dew irregular verbs in Japanese, including the “copulas,” da and desu, and the verbs suru and kuru, as well as verbs that use suruas their root.
¹ Only for the five “honorific” aru verbs: kudasaru,nasaru, gozaru, irassharu, and ossharu
² iku 行く → itte / itta | yuku 行く yutte / yutta³ In some dialects, -u → -uta/ute or -ota/ote
suru to do
benkyou suru to study
chuumon suru to order
shimpai suru to worry
kuru to come
da ~to be
desu ~to be (polite)
taberu to eat
oboeru to remember
deru to leave
kariru to borrow
miru to see
dekiru to be able
iru to be, to exist
aruku to walk
kau to buy
kasu to lend
mastu to wait
yomu to read
kudasaru to give (honorific)
iru to need
-ku²
-gu
-u³/-tsu/-ru
-su
-bu/-nu/-mu
-ita
-ida
-tta
-shita
-nda
JAPANESE VERBS: VOWEL FORMSJAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM
A F
orm
irre
alis
-m
izen
kei
-nai² negative present
-nakatta negative past
-nakereba negative condition
-naide negative command
-zu (ni) [clause] not have done when [clause]
[nai to/nakereba] [naranai/ikenai] must do
aruka kawa kasa mata tabe mi shi ko
I Fo
rmco
ntin
uat
ive-
ren’
youk
ei
-masu polite present
-masen (deshita) polite negative (past)
-mashita polite past
-tai² desiderative (”want to do”)
-nikui² / -yasui² hard / easy to do
-nagara [verb] do while doing [verb]
aruki kai kashi machi tabe mi shi ki
U F
orm
term
inal
-sh
uush
ikei U
Formattributive-
rentaikei
[base] plain present
na plain negative command
nara assumptive conditional
aruku kau kasu matsu taberu miru suru kuru
E Fo
rmhy
poth
etic
al-ka
teik
ei
-ba hypothetical/provisional conditional
-ba ii² optative (”would be good if”)
-ba yokatta regret (”would’ve been good if”)
-ru³ potential/ability (godan only)
-nai² no potential/ability (godan only)
[base] impolite command (generally godan only)
aruke kae kase mate tabere mire sure kure
O F
orm
volit
iona
l-ik
ouke
i
[base] volitional (”let’s...”)
to omou¹ think about doing
to suru¹ try to do / be about to do
arukou kaou kasou matou tabeyou miyou shiyou koyou
¹ verb that can be conjugated
² adjectival verb (i-adjective) that can be conjugated
³ forms new ichidan verb that can be conjugated
NOTES
+ [noun] present relative clause
no/koto nominalization
koto ni suru¹ decide to do
JAPANESE VERBS: TE, TA, PASSIVE, AND CAUSITIVEJAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM
Te Formthe participle
-ku
-gu
-u/-tsu/-ru
-su
-bu/-nu/-mu
ichidan -ru
iku
suru
kuru
-ite
-ide
-tte
-shite
-nde
-te
itte
shite
kite
[base] command/answer/linking
iru¹ continous action (”i” often omitted)
kuru¹ perfect continuous action
oku¹ to plan to do
shimau¹ accidentally/unexpectedly
kudasai request
aru¹ passive perfect continous
iku¹ future continous
miru¹ to try doing and “see”
mo ii “may” (”may I?”/”you may”)
The participle is a verb form that modifies thenoun, verb, or noun or verb clause. In Japanese,it is commonly used for continous actions, tomake requests, answer questions, and link aseries of actions performed in order.
Ta Formthe perfective
-ku
-gu
-u/-tsu/-ru
-su
-bu/-nu/-mu
ichidan -ru
iku
suru
kuru
-ita
-ida
-tta
-shita
-nda
-ta
itta
shita
kita
[base] perfective (~simple past)
bakari to have recently done
-ra conditional (“tara” form)
to shitara/suru¹ suppositional
toki “when [clause happened]...”
-ri [...-ri] suru³ list general actions
koto (ga) aru¹ to have experienced
-rou past subjunctive (”probably”)
to shite mo “even if...”
tokoro to have just done
The perfective aspect doesn’t exist in English,but it is simple enough to compare it to oursimple past tense. It is an action that has beencompleted in full.
Passive Tense
godan a form
ichidan a form
suru
kuru a form
+reru²
+rareru²
sareru²
+rareru²
Causative Tense
godan a form
ichidan a form
suru
kuru a form
+seru²
+saseru²
saseru²
+saseru²
Passive-Causative
causative a form
+rareru²
Subject becomes the direct object. Subject causes indirect object to act. NOTES¹ verb that can be conjugated
² forms a new ichidan verb that
can be conjugated
³ each clause uses the -ri conju-
gation, but the tense for every
clause is determined by suru,
which comes at the very end
JAPANESE VERBS: COMPOUND, DA, AND DESUJAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM
Compound VerbsMost V+V compound verbs are formed by using the i-form of the topic verb and conjugating the phrasal verb,similar to using helping verbs with the infinitive in English, where the “helping verb” comes second. Other V+V compound verbs use the linking form (te-form) for the first verb to link two actions taken together.
N+V compound verbs use “suru” for the phrasal verb. Some use the object particle (を), some don’t.
