RESEARCH ARTICLE Uchendu, Nene O et al, IJRRPAS, 2013, June, 3(3)370-386, ISSN 2249-1236
370 Available on www.ijrrpas.com
INTRODUCTION
CHARACTERIZATION OF DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF CASSAVA STARCH FOR INDUSTRIAL
UTILIZATION.
ABSTRACT
Physical and biochemical analyses were carried out on different varieties of cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) starch. The
result obtained from the pH measurements gave acidic pH values within the range of 4.8 to 5.5. However, each of the three
different varieties (8082, 8083 and NWIBIBI) gave pH values of 3.0. The gelatinization temperature was within the range of
68°C to 71°C. The acid binding factor shows that NWIBIBI had the highest acid factor of 1.45 while variety 209 had the lowest
binding capacity of 0.6. NWIBIBI also had the highest percentage ash content of 69.0 while the variety 218 had the lowest
(value of) 25.0. Clarity of starch paste showed that all varieties were translucent under hot conditions and opaque in cold
conditions. There is an increase in swelling power with increase in temperature. The temperatures used were 50°C, 60°C, 80°C
and 90°C. Finally, the varieties which were subjected to methylene blue differential dyeing, gave light blue colours. The
relevance of these is that in food industries, pH tests can be used to detect the presence of moulds or other impurities, the
clarity of the starch paste is exploited in the production of different snacks in industry. This is also applied in paper,
pharmaceutical and paste industries. In most industrial processes, starch with low gelatinization temperature, acid factor and
ash content is preferred.
Keywords: Starch, Cassava, Gelatinization temperature, Ash contents and Manihot esculenta Crantz.
International Journal of Research and Reviews in Pharmacy and Applied science
www.ijrrpas.com
Uchendu, Nene O*., Eze,
Sabinus,O.O.,
Ugwu,Okechukwu P.C.,
Enechi O.C. and Udeh,
Sylvester M.C.
Department of Biochemistry,
University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
RESEARCH ARTICLE Uchendu, Nene O et al, IJRRPAS, 2013, June, 3(3)370-386, ISSN 2249-1236
371 Available on www.ijrrpas.com
INTRODUCTION
Cassava is a tropical woody shrub of the family euphorbiacceae, possessing tall, thin, straight stems and when fully grown, attains an average height of
1-2 metres although some cultivars may reach a height of 4 meters. The stem is often marked along its entire length by numerous leaf scars indicating
the position from where its palmate leaves of five or six leaf lets have dropped off.
Depending on the variety and age of the plant, the fibrous roots may be up to 100 centimeters long. Some of these fibrous roots undergo the process of
tuberization (swelling due to the cambium tissue) leading to increase in the diameters of the roots (Nweke, 1996).
Although the leaves of the plant have been found to be rich in protein, vitamin and other nutrients, the tuberous root (root tuber) is the major source of
cassava food, usually starch (and farms largely) depend on the level of production and the quality of starch in the roots (Nweke et al., 2002).
Chemically, fresh cassava tuber consists primarily of water 62-65%, carbohydrate 32-35% which is concentrated in two starch fractions of (amylose
/and amylopectin) of the tuber, protein 0.1-2.6%, fibre 0.8-1.3%, ash 0.3-1.1% and fat 0.2-0.5% (Gerald et al., 2001).
Classification of Cassava
Cassava is one of the commonest foods in the world especially in South America and the West African sub-region. The scientific classification of cassava
is as follows:
Kingdom Plantae-plants
Sub-kingdom Tracheobionta-vascular plants
Super division Spermatophyta-seed plants
Division Magnoliophyta-flowering plants
Class Magnoliopsida-dicotyledons
Sub class Rosidae
Order Euphorbiales
Family Euphorbiacae-spurge family
Sub family crotonoidaea
Tribe Manihoteae
RESEARCH ARTICLE Uchendu, Nene O et al, IJRRPAS, 2013, June, 3(3)370-386, ISSN 2249-1236
372 Available on www.ijrrpas.com
Genus Manihot
Species Manihot esculenta Crantz
Cassava (Manihot spp.) also called tapioca, yucca, manioc, and mandioca in various parts of the world, has its origin in Brazil where it is the major staple
food of the people. It was originally native of the Tupinamba or the Amazon Indians of Eastern Brazil from where it was dispersed to other parts of the
world by Portuguese explorers (IITA, 1990).
