Individual Differencesand
Computer – Assisted Language Learning (CALL)
By,Ratnatyara Wahyuhadi
Rofiqo MujahidahTri Yanuarsih
Theories of second language learning Individual differences
Models with independent learner variables- The “Good Language Learner’ Model- Monitor theory- Brown & Fraser’s Framework- Levin’s Schematic Model
Models with Interdependent learner variables- Gardner’s Educational Model- Skehan’s Model of influences on language learning- Spolsky’s Model of second language learning
Models of Second Language Acquisition (SLA)
The ‘Good Language-Learner’ Model Proposed by Naiman, Frohlich, Todesco and Stern
(1978)
MaterialsSyllabusMethodologyResources
Unconscious processes-Generalization-Transfer-SimplificationConscious processes- strategies
AgeIntelligenceMotivationAttitudePersonalityCognitive Style
EFL/ESLOpportunities for useSocial Milieu
Proficiency-Listening- Speaking- Reading- WritingErrorsInter languageAffective reason
TEACHING
THE LEARNERS
THE CONTEXT
LEARNINGOUTCOME
Proposed by : - Krashen (1978,1981,1982, 1985)
- Dulay, Burt & Krashen (1982)- Krashen & Terrel (1983)
Monitor Theory
INPUT
AffectiveFilter
CognitiveOrganizers
MONITOR
OUTPUT
Affective Filter :- Attitude- Motivation- Self-confidence- Anxiety
1979
Brown & Fraser’s Framework
Situation
Scene Participants
Setting(bystanders,local, time)
Purpose(buying, lecturing,playing a game)
Individuals RelationshipBetweenIndividuals(shared Knowledge,power)
IndividualQua individual(personality, attitude)
Individual asmember of asocial category(class, ethnicity)
Levin (1977)
Levin’s Schematic Model
2 major stages :- diagnostic- prescriptive
Focused on 2 variables :- input (traits, abilities, prerequisites) - output
These models not only identify the independent influence of the individual-related variables and other variables but also consider that these variables influence each other and jointly create differences in learning outcomes.
Models of this type include:- Gardner’s educational model- Skehan’s model of influences on language
learning- Spolsky’s model of second language learning
Models with interdependent learner variables
The model encompasses three main aspects:- Cultural beliefs- Individual differences- Second Language Learning (SLA)/learning contexts
There are three points that can be inferred from Gardner’s model.- There should be a direct link between cultural beliefs and individual difference variables- Gardner highlights the importance of individual differences (e.g. intelligence, language aptitude, motivation, and situational anxiety) upon which his approach is primarily based.- There is a linkage between variables within the framework which, in turn jointly affect other variables.
Gardner’s Educational Model
Social MilieuIndividualDifferences Social Milieu Social Milieu
CulturalBelief
Intelligence
LanguageAptitude
Motivation
Situationalanxiety
FormalLanguageTraining
InformalLanguageTraining
Linguistic
NonLinguistic
Gardner’s (1979) schematic representation of the theoretical model
CulturalBelief
Integrativeness
Attitudestowards thelearningsituations
Motivation
formal
informal
Linguistic
Nonlinguistic
LanguageAptitude
Operational formulation of the socio-educational model (Gardner, 1985)
A modification of the ‘Good Language Learner (GLL)’ model developed by Naiman, et al, (1978)
There are two differences between the two models: 1. A new ‘opportunities for target language
use’ category has been added2. The sub-variables under the ‘classrooms and materials’ variable was proposed
Skehan’s Model of Influences on Language Learning
Spolsky based his model on a core of five features summarized as follows:- Combining in a single theory all aspects of second or foreign language learning which he described as ‘unabashed immodesty’.- A restriction to the specific domain of second language learning and a focus on individual differences.- ??- A spirit of eclecticism seems to underlie Spolsky’s model.- The model recognizes the importance and existence of ‘social context’ as an important domain affecting learning outcomes.
Spolsky’s model consists of two main clusters, i.e. ‘conditions of social contexts’ and ‘conditions of learners’.
Spolsky’s Model of Second Language Learning
ClassroomsAnd materials
MaterialsSyllabusMethodologyResources
Organization-Structuring-ExplicitivenessResponsiveness-Appropriateness of pacing-Individualization-Feedback provision
Social Context
Expectation of bilingualismRelationship to target language communityAttitudes to target language Social class
Opportunitiesfor target
language use
Access to NS-In class-Out of class
Opportunities for communication language useOpportunities for negotiation
The learner
IntelligenceAptitudeMotivationAttitudePersonalityCognitive style
Learning
Conscious strategies
Unconscious strategies
Out comes
ProficiencyErrorsFossilizationAffectiveoutcome
There are two points that can be noted from Spolsky’s model of language learning and its underlying features:
1. Spolsky’s model appears to be promising as a parameter for identifying variations in learner variables2. The second point relates to the fourth feature underlying Spolsky’s model. This feature of eclecticism clearly implies that his model can
be modified and adjusted according to learning conditions (contexts).