Da and Desu ー The Copula?Whether you want to call da/desu copulas, auxillary verbs, or whatever, it does not explain when and how to use them. Instead, consider them contextual markers for tense and politeness and follow these simple rules:
Da (Plain) Desu (Polite)
present da
negative de (waは) /ja nai
past datta
past negative de (waは) /ja nakatta
volitional darou
te-Form de
conditional nara/naraba
attributive/prenominal no/na
present desu
negative de (waは) /ja arimasen
past deshita
past negative de (waは) /ja arimasen deshita
volitional deshou
te-Form de arimashite
conditional de areba
attributive/prenominal desu
[verb, i-form]+hajimeru to begin to do
[verb, i-form]+oeru to finish doing
[verb, i-form]+sugiru to overdo
[verb, i-form]+naosu to redo
[verb, i-form]+tsudzukeru to continue doing
[verb, te-form]+miru to try doing and “see”
[verb, te-form]+shimau to do accidentally
motteiku to take (to have + to go)
mottekuru to bring (to have + to come)
benkyou suru to study (study/research + to do)
must use¹ when there is not already a predicate verb or adjectival verb in the clause to provide tense/politeness
can use² when it will add context of tense, politeness or meaning to a clause, if the main verb cannot do it itself
cannot use³ when it would not add context of tense, politeness, or meaning, or it would disagree with the main verb
¹ For example, to say you are happy, you must use a form of da/desu with the noun “shiawase.” In this sense, it is a copula.² For example, since “taberu” has the polite form “tabemashita,” you CANNOT say “taberu desu.” However, you can say “tabetai desu.”
³ For example, you cannot say “tabemasen datta,” because “tabemasen” is polite. The past form must be “tabemasen deshita.”
JAPANESE “ADJECTIVES”: INTRODUCTIONJAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM
The Japanese language does not have “adjectives” from a linguistical sense. Instead, it uses verbs and nouns to describe objects. When used prenominally, they form a relative—or adjectival—clause; and when used as a predicate, they are used inflected or paired with a form of da/desu to create a state-of-being (stative) sentence.
COMPARISONSWHAT TYPE?
i-AdjectivesA very common type of “adjective.” They always end in い in their character form. They are considered a special type of verb because they include state-of-being and are conjugated directly, often similarly to verbs.
verb
f-Adjectivesf-adjectives are the continuous or perfective form of anormal verb, used to modify a noun. Prenominally, theyare considered a relative clause, like “city that froze,” and not “frozen city,” meaning they can be used in advancedways, such as “the city that was frozen by a storm.”
verb
na-AdjectivesAnother common type of “adjective,” formed simply byadding a conjugation of da or desu after the noun. The“na” only refers to their prenominal present form; they have no visual way to distinguish them.
noun
no-AdjectivesThe other type of adjectival noun. There is no outright way to distinguish na- and no-adjectives, but personal qualities are usually na-adjectives, while unsubjective attributes are commonly no-adjectives, like “next” or “my,” or even “apple tart” and “German dog.”
noun
ends in “ii” it’s an i-adjective
ends in “ei” it’s not an i-adjective
ends in “[consonant]+i” it’s not an i-adjective
physical attribute probably an i-adjective¹
conceptual attribute probably a na-adjective
unsubjective attribute probably a no-adjective
↑ “[B] yori” or “[B] no hou ga” can be dropped if clear from context. Must use attributive form (”na”/”no”).
↑ Both forms can be used before the terminal/predicateor attributive/prenominal form.
↑ “dare” must be used for animate objects, while“nani” is used for inantimate objects.
A > B [clause A] hou ga [clause B] yori [adj]
B > A [clause A] yori [clause B] hou ga [adj]
degree [clause] hodo [adj]
“same exact” [A] wa は [B] to onaji
“as much as [noun]” [noun] to onaji gurai [adj]
“different” [A] wa は [B] to chigau
superlative ichiban [adj]
superlative mottomo [adj]
more than anyone [noun] wa は dare yori [adj]
more than anything [noun] wa は nani yori [adj]
↑ For example, to say someone is “so tall that [clause]” or“not tall enough to [clause]”
NOTESA notable exception to this is color. The most
primary colors (red, blue, yellow, black, white)
have both i-adj and no-adj forms. Secondary,
tertiary, tints, and shades are strictly no-adjs.
The only “irregular” verb is “ii” (”good”). In all
forms other than present, its stem reverts to its
true form, “yoi.”
¹
*
attributive/prenominal kawaii neko (cat that is cute) terminal/predicate Neko ga kawaii. (The cat is cute.)
JAPANESE “ADJECTIVES”: CONJUGATION
attributive present hayai [noun]
terminal present hayai
negative hayaku nai
past (ta-form) hayakatta
past negative hayaku nakatta
irrealis (a-form) hayaku
continuative (i-form) haya¹
volitional (o-form) hayaku shiyou
participle (te-form) hayakute
adverb hayaku [verb]
conditonal hayakereba
neg. conditonal hayaku nakereba
noun hayasa (”speed”)
i-Adjectivesthe adjectival verb
i-adjectives are like special verbs,which include tense (and thus must not use the plain verb da).
attributive present benri na [noun]
terminal present benri da
negative benri de(waは)² nai
past (ta-form) benri datta
past negative benri de(wa)² nakatta
irrealis (a-form) benri de
continuative (i-form) benri
volitional (o-form) benri de arou
participle (te-form) benri de
adverb benri ni [verb]
conditonal benri nara/dattara
neg. conditonal benri de nakereba
noun [base]
na-Adjectivesthe adjectival noun
na-adjectives are nouns used todescribe attributes by using a formof the verb da (plain) or desu (polite).
attributive perfect okotta [noun]
attributive continuous okotte iru [n]
terminal present okotte iru
negative okotte inai
past (ta-form) okotte ita
past negative okotte inakatta
present okotte imasu
negative okotte imasen
past okotte imashita
past negative okotte imasen deshita “adverb”/te form okotte [verb]
f-Adjectivesthe adjectival clause
f-adjectives are really just the perfector continuous form of a verb, used asa relative clause to describe a noun.
possessive: my watashi no
“type”: Japanese nihon no
numeral: two ni [counter] no
numeral: many oku no
distributive: another betsu no
demonstrative: this kono
interrogative: what nani no
no-Adjectivesthe other adjectival noun
no-adjectives are a class that include possessive, “type,” numeral, demon-strative, and interrogative adjectives.
NOTESThe i-form of adjectives that end in“nai” appends “sa.” Ex. “nai” → “nasa””ja” is a colloquial form of “de(waは)”Aside from present or polite forms, each form may be used as either the predicate (terminal) or the prenomi-nal (attributive) form.
JAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM
¹
²*
hayai 早い early | stem: haya
benri 便利 useful
okoru 怒る to get angry
JAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM
JAPANESE ADVERBS
Manner adverbs (how an action is performed) are usually derived from adjectival verbs and nouns. For i-adjs,the adjective is inflected to the adjectival form. For na- and no-adjs, use the particle, “ni.”
Manner Adverbs
koko ni / soko ni here / there
chikaku ni / tooku ni nearby / distantly
Toukyou no kita 10 mairu ni 10 miles north of Tokyo
tsukue no shita ni underneath the desk (”at the desk’s bottom”)
Locational adverbs (where an action is done) usually use a noun, followed a location particle like “ni” or “de.”
Locational Adverbs
ima now
mainichi every day
taitei usually
hotondo almost/barely
zenzen not at all (neg. tense)
amari not very much (neg. tense)
Time/frequency adverbs (when or how often an action is done) and degree adverbs (to what degree an action is done) usually use a “true” adverb. Time adverbs usually go towards the beginning of the clause.
Time/Frequency/Degree Adverbs
sabishiku kanjiru/omou feel lonely
sore o を shiawase ni kanjiru/omou feel happy about that
While “feeling” something in English uses adjectives, Japanese uses manner adverbs with “kanjiru” or “omou.”To mention what makes you feel that way, use the direct object particle “o” を.
Kanjiru & Omou
yowaku suru turn down (”make weak”)
hazukashiku suru embarrass or make shy
kirei ni suru clean (”make pretty/clean”)
atsuku naru become hot
tomodachi ni naru become friends
suki ni naranai cannot like (”will not become likable”)
Using a manner adverb directly before “suru” can imply causitive tense. In other words, the subject causes the direct object to become [adjective]. Using “naru” can imply that the subject became [adjective].
Suru & Naru
Generally, adverbs can be placed anywhere. Time adverbs usually come near the beginning, while other typesgo near the verb. The adverb applys to the next verb in the sentence.Some adverbs can only be used with negative conjugations. For example, while “zenzen” might be translatedas meaning “entirely,” the clause “zenzen tabetakunai” would be translated as “I don’t want to eat at all.”
NOTES*
*
i-adj i → ku
na/no-adj na/no → ni
ureshii (”delightful”) ureshiku (”delightfully”)
ketteiteki na (”~decisive”) ketteiteki ni (”decisively”)
JAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM
JAPANESE NOUNS: PRONOUNS
Demonstrative PronounsDemonstratives are words that refer to something by proximity. These are a few common examples.
Indefinite PronounsIndefinite pronouns refer to one or more unspecified people or things. These are a few common examples.
ko- (close to speaker)
kore (this)
kono (this...)
konna (like this)
koko (here)
kocchi (this way)
kou (this manner)
pronoun
determiner
adjective
place
direction
manner
so- (close to listener)
sore (that)
sono (that...)
sonna (like that)
soko (there)
socchi (that way)
so (that manner)
a- (far)
are (that over there)
ano (that...over there)
anna (like that)
sasoko (over there)
acchi (over that way)
aa (that manner)
do- (interrogative)
dore (which?)
dono (which...?)
donna (how/what?)
doko (where?)
docchi (which way?)
dou (how?)
nani (-thing)
nani ka
nani mo (rarely used)
nani mo ... nai
nan de mo
ka (some-)
mo (every-)
mo ... nai (no-)
demo (any-)
dare (-one)
dare ka
dare mo
dare mo ... nai
dare de mo
doko (-where)
doko ka
doko mo
doko mo ... nai
doko de mo
itsu (-time)
itsu ka
itsu mo
itsu mo ... nai
itsu de mo
Interrogative PronounsInterrogatives are “question words” like who, what, when, where, and how. These are a few common examples.
what nani
who dare
whose dare no
why naze / doushite / nande
where doko / dochira
when itsu
what time nanji
how (manner) nanide / douyatte / dou
how much (cost) ikura
how many (general) ikutsu
how much/far doregurai (n) / donogurai (a)
how long (”until when”) itsu made
How many...
people nan nin
times nan kai
years nan nen
years old nan sai
vague nan [counter]
These suffixes (or rather particles) are not limited to these examples. For example, “nan nin ka” means “some people.”
JAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM
JAPANESE NUMBERS: BASICS
Basic NumbersSimilar to “hundred” and “thousand,” each place value up to the millions has a key word.
However, this system is not as simple as it seemsbecause many sounds are contracted depending on the values. For example, 800 is condensed from “hachi hyaku” to “happyaku.”
MeasurementsUnits always come after the number. To give height/length/etc, use a noun, like “nagasa” (length). When de-scribing distance away from something or somewhere, you can use the verb “hanareru” (to be apart).
Time & DatesUse “ji” (時) after the hour and “fun” (分) after the minutes. “han” (half 半) is often used for half-past an hour.
hyaku man
juu man
man
sen
hyaku
百万 万 百
juu
十万 千 十2 6 1 8 4 1 2
Together: 二百万 六十万 一万 八千 四百 十 二
FractionsSay it like “A of B parts.”
46
roku bun no yon六分の四
DecimalsUse “ten” 点, meaning “dot.”
11.36 juu ichi ten san roku十一点山ろく
Ordinals“me” 目 indicates a place in a series.
3rd thing mitsu me 三つ目
5th person go nin me 五人目
“Ichi” (1) is only used in the 1s place and the 10,000s (”man”) place.
Shinchou wa 203 senchi¹ da. (My) height is 203 cm.
Taijuu² wa 60 kiro desu. (My) weight is 60 kilo(grams).
Eki wa 2 mairu hanarete iru. The station is 2 miles away.
Machi wa koko kara nan kiro hanarete imasu ka? How many kilo(meters) away is the town from here?