Cassava is the fourth major food crop that is extensively cultivated in the tropics (FAO, 1989), with a global production of about 160 million tons. Most
of this is grown in three regions: West Africa and the adjoining Congo basin, Tropical South America and Southeast Asia.
Cassava is the most widely grown staple food in Nigeria especially in the southern part of Nigeria. Propagation of cassava is by planting segments of the
stem. The stem is cut about 8-14 inches (20.3-35.6cm) in length, being sure to include at least one mode. Each “stick” (segment) is buried 3-6 inches
(7.5-15cm) deep; segments can be buried horizontally or vertically inside the ground.
Cassava is well adapted to poor soils with marginal nutritional status and pH of 4 to 9 (Tewe, 2004). It is good candidate for starch production because
it has a high photosynthetic rate; an ability to grow on poor soils and it is protected from many pests and herbivores due to the presence of cyanogens
(Ihemere et al., 2006). It is a widely adapted crop which can grow at altitudes of 0.180cm; fertile to marginal or very poor soils, and rainfall of <500-
2000mm/year (Mkumbira et al., 1997).
There are many varieties of cassava under cultivation in Nigeria. The improved varieties yield between 25-40 tons per hectare, they are equally
resistant to pests and diseases and have acceptable culinary and industrial qualities (Breckelbaum et al., 1978, NRCRI, 1982-1997, IITA, 1976-1996). In
comparison, local varieties yield between 5-10t/ha and are very susceptible to pests and diseases (IITA, 1976-1996).
Cassava varieties are classified according to the levels of cyanogenic glycosides (hydrogen cyanides, HCN) in the roots and leaves (IITA, 1996). Cassava
with high HCN level – 100mg per kilogramme fresh weight or more e.g. TMS 30395; cassava with intermediate levels of HCN ranging 50 and 100mg per
kilogramme fresh weight e.g. TMS 30572, TMS 30555; cassava with low HCN level – less than 50mg kilogramme fresh weight e.g. TMS 4(2) 1425, TMS
30001.
For more than 500 million people in Africa, Asia and South Africa, cassava provides income, employment and food security (Padmaja, 1995). It counts as
one of the leading crops with respect to the energy produced per hectare and year. The world production has steadily increased in the last 35 years and
now the worldwide cassava production has doubled (Plucknett et al., 2001). In 2002, about 186 million tons of cassava was produced. More than half of
that amount was produced in Africa (55%), the rest in Asia (28%) and South America (17%) (FAO Stat., 2005).
RESEARCH ARTICLE Uchendu, Nene O et al, IJRRPAS, 2013, June, 3(3)370-386, ISSN 2249-1236
373 Available on www.ijrrpas.com
MATERIALS AND METHODS
PLANT MATERIALS
The different varieties of cassava starch (Manihot esculenta Crantz)] were procured from International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, IITA Ibadan.
Instruments/Equipment Used
Beakers Pyrex, Conical flasks Pyrex, Burette Pyrex, Measuring cylinder Pyrex, Water bath Giant Instrument Limited, Centrifuge tubes, Spatula, Test
tubes Pyrex, Weighing balance LARK® , Funnel, Buchner funnel Royal Worcestea, Thermometer, Ashing dish, Oven, Desicators Pyrex, Hot plate
Pyrex, Filter paper Whatman, Petry dish, pH meter (digital) B. Bran, Reagent bottles Pyrex, Magnetic stirrer,Vacuum pump Sargent-Welch, Dropper and
Retort stand.
Chemical/Reagents
Ethanol (90%) BDH, Hydrochloric acid (HCl) BDH, Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) BDH, Phenolphthalein BDH, Silver Nitrate BDH and Methylene
blue .
METHODS
Preparation of Reagents
Prepration of Phenolphthalein
0.1g of phenolphthalein was dissolved in 90% ethanol and made up to 100mls in a measuring cylinder.
Preparation of 0.1% Methylene Blue
0.1g of methylene blue was weighed out and dissolved in 10cm3 of water and made up to 100cm3 of distilled water.
