Infectious Diseases and Nurses
Historical Insights Can Guide Future Action
Kate McPhaul, PhD, MPH, RNUniversity of Maryland Work and Health Research Center
June 8, 2007Massachusetts Nurses Association (MNA)
Objectives
List two old and one new infectious disease known to be transmitted to healthcare workers today
Discuss the three classic public health interventions for control of infectious disease transmission
Contrast the occupational safety paradigm including hierarchy of controls with classic pubic health protection and critique the implications for protecting healthcare workers
Describe the elements of the blood borne pathogen standard and relate to the hierarchy of controls for protecting workers from airborne infectious diseases
Historical perspectives on TB, SARS, Influenza and Healthcare Workers
Model Standard - Bloodborne Pathogen and Needlestick Safety Act
What do we do NOW to prevent nurses from contracting infectious diseases in future outbreaks?
Even super heros can succumb to infectious diseases….
How many infectious agents may be transmitted and/or acquired by nurses in healthcare settings?
Infectious Diseases in Healthcare According to the CDC, the following may be transmitted and/or acquired in healthcare settings Acinetobacter Bloodborne Pathogens Burkholderia cepacia Chickenpox (Varicella) Clostridium Difficile Clostridium Sordellii Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (CJD) Ebola (Viral Hemorrhagic Fever) Gastrointestinal (GI) Infections Hepatitis A Hepatitis B Hepatitis C HIV/AIDS Influenza
MRSA - Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus Aureus
Mumps Norovirus Parvovirus Poliovirus Pneumonia Rubella SARS S. pneumoniae (Drug resistant) Tuberculosis Varicella (Chickenpox) Viral Hemorrhagic Fever (Ebola) VISA - Vancomycin Intermediate
Staphylococcus aureus VRE - Vancomycin-resistant enterococci
Blood borne pathogen transmission to healthcare workers In addition to Hepatitis B and C, and HIV
from 1996 – 2005 there were “published case reports of 60 pathogens: 26 viruses, 18 bacterial/rickettsia, 13 parasites, and 3 yeast” known to occupationally infect HCW’s. (Tarantola, AJIC, 2006)
Occupational Deaths from Infectious Diseases: Hepatitis B 1983 – 10,000 HCW’s exposed
5%-10% (500-1000) develop chronic infection
15%-25% (75-200) die/year Risk of Hep B has diminished >90% due
to Hep B Vaccine >30% HCW’s decline vaccine resulting
400 HCW’s/year becoming infected
Occupational Deaths from Infectious Diseases: Hepatitis C CDC estimates that Hepatitis C is
prevalent in 1.8% of US population, same for HCW’s
1-3% of percutaneous exposures result in Hep C infection to HCW
3-8 HCW’s annually die from Hepatitis C (estimate based on needlestick rate)
Occupational Deaths from Infectious Diseases: HIV 138 HCW’s acquired AID’s from a
percutaneous exposure CDC methods do not collect death
information Personal friend, Meta Snyder, died from
AIDS acquired via needlestick but did not meet the CDC definition
Occupational Deaths from Infectious Diseases: Internationally
Hemorrhagic fevers TB in Malawi,
Ethiopia and South Africa
The TB Debate: TB is good for Nurses
Early History
Aristotle – “in approaching the consumptive one breathes [his] pernicious air, one takes the disease because there is in this air something disease – producing”
Sepkowitz, 1994
Tuberculosis
1699: tuberculosis became a reportable disease in Italy
Some pathologists refuse to do mandated autopsies fearing illness
French MD Laennec dies from TB refusing to believe he could acquire it from performing autopsies
Tuberculosis
1882 study showed no HCW’s infected in a large TB Sanatorium: “TB might not even be contagious”
Clapp of Boston believed in contagion but this view was not pervasive
More data shows risk of TB for HCW’s Studies of nursing students in Europe and US
show high rates of tuberculin conversation (79-100%)
Standard 1920’s pulmonary text: “There is no danger from the expired air of consumptives. For this reason a TB sanatorium is probably the safest place one can be so far as the dangers of infection is concerned.”
Why was consensus delayed?Sepkowitz, 1994
Acknowledging risk might scare women away from nursing profession
Some said increased surveillance not increased risk
Middle road view: Yes, infections are occurring but disease is rare
Living right prevents disease
Reducing the risk
Reducing the Risk
Mandatory chest x-rays upon admission for all patients
Effective chemotherapy and routine prophylaxis
TB rates in population declined until 1980’s
Occupational Deaths from Infectious Diseases: TB At least nine HCW’s
who were also immunocompromised died from TB infection in the 80’s and 90’s.
6-8 HCW’s have also died from TB treatment to multi-drug resistant TB
Occupational Deaths from Infectious Diseases: SARS
•8098 cases•774 deaths (9.6%)•1707 (21%)
cases were HCW’s•378 (57%) of cases in
healthcare were HCW’s•Number of HCW fatalities
not known!!!
Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) - Timeline Mar 2003 – HCW with unexplained pneumonia
in Vietnam dies Mar – June 2003 - Toronto – 2 phase outbreak
primarily driven by nosocomial infections Mar – June – Taiwan – 2 phases: 1 in travelers,
1 in hospitals July 2003 – WHO declares outbreak over
SARS and HCW’sMcDonald, 2004 Emerging Infectious Diseases
Characteristics Toronto Taiwan
Total Cases 375 N/A
Probable 247 (66) 668
Suspected 128 (34) N/A
Deaths 44 (12) 72 (11)
Healthcare-related 271 (72) 370 (55)
Healthcare workers 164 (44) 120 (18)
SARS in Healthcare Facilities
Unrecognized SARS Patients Minimal infection control practices in ER ER = high risk Virus concentrations highest in patients 10
days after infection when symptoms are worsening
McDonald, 2004 Emerging Infectious Diseases
SARS in Healthcare Facilities
Transmission appears to beDropletDirect contactLimited airborne
McDonald, 2004 Emerging Infectious Diseases
SARS in Healthcare Facilities
Important Considerations: Aerosol-generating procedures “Super spreaders” Lack of PPE Overwhelming hospital resources such as negative
pressure ventilated rooms SARS Tent/SARS Screening station No rapid diagnostic test Using “epidemiologic links”
McDonald, 2004 Emerging Infectious Diseases
SARS Ethical FrameworkKey Values Individual liberty Protection of the public Proportionality Reciprocity Transparency Privacy Protection from undue
stigmatization Duty to provide care Equity Solidarity
Lawrence Mass 1918
Why does health care lag behind other sectors in H&S
False perception that the industry is self-regulated (JCAHO)
Health care traditionally seen as “clean industry”, a place of health
Focus on “curative” rather than “preventive” care
Primarily a female workforce A low unionization rate
(Lipscomb & Borwegen, 2000)
HCW vulnerability
Socialized to believe that care giving requires self sacrifice, even of their own health
Some hazards considered “part of the job” HCWs become patients (often uninsured)
in the course of caring for others Issues of race, class, gender
Economic Costs of Staff Injuries/Illnesses
Medical care and follow-up Worker disability Staff replacement Loss of experienced workers Cost of importing workers to replace
injured US workers Reduced productivity Poor patient outcomes**
Classic Public Health Interventions
Handwashing Vaccination Isolating infected
patients
Health and Safety Programs: A Framework for Prevention
Management commitment and employee involvement
Worksite analysis Hazard control Training Evaluation
H & S Program Elements
All necessary, none sufficient Critical for any and all hazards Success dependent on genuine team work Can’t be successful without management
commitment Direct care and support staff expertise are
essential
Hazard Control: Hierarchy of Controls
Substitution – with a less hazardous chemical or device such as antimicrobials that don’t cause asthma
Engineering Controls - modify or control the hazard at the source, such as ventilation hoods?
Administrative Controls – reduce the amount of exposure to hazard via policies and procedures
Personal Protective Equipment - gloves, respirators, protective clothing
Estimated % reduction in adverse outcomes with improved staffing
Buerhaus, P.I. et al Strengthening Hospital Nursing. Health Affairs 21(5), 2002
How do high workload lead to poor patient outcomes?
• Impaired nurse-physician (and other HCW) collaboration,
• Poor nurse-patient communication,• HCW fatigue, lack of concentration• HCW burnout, depression, reduced empathy• Job dissatisfaction• HCW injury and illness• HCW disability and/or job change
Carayon & Gurses (2005)
What do we know about staffing and HCW injuries?
MNA study found a 9% decrease in RNs was associated with a 65% increase in injuries/illnesses (Shogren, 1996)
High workloads associated with 50-200% increase in needlestick injuries/near misses, (Clark, 2002)
Adverse work schedule and health care system changes associated with neck, shoulder, back MSD (Lipscomb, 2004).
Extreme work schedules, injuries and patient care (JAMA, Sept. 06) 84% of interns worked > than ACGME limits;
67% worked > 30 consecutive hrs. Odds of exposure to sharps or contaminated
body fluids increase 61% when interns worked > 20 consecutive hrs. compared with interns working < 12 hrs.
“24 hrs of continuous wakefulness causes impairment of cognitive performance comparable to that induced by a blood alcohol concentration of 100 mg/dl (legal intoxication in most states).”
Blood borne Pathogen Risks
2-40% risk of developing Hepatitis B 3-10% risk of developing Hepatitis C
560-1,120/year 85% become chronic carriers
0.3% risk of transmission of HIV >1000 workers will contract Hepatitis B,
Hepatitis C, or HIV/year
What do we know?
300,000 + needlesticks continue to occur/year.
Needlesticks and BB infections are extremely costly.
Safety syringe have reduced incidence (> 50%) but much room for improvement.
Enforcement of Safe Needlestick Act is limited.
OSHA BBP Standard (1991)
Require “universal precautions” Required Hep B immunization
Cases went from 17,000 (1983) to 400/yr Engineering controls (safe needles) were
to be used where available Dentists claimed (in the docket) if they
were forced to where gloves, patients would not see them.
Safe Needle Act of 2000
Unanimous bipartisan support Clarifies the need for employers to use
safe needles Requires front line worker participation
in product selection committees Requires employers to maintain a log of
injuries from contaminated sharps.
Airborne Infections
TB, SARS, influenza Seasonal flu - <40% immunization among
HCW Pandemic flu preparedness Aerosol vs droplet transmission Respiratory protection
Type, fit testing, stockpiles
What do we know?
Short staffing leads to sick staff. Sick staff lead to sicker patients. Current levels of staff immunization
inadequate. Current levels of available respiratory
protection (N95s) inadequate for pandemic flu.
History of Regulations to Prevent HCW Exposure to Airborne Hazards
Respiratory Protection Standard (1971, 1998) Proposed TB rule (1997); withdrawn (2003) Continuation of the Wicker Amendment
(appropriations rider) CA is enforcing the annual fit testing requirement.
Conclusions
The risks to nurses are historically and currently substantial
Early research is not always accurate Educate other RN’s and HCW’s Argue, lobby, insist upon N95 PPE and general
preparedness of your facility Join or get on the agenda of H and S Committee
Questions and future contact [email protected]