Takasa¹ 605 fi-to no biru a 605-foot tall building
Kore wa omosa² ga 4 kiro da. Its weight is 4 kilo(grams).
nagasa roku inchi no sakana a 6-inch long fish
Years/months use the standard counting system, followed by “nen”/“gatsu” (年/月). Days 1-10, 14, 20, and 24 use a different reading system, followed by the reading “ka” (日). All other dates use the reading “nichi” (日).
1/1 ichi gatsu tsuitachi
5/5 go gatsu itsuka
9/9 ku gatsu kokonoka
5/24 go gatsu ni juu yokka
1996年 sen kyuu hyaku kyuu juu roku nen
2/2 ni gatsu futsuka
6/6 roku gatsu muika
10/10 juu gatsu touka
2/12 ni gatsu juu ni nichi
3/3 san gatsu mikka
7/7 shichi gatsu nanoka
11/14 juu ichi gatsu juu yokka
3/21 san gatsu juu ichi nichi
2014年3月4日 ni sen juu yon nen san gatsu juu yokka
4/4 shi gatsu yokka
8/8 hachi gatsu youka
12/20 juu ni gatsu hatsuka
9/30 ku³ gatsu san juu nichi
4:30 yo (not yon) ji han
11:00 juu ichi ji
7:15 nana ji juu go fun
9:40 ku³ ji yon fun
¹ “shinchou” is used to measure the height of a living being, while “takasa” is used for the height of an object.² “taijuu” is used to measure the weight of a living being, while “omosa” is used for the weight of an object.
³ “kyu” tends to change to the shortened “ku” for time, months, and days.
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JAPANESE NUMBERS: COUNTING
Occurances and FrequencyThe noun “kai” 回 is to count the number of times of an event. Along with “ni,” it can convey frequency.
Ni, san kai sushi o tabeta. I’ve eaten sushi 2 or 3 times.
kotoshi de rokkai me sixth time this year
Nen ni san kai koko ni iku. I go three times a year.
san kagetsu ni ikkai once every three months
Approximations
ni juu go nin gurai around 25 people
ni ijou, juu ika not less than 2, not greater than 10
suu hyaku hiki no inu several hundred dogs
shi, go nin no gakusei 4 or 5 students
[number] [counter][counter] no [object][object] [number]
[counter][number] [object]
Most counters can be used in two ways. The first is preferred unless referring to people, using -tsu, or emphasizing quantity.
Hon ni juu yon o satsu katta. (I) bought 24 books.
aoi no kami ni mai two pieces of blue paper
Hitotsu¹ no shitsumon ga arimasu. I have one question.
Futari² no ane ga imasu. (I) have two older sisters.
Mikka kan mae ni itta. (I) went three days ago.
¹ “tsu” uses the traditional Japanese counting system, which is much different from the modern system.² When counting people, 1 and 2 are “hitori” and “futari,” while all other numbers use the modern counting system with “nin.”
Counting Objects
When counting time, the order is different than counting objects. Counting days uses the calendar-day system.
Counting Time
CountersCounters are used when counting objects, definite or indefinite. Think of “loaves” in “some/2 loaves of bread.” Contrary to belief, counters are not used for every noun, but they are more common in Japanese than English. The proper counter varies based on the object, and some objects can use different counters. Common counters:
general counter tsu¹
people (ex. boys) ri / nin² 人
time (often omitted)³ kan 間
months⁴ kagetsu (kan) ヶ月(間)
small animals hiki 匹
large animals tou 頭
books, magazines satsu 冊
vehicles, machines dai 台
long, cylindrical hon 本
flat, thin mai 枚
small, compact ko 個
liquid (ex. drinks) hai 杯
³ When counting time, “kan” can be omitted except in the case of hours.⁴ The word“kagetsu” combines the counter and object into one word, and “kan” is almost always omitted.
Go ji kan kore o sagashita. (I) looked for five hours.
Konojo wa ni nen kan nana kagetsu⁴ atte inai. I haven’t seen her in two years and seven months.
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JAPANESE PARTICLES: INTRODUCTION
ga Subject marker
o を¹ Direct object marker
ni Indirect object marker
e へ¹ Direction marker
Case Markers
Particles are special parts of speech that modify or mark the noun, verb, or clause that comes before it. Often,they will behave like English prepositions, conjunctions, or adverbs, but they play a heavier role than just that.
There are six central types of particles, with different uses. Knowing each type can help you understand itscomplete and proper use within a sentence. Many particles belong to multiple categories, but by recognizing the part of speech they follow, it can become much easier to discern which meaning they take.
Identifies the role of a noun in a clause. They alwaysfollow a noun.
no Possession marker
to “and” (exhaustive)
ya “and” (inexhaustive)
na do “etc.”
Parallel MarkersIdentifies the relationship between two or more nouns.They always follow a noun.
wa は¹ Topic marker
mo Agreement marker
koso Emphasis marker
shika “only”, “just”
Binding ParticlesIdentifies the topic and its context in the sentence. Theygenerally follow a noun.
bakari “only,” “just”
made “up until”, “as far as”
dake “as (much as)”
hodo “to the extent of”
Adverbial ParticlesModifies a clause to operate like an adverb for the inde-pendent clause. They may follow a noun or a clause.
kara “because”
to “if”
ga “although”
keredomo “but”
Conjunctive ParticlesIdentifies the relationship between two clauses. Theyalways follow a clause.
ka Uncertainty marker
ne Tag question marker
ka na “I wonder”
yo Assertive final particle (masculine)
Sentence-Ending ParticlesProvides additional context to the sentence, like emotion.Despite the name, some can follow internal clauses.
Based on old kana roots, some particles are pronounced differently than they are written.Particles always come after the word or clause that is being modified.These lists only provide a very small handful of examples for each category.
¹**N
OTE
S
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JAPANESE PARTICLES: CASE & BINDING
wa は ~“about”
mo “also”
sae (mo) ”even”
sura⁵ “not even”
shika⁵ “anything but”
Binding Particles Unlike case markers, binding particles actually give a meaning to the word it modifies. If used on the actor or direct object of the action, they replace “ga” and “o.” Otherwise, if the object has a particle, it comes afterwards.