Preparation of 0.1N HCl
The preparation was done following the procedure stated below:
The normality of industrially prepared concentrated HCl is got as follows:
Normality = ..100
.1000%
wtMolX
gravitySpXXAssay
RESEARCH ARTICLE Uchendu, Nene O et al, IJRRPAS, 2013, June, 3(3)370-386, ISSN 2249-1236
374 Available on www.ijrrpas.com
.12
46.36100
19.1100038
N
X
XX
Therefore, to prepare 1 litre of 0.1 NHCl,
N1V1 = N2V2
where
N1 = Normality of the concentrated HCl or the stock HCl solution
V1 = Volume required from the stock solution
N2 = Normality to be prepared
V2 = Volume to be prepared
From above,
12 X V1 = 0.1 X 1000
V1 = 12
10001.0 X
= 8.33
8.33 mls of the stock (concentrated) HCl solution was pippetted and dissolved in 1000cm3 of distilled water.
Preparation of 0.2N HCl
Following the same procedure as above
N1V1 = N2V2
12 X V1 = 0.2 X 1000
RESEARCH ARTICLE Uchendu, Nene O et al, IJRRPAS, 2013, June, 3(3)370-386, ISSN 2249-1236
375 Available on www.ijrrpas.com
V1 = 12
10002.0 X
= 16.667
16.67 mls of the stock (concentrated) HCl solution was pippeted and dissolved in 100ml of distilled water.
Preparation of 0.1N NaOH
40g of NaOH was dissolved in 100mls of distilled water = IN
Therefore 4g of NaOH = 0.1N
4g of NaOH was weighed out and dissolved in 10cm3 of water and then made up to 1000cm3 of distilled water.
Determination of pH
Three grams of each variety was weighed and dissolved in 40mls of distilled water. The solution was agitated vigorously for 15 minutes and allowed to
settle for 55 mins. The water phase was decanted and used to determine the pH. The pH was measured using a pH meter.
Determination of Gelatinization Temperature
Three grams of each variety was weighed and dissolved in 40mls of distilled water and agitated. This solution was poured out from the test tube into a
small beaker (50mls). The beaker was placed inside a bigger beaker (250mls) filled with water. Magnetic stirrer was used to stir the starch solution.
This was placed on a magnetic heater and was heated until the starch gelatinized. The temperature at which each variety turned into a gel was noted
and recorded
Determination of Acid Factor
Four grams of starch was weighed into a 250ml beaker and about 10mls of distilled water was added and the mixture was stirred. The pH of the
solution known as slurry was noted. The starch solution in the 250ml beaker was titrated with 0.1N HCl from a burette till a pH of 3.0 was reached. The
amount of acid consumed in the titration of each variety was noted and recorded. This was used to calculate the acid factor.
RESEARCH ARTICLE Uchendu, Nene O et al, IJRRPAS, 2013, June, 3(3)370-386, ISSN 2249-1236
376 Available on www.ijrrpas.com
Determination of Acidity
Starch milk was prepared by taking equal volumes of starch and water (5 grams and 5mls respectively). The starch milk was poured into 250ml beaker
and about two drops of phenolphthalein indicator was added. This solution was titrated with 0.1N NaOH to obtain a faint persistent pink, alternatively
to a pH of 8.3. The volume in mls of the 0.1N NaOH consumed for each variety was noted and recorded.
Determination of Ash in Starch at 900°C
The ashing dish used was carefully cleaned and heated for about an hour in a furnace at 900°C. The dish was brought out and cooled in a dessicator at
room temperature and weighed on a balance to the nearest 0.1mg. Five grams of starch sample was distributed in a uniform layer in the dish. After this,
the dish was weighed again to the nearest 1mg. The starch sample was incinerated on a hot plate until completely carbonized. The incineration was
completed in a hot plat at 900°C until residual carbon disappeared. The ash was cooled in a desiccator at room temperature; weighed immediately after
removal to the nearest 0.1mg.
Determination of Paste Clarity
Five grams of the different starch varieties were suspended in 5mls deionized water and gelatinized. The paste was poured into a clean dry petri dish
and labeled. The clarity of the paste was observed immediately after cooking (hot condition) and after cooling at room temperature (cold condition).