Social context
Age
Social context
Motivation
Personality Capabilities Previous Knowledge
Learning opportunities(formal or informal)
Linguistic and non-linguisticOutcomes for the learners
Leads to
Which appear in the learners as
Which joins with other personal characteristic such as
All of which explain the use the learner makes of the available
The interplay between learner and situation determining
From the review of these specific SLA models, there are two points that can be highlighted:
No matter what the model of SLA is, learner variables
are claimed to relate to learning outcomes
Most models posit learner variables as caused variables influencing the learning outcome.
NO MODELS VARIABLES
1 The ‘Good Language Learner’ Model
Learner (e.g; intelligence, aptitude, motivation, attitude, personality, cognitive style)Teaching (eg. Syllabus, materials, methodology, resources)The context (eg. EFL/ESL, opportunities for use, and social milieu)Learning (unconscious and conscious process)Outcome (proficiency, error, interlanguage, affective reactions)
2 ‘Monitor’ Model Affective Filter (learner variable) such as attitude, motivation, self-confidence, or anxiety)InputCognitive OrganizersOutput
3 Model Developed by Brown and Fraser
Scene (setting and purpose)Participant (individual and relationship between individuals)Language choice (outcomes)
4 Levin’s model Input (learner variables)Output
5 Gardner’s Model Social milieu (cultural beliefs)Individual Differences (intelligence, language aptitude, motivation, and situational anxiety)Second Language Acquisition Contexts (formal and informal training)Outcomes (linguistic and non-linguistic)
6 Spolsky’s Model Social Context (eg. Family, home, community, etc)Condition of learner (eg. Motivation, age, personality, capabilities, and previous knowledge)Learning opportunities (formal and informal)Outcomes (linguistic and non-linguistic)
7 Skehan’s Model Classrooms and Materials (eg. Syllabus, methodology, materials, teacher-student ratio, resources, organization, responsiveness)Social context (eg. Expectation of bilingualism, relation to target language, attitudes to target language, social class)Opportunities for target language use (eg. Access to NS, opportunities for communicative language use, opportunities for negotiation)The Learner (eg. Intelligence, aptitude, motivation, attitude, personality, cognitive style)Learning (conscious and unconscious)Outcomes (proficiency, errors, fossilization, affective outcomes)
Age Attitudes Motivation Intelligence Language aptitude Previous knowledge Familiarity with computers Interaction with native-speakers of English Language used for interaction with the community
Individual Differences
young children are better in the most crucial areas particularly in oral (communicative) proficiency, but adults’ rate of acquisition is faster than children, particularly in morphology and syntax.
Age
A student who has negative or positive attitude toward learning process will affect his/her interaction during the learning process.
Attitudes
Intrinsic Intrinsic motivation is one which comes from the
learners’ own persona.
ExtrinsicExtrinsic motivation is one which comes from out side and beyond individual.
Motivation
There is a positive correlation between intelligence and language learning achievement.
Intelligence
According to Carroll (1981:84) aptitude can be defined as :
a concept which corresponds to the notion that in approaching a particular learning task or program, the individual may be thought of as possessing some current state of capacity of learning that task if the individual is motivated, and has the
opportunity of doing so. The capacity is presumed to depend on some combination of more or less enduring characteristic of the individual.
Language Aptitude
In a foreign language learning context, previous language knowledge plays an important role in a further process of language learning, in terms of language learning achievement.
Previous knowledge
It is considered as a variable in a computer-mediated language learning environment.
It will help the students to access the knowledge.
Familiarity with computers
Can interaction with native speakers of the target language being learned enhance language learning achievement?
Interaction with native-speakers of English
Smith-Kreuzen (1988) : learners will interact using the target language.
Hartoyo : only in formal-teaching learning situations (classroom context). In informal situations (outside the classroom), Indonesian is likely to be used more than English.
Language used for interaction with the community
Despite the fact that not all studies on the relationship between individual-related variable and language learning achievement have revealed similar findings, the majority of studies indicates that these variables significantly affect language learning achievement. Furthermore, the review has repeatedly demonstrated that the variables do not operate in isolation. The are important though unclear interaction between them.
SUMMARY
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