¹ “ga” vs “wa”: Using “ga” suggests that there is emphasis on the subject (”it wasn’t her, it was ME.”). More on “wa” below.² Like English, when using passive form, the subject is the recipient of the action while the indirect object is the actor.
* Unlike English, stating subject/object is not required. Objects are usually left out if they are obvious, especially “I” and “you.”* You cannot have more than one “ga” or “o” per clause. In order to avoid repeating particles, look into using “lists.”
Watashi ga¹ kare ni eigo de tegami o kaita. I wrote him a letter in English.
Kare ga¹ kanojo ni zenryoku de nagurareta.² He was hit by her with all (her) force.
³ “wa” and “ga” together: His Japanese is the subject, not “him,” but “kare wa” establishes whose Japanese we are talking about.⁴ “mo” is modifying “nihon ni,” not “watashi,” so it means “in addition to another place,” not “in addition to another person.”
⁵ Must be used with a negatively conjugated verb.* Binding particles cannot be used on interrogative pronouns, like “dare” or “nani.”
ga subject/actor
o を direct object
to accomplice
recipient (inc. place) of the action
means by which the action occurs
object compared against subject
ni indirect object
de instrument
yori comparison
performer of the action
object being acted upon
participent of the action
Case markers indicate the role of a noun. Ever wonder why “I” changes to “me” when you’re the object of asentence? Because it is a different “case.” These changes are much more simple in Japanese, where you only need to mark the noun with a particle based on its role. These are some of the most common case particles:
Case Markers - The Basics
Kare wa nihongo ga umai. About him, (his) Japanese is very good.³
Watashi wa nihon ni mo itta koto aru. I have also been to Japan.⁴
Nihongo de sae kore o ginei dekiru. He can even recite it in Japanese.
Neko sura suki ja nai. He doesn’t even like cats.
Sore wa nihon de shika okorenai. It can’t happen anywhere but Japan.
[place][time]
de/ni³
ORIGIN (”from”/”since”)LOCATION (”at”/”in”)
TIME (”at”/”on”)
REQUIREMENT (”by”)DESTINATION (”to”)
kara
[place][time]
LIMIT (”until”)
made
Case Markers - Location & TimeLocation and time share similarities, and are marked by case markers that indicate whether they are startingpoints, general points, or ending points. Note that ORIGIN, DESTINATION, and LIMIT can also be people.
[place]
ni[time]
ni³/e へ[place] made ni[time]
ACTION
³ “ni” can only be used for location when the verb itselfinvolves a location as being the recipient of the action.
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JAPANESE PARTICLES: を, に, & CAUSITIVE CASING
Remember that you cannot repeat “o,” so it is good to be familiar with the above chart in order to avoid repeat-ing the “ni” particle so many times.
Kanojo ni kare o を mise e へ okuraseru. I will have her escort him to the store.
However, you can also use the direct object particle “o,” particularly when you have already have an indirect object. This does not mean you cannot use two “ni” particles, but it sounds better not to repeat them so close.
Kanojo o を mise ni kare to ikaseru. I will have her go with him to the store.
Most of the time, the person being forced to perform is selected with the indirect object particle, “ni.”
Kanojo ni kare to ikaseru. I will have her go with him.
English does not have causitive tense, but it is a simple concept. Someone or something is forcing someone orsomething else to perform the action. The subject is always the person causing the force.
Case Markers - Causitive Tense
This chart shows which particle can be used with each type of action. “Ni” tends to be preferred when possible.
ni indirect object
Mise ni iku.¹
Koko ni aru.²
Neko o kare ni ageta.
Tomodachi ni au.
Anata ni ii.
movement verb ”to”
locational verb ”at”/”in”
other action verbs ”at”/”in”
transferal verbs ”to”
indirect “-”
indirect ”for”
de location
Gakkou de taberu.
e へ destination
Mise e aruku.
Neko o kare e ageta.
made limit
Mise made aruku.
The Complexity of 「に」Likewise, indirect objects are not always how we see them in English. Especially when dealing with location. It is not a true location/destination marker: it can only be used if the location itself can “receive” the action.
¹ “ni” can only be used with some movement verbs. For example: “iku” and “tobu” can accept it, but “aruku” and “hashiru” cannot.² “Locational verbs” are verbs that inherently involve the subject attaching to a location. For example, “to be,” “to hide,” “to enter.”
The Complexity of 「を」Direct objects for Japanese verbs do not always translate as such in English. You will need to learn that certainverbs can be transitive in Japanese, especially when English equivalent would use prepositions.
sagasu to look (for)
matsu to wait (for)
deru to leave (location)
kanjiru to feel (about)
Watashi no neko o を sagashite ita. I was looking for my cat.
Kare o を ichi nichi juu matte imashita. She waited for him all day.
San jikan mae ni ginkou o を deta. He left the bank about three hours ago.
Sore o を dou kanjimashita ka? How do you feel about it?
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JAPANESE PARTICLES: PARALLEL, の, & POSTPOSITIONS
¹ “ni” vs “de”: Typically, “de” is used for the location of an action, but when the verb is stative and inherently involves attaching to alocation, the location is the recipient of the action, and thus uses the i.o. particle “ni.” Examples include “to be,” “to live,” and “to enter.”
ue above/on
shita below/under
naka inside
soto outside
mae (in) front
ushiro behind
aida space between
mawari around
Watashi no kasa wa reizouko to kabe no aida ni¹ aru. My umbrella is between the fridge and the wall.
Kare o eki no soto de¹ matte kudasai. Please wait for him outside the station.
Kanojo ga ki no ushiro ni kakurete iru no o mita. I saw her hiding behind the tree.
Kore wa watashi no tsukue no ue ni oite kudasai. Please put it on (top of) my desk.