Peltry dishes containing starch paste were photographed against a black and white background to help visual observation of the paste transparence of
opacity.
Determination of Swelling Power of Starch
Five grams of the different varieties were weighed out and 20mls of deionized water was added. This suspension of starch in deionized water was
placed in a water bath under agitation at 50°C. After 30 minutes, the samples were centrifuged (3,4000 rpm/15 minutes) after which the supernatant
was decanted. The pellets containing the swollen starch granules were weighed. The ratio between the final mass and the initial dry matter was
considered to be the swelling power. The same procedure was repeated for the different varieties at the selected temperatures (60°C, 80°C and 90°C).
Determination of differential Dyeing Capacity of Starch
One gram of each of the varieties was suspended in 25ml of 0.1% methylene blue under agitation for 30 minutes. The suspension was washed with
deionized water and filtered. The samples were dried in air oven at 50°C.
RESEARCH ARTICLE Uchendu, Nene O et al, IJRRPAS, 2013, June, 3(3)370-386, ISSN 2249-1236
377 Available on www.ijrrpas.com
RESULTS
PH VALUES
The results obtained from the pH measurement of different cassava starch varieties are shown below:
Variety pH Value
104 5.0
109 4.8
114 4.7
119 5.0
121 4.9
202 5.5
208 4.9
209 5.5
217 4.9
218 5.1
8082 3.0
8083 3.0
NWIBIBI 3.0
Table 1: pH values of different starch varieties
The results on Table 1. above show that most of the starch varieties had pH values between the range of 4.8 to 5.2 that is acidic pH. However, three
varieties (8082, 8083, and NWIBIBI) gave very high acidic pH values of 3.0 each. The low pH could be due to differences in processing methods.
RESEARCH ARTICLE Uchendu, Nene O et al, IJRRPAS, 2013, June, 3(3)370-386, ISSN 2249-1236
378 Available on www.ijrrpas.com
GELATINIZATION TEMPERATURE
Variety Temperature (°C)
104 69
109 69
114 68
119 70
121 69
202 68
208 70
209 69
217 68
218 70
8082 71
8083 71
NWIBIBI 71
Table 2: Gelatinization Temperature of different cassava starch varieties
The results in Table 2 above show that the gelatinization temperatures of the starch varieties were within 68°C to 71°C.
RESEARCH ARTICLE Uchendu, Nene O et al, IJRRPAS, 2013, June, 3(3)370-386, ISSN 2249-1236
379 Available on www.ijrrpas.com
ACID FACTOR
Variety N V(cm3) Acid factor 10NV
104 0.1 1.10 1.10
109 0.1 0.80 0.80
114 0.1 0.70 0.70
119 0.1 0.80 0.80
121 0.1 0.70 0.70
202 0.1 1.00 1.00
208 0.1 0.70 0.70
209 0.1 0.60 0.60
217 0.1 0.80 0.80
218 0.1 0.80 0.80
8082 0.1 1.11 1.11
8083 0.1 1.30 1.30
NWIBIBI 0.1 1.45 1.45
Table 3: Values of acid factor of different cassava starch varieties are shown below.
The result on Table 3 above shows that acid factor of most starch varieties were between 0.6 to 0.8, other have acid factor of 1.10 to 1.45. The variety
with the highest factor NWIBIBI, this might be as a result of the difference in processing.
RESEARCH ARTICLE Uchendu, Nene O et al, IJRRPAS, 2013, June, 3(3)370-386, ISSN 2249-1236
380 Available on www.ijrrpas.com
ACIDITY
Variety N V(cm3) Acidity = NV/50
104 0.1 0.20 0.0004
109 0.1 0.20 0.0004
114 0.1 0.10 0.0002
119 0.1 0.20 0.0004
121 0.1 0.20 0.0004
202 0.1 0.10 0.0003
208 0.1 0.20 0.0004
209 0.1 0.20 0.0004
217 0.1 0.15 0.0003
218 0.1 0.15 0.0003
8082 0.1 0.20 0.0004
8083 0.1 0.20 0.0004
NWIBIBI 0.1 0.20 0.0004
Table 4: Result for the determination of acidity of different starch varieties
From the result on Table 4, the variety 114 has the lowest value of acidity which is 0.0002 the other varieties have values of 0.0003 and 0.0004.