Postpositions (equivalent to English prepositions) use a noun + the possessive particle “no” + locational noun.As a noun, each of these must be followed by a particle.
Postpositional Phrases
Watashi wa tomodachi to gakkou ni aruku no ga suki desu. I like walking to school with my friends.
Kore o kiru no wa hisashiburi da. It’s been a while since I’ve worn this. (“About wearing this, it’s been a while.”)
Kare wa engi o suru no tokui de nai. He is not good at acting. (”About him, (his) acting is not good.”)
The second “no” nominalizes a verb or clause. Remember that it will need to be followed by a particle.THESE ARE NOT USED TO LIST MULTIPLE VERBS OR CLAUSES.
daidokoro no nagashidai kitchen sink
nihon no denwabangou Japanese phone number
ooku no nihonjin many Japanese people
watashitachi no neko our cat
kare to kanojo no kawaisa his and her cuteness
ni juu san sai no musume 23-year-old daughter
Possession & Nominalization 「の」There are two “no” particles. First is generally called the possessive case. Like other parallel markers, it connects two nouns. Sometimes it is translated as “of,” since it is also used to turn some nouns into adjectives.; however, this is not very accurate (”sukoshi no jikan” cannot be translated as “hours of few”).
Parallel Markers - ListsParallel markers are case markers that link nouns together.Most of them are used to construct lists. Formally, they mustfollow each noun except the last.
THESE ARE NOT USED TO LIST CLAUSES OR VERBS.
EXHAUSTIVE LIST (’and”)
1 2 3to to [particle]
1 2 3ka ka [particle]
1 2 3ya ya [particle]
INEXHAUSTIVE LIST (’and such...etc”)
ALTERNATIVE LIST (”or”)
Sakura to Shirou ni agete. Give it to Sakura and Shirou.
Basu ka karuma de ikou. Let’s go by bus or car.
Ringo ya nashi ga oishii. Apples and pears and such are tasty.
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JAPANESE SENTENCES: CLAUSES & RELATIVE CLAUSES
Relative (Adjectival) ClausesAlso known as “adjectival clause,” these are subordinate clauses that describe a noun. In English, they use pro-nouns, like “that” or the “wh-words.” In Japanese, they are formed by putting the clause before the noun. As such, you must use the prenominal/attributive form of a verb.
Relative clauses can also use general nouns, like “person” or “thing.” Common nouns to use include:
Kare ga mottekita ringo wa oishii. The apples that he brought were delicious.
Senshuu kyuukou datta jugyou ni itta. I went to the class that was canceled last week.
Boku wa kare ni tegami o kaita kodomo o sagashite iru. I am looking for the child who wrote him a letter.
Kare no ringo o tabeta koto o shitte iru. I know (the thing) that he ate the apple.
Kare wa motometa mono o eta. He got what he asked for.
Sono hon o kaita hito o aitai. I want to meet the person who wrote this book.
Kinou tabeta basho ga suki desu. I like the place where I ate today.
Toukyou ni itta toki o kangaeta. I thought about the time when I went to Tokyo.
Eranda ryuu wa akiraka desu. The reason why (I) chose (it) is obvious.
¹ In English, it is more natural to use noun clauses, which are covered in another section, but Japanese often prefersto use of true nouns over noun clauses. However, you cannot use “koto” for quotes or thoughts.
² These are not used when the object is unknown or vague. For subordinate interrogatives, see the Noun Clause section.* You must use the prenominal/attributive form before each of these words. This means using plain tense, and “na” instead of “da.”
koto¹ “thing (that)”
mono “object (that)”
hito² “person (who)”
basho² “place (where”)
toki² “time (when)”
ryuu² “reason (why)”
Clauses
[topic] + wa は
[subject] + ga
[direct object] + o を
[indirect object] + ni
[location] + de
[adverb]
...
[verb]+
A clause is the simplest unit that can express something. The only required piece of a clause in Japanese is a predicating verb, which always comes at the end of the clause. The order of everything else is flexible, butthe general order is: [time adverbs] + [topics] + [subject] + [everything else] + [predicating verb].
Sentences can have multiple clauses, which can be within or next to other clauses. The order of clauses is also flexible as long as subordinate clauses come before the related indepen-dent clause.
A subordinate (dependent) clause provides the independent (main) clause with additional information. They never usepolite tense. There are three kinds:
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
The clause “kare ga mottekita” is being used to describe “ringo”
* Relative clauses sometimes use “no” instead of “ga” for the actor of the clause. This puts less emphasis on the actor as a whole.
· Relative (Adjectival) Clauses describe nouns · Adverbial Clauses describe actions (why/when/etc) · Noun Clauses are used as a noun
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JAPANESE SENTENCES: QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
Question MarkersJapanese does not use intonation or rearrange sentence structure to form a question. Instead, questions areclauses or sentences that are “marked” by particles like “ka” and “ne.”
ka uncertainty prt.
ne tag question prt.
Kyou hirugohan o mou tabeta desu ka? Did you already eat lunch today?
Kare wa nihongo o yoku hanasu, ne? He speaks Japanaese well, doesn’t he?
InvitationsIn order to be polite, invitations (and even non-invitations) often use volitional or negative forms.
volitional [o-form] | [i-form]+mashou
negative [a-form]+nai | [i-form]+masen
Ashita kaerou ka? Shall we return home tomorrow?
Issho ni gohan o tabemasen ka? Won’t you eat with me?
Nounal Interrogatives: Who? What? Where?To ask a question with a nounal interrogative, pop the word right where the answer would go.
dare who
nani what
doko where
dochira which
Dare ga sono hon o kaita ka? Who wrote this book?
Nani o tabetai desu ka? What do you want to eat?
Kare ga doko ni iku hazu desu ka? Where is he supposed to go?
Dochira o jushoushita ka? Which one did you win?
Kare wa itsu kaeru ka? When will he get back?
Naze kanajo wa gakkou ni ikanakatta ka? Why didn’t she go to school?