RESEARCH ARTICLE Uchendu, Nene O et al, IJRRPAS, 2013, June, 3(3)370-386, ISSN 2249-1236
381 Available on www.ijrrpas.com
ASH CONTENTS OF STARCH AT 900°C
Variety W0(g) W1(g) W2(g) % Ash Content
104 35.00 39.95 36.70 34.30
109 33.35 38.35 34.95 32.00
114 24.45 29.45 26.00 55.00
119 32.50 37.50 34.30 36.00
121 34.90 39.90 36.20 26.00
202 32.40 37.40 34.00 32.00
208 25.00 30.00 27.00 40.00
209 32.15 37.15 33.90 35.00
217 24.10 29.05 25.85 35.30
218 25.20 30.20 26.45 25.00
8082 34.00 39.00 36.10 42.00
8083 32.50 37.50 35.20 54.00
NWIBIBI 34.30 39.30 37.7 69.00
Table 5: Percentage of ash content cassava starch varieties at 900°C
The results in Table 5 above show that ash content obtained for most varieties were between 25% to 42% while varieties like 8083 and NWIBIBI gave
ash content values of 54% and 69% respectively. This increase in ash content may be as a result of high inorganic ions.
RESEARCH ARTICLE Uchendu, Nene O et al, IJRRPAS, 2013, June, 3(3)370-386, ISSN 2249-1236
382 Available on www.ijrrpas.com
CLARITY OF STARCH PASTE
The paste clarity of starch varieties observed under hot condition and under cold condition.
Variety Paste clarity
(Hot condition)
Paste clarity
(cold condition)
104 Translucent Opaque
109 Translucent Opaque
114 Translucent Opaque
119 Translucent Opaque
121 Translucent Opaque
202 Translucent Opaque
208 Translucent Opaque
209 Translucent Opaque
217 Translucent Opaque
218 Translucent Opaque
8082 Translucent Opaque
8083 Translucent Opaque
NWIBIBI Translucent Opaque
Table 6: Results of clarity of starch paste.
From the results in Table 6 above, all the starch varieties were translucent under hot conditions whereas they were all opaque under cold conditions.
These were viewed under black and white backgrounds in the photograph.
RESEARCH ARTICLE Uchendu, Nene O et al, IJRRPAS, 2013, June, 3(3)370-386, ISSN 2249-1236
383 Available on www.ijrrpas.com
SWELLING POWER OF STARCH
The swelling power of starch was obtained by dividing the final mass with the initial dry weight.
Variety 50°C
W(g)
S.P
60°C
W(g)
S.P
80°C
W(g)
S.P
90°C
W(g)
S.P
104 8.0 1.60 9.70 2.00 22.35 4.47 25.25 5.05
109 7.6 1.52 8.90 1.78 21.70 4.34 26.10 5.52
114 8.6 1.72 9.20 1.84 22.15 4.43 26.25 5.52
119 8.0 1.60 9.50 1.90 20.80 4.16 27.60 4.92
121 8.65 1.73 13.55 2.71 22.90 4.58 24.60 4.92
202 8.1 1.62 10.80 2.16 23.10 4.62 27.60 5.05
208 8.2 1.64 12.15 2.43 20.35 4.07 25.05 5.06
209 7.5 1.50 11.40 2.28 22.95 4.59 22.35 5.52
217 8.2 1.64 11.55 2.31 21.95 4.39 22.35 4.92
218 8.0 1.60 12.30 2.46 22.80 4.56 24.75 5.01
8082 8.40 1.68 7.76 1.84 23.13 4.63 25.95 5.19
8083 7.9 1.58 9.10 1.82 22.75 4.55 24.50 4.90
NWIBIBI 7.6 1.52 13.75 2.75 22.30 4.46 25.05 5.01
Table 7: Results for swelling power of starch.
RESEARCH ARTICLE Uchendu, Nene O et al, IJRRPAS, 2013, June, 3(3)370-386, ISSN 2249-1236
384 Available on www.ijrrpas.com
The swelling power of the different starch varieties increased with increase in temperature. The weight (weight of the final mass) was divided with the
initial dry weight (5.0g) for all the starch varieties at the different temperatures. S.P = Swelling Power.