Kore o donoyouni tsukau ka? How do you use this?
itsu/nanji when/what time
naze/nande/doushite why
dou/donoyouni how
To ask an adverbial question, place the adverb anywhere before the verb.
Adverbial Interrogatives: When? Why? How?
Answering QuestionsIn Japanese, it is common to answer with the predicate, but not any of the objects, even with transitive verbs.
Hai, okotte iru desu.
Yes, (he) is angry.
Kare ni banana o watashita?
Did (you) give him the banana?
Bobbu ni? Iie, watasanakatta. Kare wa okotte iru?
To Bob? No, (I) didn’t give (him) (the banana). Is he angry?
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JAPANESE SENTENCES: CONJUNCTIVE SENTENCES
[clause A] and [clause B] [clause A, te-form] [clause B]¹
[clause A] but [clause B] [clause A] ke(re)do(mo)² [clause B]³
[clause A], so [clause B] [clause A] kara⁴ [clause B]³
Coordinating PhrasesIn coordinating sentences, each clause holds equal weight.
[clause A] because [clause B] [clause B] kara/no de⁴ [clause A]
[clause A] when [clause B] [clause B] toki ni⁴ [clause A]
[clause A] while [clause B] [clause B] aida ni⁴/uchi ni⁴ ⁵ [c. A]
[clause A] while [clause B] [clause B, i-form] nagara [clause A]
[clause A] after [clause B] [clause B, ta-form] ato ni⁴ [clause A]
[clause A] before [clause B] [clause B, u-form] mae ni⁴ [c. A]
[clause A] since (time) [clause B] [clause B, te-form] kara [c. A]
[clause A] until [clause B] [clause B, u-form] made [clause A]
[clause A], therefore [clause B] [clause A] no dakara⁴ [clause B]
Subordinating Phrases (Adverbial Clauses)
[clause] tame ni “in order to”
[clause] no ni “despite”
[clause] kagiri “as long as”
[noun] ni tsuite “about”
[noun] niyotte “by means of”
[A] ka [B] “either, or”
[A] de mo [B] “even if”
Dakara [clause] “therefore”
Shikamo [clause] “moreover”
Soshite [clause] “and”/”then”
yoriyoi yomu tame ni benkyoushite iru studying in order to read better
Isogashii no ni kare wa made itte kimashita. Despite being busy, he still went.
Watashi wa ikite iru kagiri hataraku. I will work as long as I live.
nihongo o hanasu koto ni tsuite no hon book about speaking Japanese
katsu koto niyotte uru obtain by winning
Ie ni aruite ka koko de matte. Walk home or wait here.
Shigoto wa taihen de mo tanoshii. Even if work is tough, it is fun.
Abunai! Dakara sugoku nayamu. It’s dangerous! So, I’m really worried.
Shikamo shiken de isogashii. Moreover, I’m busy with the exam.
Soshite watashi wa asagohan o tabeta. And then I ate breakfast.
Other Conjunctive Phrases
Some of the most common subordinate sentences, where “clause B” is the subordinate clause.
These forms either use the particle “no” or a noun followed by the particle “ni.” In these cases, clause B must use prenominal/attributive form (using “da”instead of “na”).Further, you must use plain tense.Use “nagara” if the subject of both clauses is the same. If clause B is negative, “uchi ni” means “[clause A] before [the positive of clause B].” As subordinate clauses, the first clause should not use polite tense.
The last clause’s verb denotes tense and polite-ness for the entire sentence.Keredomo > keredo/kedomo > kedo in terms ofpoliteness; verbs should reflect politeness used.Both clauses should be conjugated for tense and politeness.
4
5
*
¹
²
³
NOTES
NOTES
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JAPANESE SENTENCES: IRREALIS MOODS
ImperativeWhile there is a grammatical imperative form (meireikei), it is considered rude and rarely used outside of TV.
polite [i-form]+na(sai)
plain [te-form]+(kudasai)
impolite [meireikei form]
plain neg. [a-form]+naide
impolite neg. [u-form]+na
O-yasumi nasai. Good night (”rest”).
Tasukete! Isoide kudasai! Help! Please hurry!
Te o agero! Put your hands up!
Shimpai shinaide (kudasai). (Please) Don’t worry.
Kore o taberu na! Don’t eat that!
PotentialPotential forms conjugate like any ichidan verb. For suru verbs, use the ichidan verb dekiru, “to be able.”
Kare wa zenzen piano o hikenai desu. He can’t play the piano at all.
Yoku neraremashita. I was able to sleep well.
godan [e-form]+ru
ichidan/kuru [a-form]+rareru
ConditionalAs most of the conditional forms have general, interchangeable uses, below are merely their key divergences. The first clause is the condition, and thus uses the listed form, while the second clause is the result.
-ba provisional mood; focuses on necessary condition; not used to command, permit or suggest¹
-tara subjunctive mood, perfective tense; focuses on result; can show intent, relative past, and correlation
baai hypothetical mood; noun meaning “case,” literally, “in the case that...”
to implicative mood; used for expected, definite, habitual, correlative, or natural results; result is present tense
nara assumptive mood; used when the condition is “known” or likely, but not when result is natural or obvious
moshi for emphasis; must be used at the beginning of the clause, and in conjunction with another conditional form
verbs [e-form]+ba
neg. [a-form]+nakereba
verbs [ta-form]+ra
neg. [a-form]+nakattara
verbs [u-form] baai
verbs [u-form] to
verbs [u-form] nara
i-adj [stem]+kereba
neg. [stem]+ku nakereba
i-adj [stem]+kattara
neg. [stem]+ku nakattara
i-adj [present] baai
i-adj [present] to
i-adj [present] nara
nouns [noun] de areba
neg. [noun] de nakereba
nouns [noun] dattara
neg. [noun] de nakattara
nouns [noun] na/no² baai
nouns [noun] da to
nouns [noun] nara
¹ -ba form can be used for suggestions only when the condition is an i-adj, the verb is aru or iru, or the condition is negative.² Use “na” for na-adjectives and general nouns, and “no” for no-adjectives.
* These forms can be translated as “When B, A,” “If B, then A will occur,” or “If B, then A would occur” depending on context/tense.
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JAPANESE SENTENCES: NOUN CLAUSES
Nominalized Clauses 「の」You should already know that the nominalization particle “no” turns clauses into nouns, but it can be used with “da/desu” to nominalize entire clauses. This essentially turns actions into statements, and is identical to our use of noun clauses and the verb “to be.” For example: “Here is where [I put my watch]” vs. “I put my watch here.” This is often used to provide explanation, but it is also makes questions sound more polite.
no/n (da)
no/n (desu)
no/n (desu) (ka)
no/n de
Ashita watashi wa ikitakunai no ja nai. It’s not that I don’t want to go tomorrow.
Mou kirei na² no desu. It is that it is already clean.³
Dou kore wa yatte mitsuketa no desu ka? How is it that you found this?
Osokatta n de, sensei ga okotte ita. It is that I was late, and the teacher was mad.³
² You must use the prenominal/attributive form of a verb before the particle “no.” This means using plain form, and “na” instead of “da”³ Because the nominalization often implies explanation, this structure is usually translated as “because.” So the more
natural translations would be “Because it is already clean.” and “The teacher was mad because I was late.”* Note that in casual speech, “no” is often abbreviated to “n” and “da/desu” and/or “ka” may be left out.
Subordinate Interrogative Clauses 「か」The “ka” particle is not just used to ask questions, but shows that a clause is unknown or uncertain, even within a declarative sentence. If the noun clause starts with a “wh” word or “if,” you should use “ka” instead of “to.”
Doko ni iru ka shitte iru. I know where (he) is.
Watashi wa kare ga oyogeru ka mitakatta. I wanted to see if he could swim.
Raishuu karera wa ikitai ka to omoimasu. (I) think that they want to go next week (but I am not sure).
Itsu iku beki ka shirinai. I don’t know when (I) should go.
The Subordinator “that” 「と」The particle “to” is used very similarly to our word “that” when used to turn a clause into a noun. Below are common verbs to use with “to,” but the translations are more literal than natural.
Kanojo wa kare ga isogashii to itta. She said that he is busy.
Hana wa kirei da to omowanai ka? Don’t you think the flowers are pretty?
Nihongo o hanasu koto wa tanoshii to kanjiru. I feel that speaking Japanese is fun.
Jijitsu de aru to shinjimasu. I believe that it is true.
Watashi wa jibun ga muchi da to shitte iru. I know that I am ignorant.
Mita totanni sugi kare da to watakatta. The moment I saw (him), I knew that it is him.
to iu¹ to say
to omou to think
to kanjiru to feel
to shinjiru to believe
to shiru to know
to wakaru to realize
¹ “to iu” is often abbreviated to “tte,” which is also commonly used to emphasize words, similar to the expression, “[...], you say?”* You must use the predicate/terminal form before the particle “to.” This means using “da” instead of “na.”
* Use the o を particle when dealing with direct objects or relative clauses, and not noun clauses, ex. ”I know the reason...”.
* You must use the predicate/terminal form before the particle “ka.” This means using “da” instead of “na.”
“to” denotes that “kare ga isogashii” is the object that was said
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JAPANESE EXPRESSIONS: EXPANDING ON QUALITIES
Degree - “enough/so” 「ほど」When you want to elaborate the extent or degree of a quality, you can use the adverbial particle, “hodo.” Note how the positivity of the clauses reflects in the naturalized English translation.
[+] hodo [+] ~“enough”
[+] hodo [-] ~“not enough”
[-] hodo [+] ~“so”
[-] hodo [-] ~“not so”
Tenjou ni tegatodoku hodo segatakai. He’s tall enough to reach the ceiling.
Tenjou ni tegatodoku hodo segatakanatta. He’s not tall enough to reach the ceiling.
Nikugan dewa mienai hodo chiisai. It is so small that you cannot see it with the naked eye.
Sore o shiranai hodo baka de wa nai. He’s not so stupid that he doesn’t know that.
“too” 「過ぎる」Use the continuative form of verbs and adj. verbs followed by the verb “sugiru” to say something is “too much.”
Kare wa segatakai sugite, kono heya de wa massugu ni tatenai. He is too tall, he can’t stand up straight in this room.
Comparisons - “-er, than” 「より ・ ほう」The case marker “yori” and the noun “hou” are commonly used to compare the quality of nouns or clauses against each other. “hou” represents the side of the subject, while “yori” represents the “challenger.”
Ikou yori iu hou ga yasashii. Easier said than done. (”Compared to doing, saying is easy.”)
Watashi wa suugaku yori sono hou ga rikai shiyasui desu. That’s easier for me to understand than math.
Both “yori” or “hou” may be left out. Also, “yori” can be used without a noun to give a general meaning.
Hayaku okiru hou ga zutto ii. You really should wake up early. (”It is much better to wake up early.”)
Mizu yori karui mono wa uku. Anything lighter than water floats. (“A thing that is lighter than water floats.”)
Yuki wa Taro yori mo hayaku hashiru. Yuki runs faster than even Taro too.
Watashi wa itsu ka yori tsuyoku naru. I will get stronger some day.
Observations & Similes - “like” 「よう」The noun “you,” means something like “form.” As a noun, you must use prenominal/attributive form before it.
Karera wa konai you da. Seems like they aren’t coming tonight.
Kuiiru you na manazashi de jitto mita. (I) watched with a devouring gaze.
Kare wa watashi o minakatta you ni furumatta. He acted like he didn’t see me!
Chou no you ni tobitai. I want to fly like a butterfly.
you da observation ¹
you na adjectival
you ni adverbial
no you ni simile
¹ This is not used when something literally has a certain appearance. For example, to say “looks sad,” use “kanashiku mieru.”