DISCUSSION
Gelatinization temperature for cassava starch of different varieties were found to be within the range of 68-71°C. This is similar to the result obtained
by Marbach et al., (1970) on cassava starch with a gelatinization temperatures within the range of 60°C t0 80°C. This suggests that the cassava starch
granules studied were swollen in the presence of water at the temperature between 68-71°C, which is quite low. Starch with low gelatinization
temperature is preferred for cooking.
The cooking quality of rice is associated with the starch gelatinization temperature (GT). Rice genotypes with low G.T have probably been selected for
their cooking quality by humans during domestication (Waters et al., 2006).
When the different varieties of starch were tested for paste clarity, it was observed that all the starch varieties were translucent at hot conditions,
whereas at cold conditions, all the varieties were opaque. Cereda and Woslacki, (1985) got similar result with starch. The clarity of the starch paste
suggests that cassava starch can be rightly applied in the Adhesive and Textile Industries.
The products of cassava are clear and suitable for combining with other colouring agents. Balogopalan, (2002) observed that cassava starch is preferred
for paste manufacture in view of its excellent cohesiveness and clarity, and its bland flavour allows it to be used in food packaging. Also, because the
cassava starch exhibits good clarity, it can be used in production of snacks in baking industries (International Starch Institute, 2000).
Result got from this research shows that swelling power increases with increase in temperature. Swelling power is the ratio of the final mass to the
initial mass obtained when starch is subjected to heating in excess of water (Takizawa et al., 2004). At very high temperatures such as 90°C or more,
when the swelling power obtained is also high, starch solution is mostly used for finishing textiles and in paper industries (Hill, 1952).
The pH values of the different varieties of starch were between 4.7 to 5.2. This shows that they are acidic. The slight variation from pH values obtained
maybe an indication of the presence of moulds or other impurities in the starch samples, as low pH indicates deterioration.
However, three varieties (NWIBIBI , 8082, and 8083) showed high acidic pH values of 3.0 for each. This may be due to the fact that these varieties were
commercial starches extracted in a different manner from the other starches. Such starches of very low pH will not be suitable in the paste industry, as
it may be detrimental to the human gum.
Acid factor is the measure of acid binding capacity of starch. This is the ability of starch to combine with acids. Some varieties such as 209 and 208 have
acid factors as low as 0.6 and 0.7 while others such as 8083, and NWIBIBI have acid factors as high as 1.3 and 1.45 respectively. The starch varieties
with high acid factors are applied in the formation of dextrins.
RESEARCH ARTICLE Uchendu, Nene O et al, IJRRPAS, 2013, June, 3(3)370-386, ISSN 2249-1236
385 Available on www.ijrrpas.com
The ash content of most varieties studied fell between 25% to 42% while varieties like 8083 and NWIBIBI gave ash contents of 54% and 69%
respectively. However, results of ash content obtained by FAO (2001) gave ash content of native cassava as 0.8% and native potato as 2%. The increase
in ash content of the starch varieties may be as a result of too many impurities in the starch, which did not burn off completely.
Dyeing differential of starch is defined as the capacity of starch to absorb dye. The result obtained showed that all the starch varieties gave light blue
colours. Takizawa et al., (2004) obtained similar result while working with starch from cassava and corn. However, potato starch showed a black blue
colour, which may be associated with the presence of phosphate groups. This property (ability of starch to absorb dye) can be exploited in textile
industries where starch is used as finishing agents to obtain smooth fabrics and colour thickeners to obtain sharp and durable printed fabrics.
The relevance of this work to industries is much. Firstly, cassava starch with gelatinization temperature of 60-80°C can be exploited in making crispy,
crunchy snacks in the baking industry. In addition, the clear paste (and bland flavour) that is associated with cassava starch makes it most appropriate
in the food industries in the production of various snacks, ice cream and other dairy products. Also, the clarity of cassava starch paste enables its use in
the conversion industry as well as in the Paper, Pharmaceutical and Paste industries.
The swelling power of starch got at high temperature (60-80°C) can be exploited in the formation of gels and glues in the adhesive industry. This
property is also applied in the construction industry.
Furthermore, in the food industry, the pH test can be used to detect the presence of moulds and other impurities. In the different industries, starch of
low acid factor should be chosen except when starch is needed for dextrin formation. Finally, the ability of starch to absorb dyes could be exploited in
the textile industry.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, starch has been very useful and will continue to play great roles in our industries. The range of food products employing starch in one
form or the other is almost without limit. Cassava starch has been commonly used in the industries because of its availability and low cost. In addition,
most of the physical and chemical properties of cassava starch gave it an edge over other types of starch.
RESEARCH ARTICLE Uchendu, Nene O et al, IJRRPAS, 2013, June, 3(3)370-386, ISSN 2249-1236
386 Available on www.ijrrpas.com
REFERENCES
1. Balagopalan, C. (2002). Crop utilization and biotechnology. Central Tuber Crops. Research Institute, Sreekariyan, Trivandrum 695077, Kerala,
India.
2. Breckelbaum, T., Bellotti, A. and Lozano, J. C. (1978). Cassava protection workshop. CIAT Cali, Columbia, pp. 7-12.
3. Cereda, M. P., Franco, C. M. L. and Daiulo, E. R. (2001). Propriedades Gerais do Amido. Campinas: Fundacao Cargill 1, 224-226.
4. Food and Agricultural Organization, FAO (1989). Cassava processing. Retrieved on July 2, 2006 from
http://www.fao.org/x5032E/x5032E07.htm.
5. Food and Agriculture Organization on the United Nations (2004). The global cassava development strategy and implementation plan.
Proceedings of the validation forum on the global cassava development strategy. Retrieved March 14, 2005 from
http://www.fao.org/documents/show-edr.asp? url=file=/docrep/006/y0169e/y0169e00.html.
6. Gerald, C., Barron, C., Colonna, P. and Planchot, V. (2001). Amylase determination in genetically modified starches. Carbohydrate polymers.
Everton publishers, 44(1):19-27.
7. Ihemere, U. E., Arias-Garzon, D. I. and Sayre, R. T. (2006). Transformation of African cassava for increased production. CBN-V Archives-3-07.
Retrieved July 2, 2006.
8. International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, IITA (1976-1996). Annual report, Ibadan, Nigeria.
9. International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, IITA (1990). Cassava in Tropical Africa: A reference manual.
10. Mkumbira, J., Mahungu, N. M., and Salipira, S. K. (1997). Variation of Cassava Cyanogenic potential in different agro-ecologies. African Journal of
Root and Tuber Crops, 2(1 and 2), 88-90.
11. National Root and Crop Research Institute, NRCRI (1983). Guide to Cassava Cultivation in Nigeria. Advisory Bulletin No.19, Umudike.
12. Nweke, F. I. (1996). Cassava: A Cash in Africa. COSCA Working Paper No. 14 11TA, Ibadan.
13. Nweke, F. I., Spencer, D. S. C. and Lynam, J. K. (2002). The cassava transformation. Michigan Sate University Press. East Lansing, pp. 273-275.
14. Padmaja, G. (1995). Cyanide detoxification in cassava for food and feed uses. Critical Review in Food Science and Nutrition, 35 (4): 299-339.
15. Plucknett, D. L., Philips, T. P. and Kagbo, R. B. (2001). A global development strategy for cassava: transforming a traditional tropical root crop.
The Global Cassava Development Strategy and Implementation Planning FAO, Rome 5-39.
16. Takizawa, F. F., Graziela de Oliveirada Silva, Konkel, F. E. and Demiate, I. M. (2004). Characterization of Tropical Starches Modified with
Potassium Permanganate and Lactic Acid. Brazilian Achieves of Biology and Technology, 47(6):921-931.
17. Tewe, O. O. (2004). Cassava for livestock feed in Sub-Saharan Africa. Lutaladia, N. (ed). University of Ibadan, Nigeria, pp.23-26.
18. Waters, Daniel, L. E., Robert, J. Henry, Russell, F. Reinke, and Melissa, A. Filzgerald (2006). Gelatinization temperature of rice explained by
polymorphisms in Starch synthase. Plant Biotechnology Journal 4(1):115-120.