Planning and Design
he
IGHTH EDITION
ical
aul D. Leedy Late ofAmerican University
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod University of Northern Colorado (Emerita)
University of New Hampshire
PEARSON
Merrill Prentice Hall
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey Columbus, Ohio
BRIEF NT
PART I THE FUNDAMENTALS
CHAPTER 1 What Is Research? 1
CHAPTER 2 Tools of Research 12
PART 11 FOCUSING YOUR RESEARCH EFFORTS
CH A PT E R 3 The Problem: The Heart of the Research Process 43
CHAPTER 4 Review of the Related Literature .64
CHAPTER 5 Planning Your Research Project . .85
CHAPTER 6 Writing the Research Proposal 115
PART 111 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES
CHAPTER 7 Qualitative Research .133
C H A PTE R 8 Historical Research .161
PART IV QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES
CHAPTER 9 Descriptive Research . .179
CHAPTER 1 0 Experimental and Ex Post Facto Designs .217
CHAPTER 1 1 Statistical Techniques for Analyzing Quantitative Data . . . .245
PART V PREPARING THE RESEARCH REPORT
CHAPTER 12 Technical Details: Style, Format, and Organization of the Research Report 282
ApPENDIX: USING SPSS 303
REFERENCES 309
INDEX 313
ix
co ENT
INTRODUCTION xxi
PART I THE FUNDAMENTALS
CHAPTER 1
WHAT Is RESEARCH? 1
What Research Is Not 1
What Research Is 2
Discovering the Discipline of Research 7
1,/ Browsing the Periodicals Section ofthe Library 8 IJSlN6 Findingjournals on the Internet 8TEcHI\IIJLD6V
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Evaluating the Research ofOthers 9
CHECKLIST: Refleetive Questions to Consider When Evaluating Research 9
GUIDELINES: Benefiting from Others' Research 10
For Further Reading 11
CHAPTER 2
TOOlS OF RESEARCH .....................12
General Tools of Research 12
The Library and Its Resources as a Tool of Research 13
The Library of the Quiet Past 13
The Library of the Stormy Present 14
.~ How to Access Information Quickly and Efficiently 14 ~\(",) IJSlN6 The Computer and Its Software as a Tool of Research 17TECHI\IDLIJ6V
Taking Advantage of the Internet 17
Accessing the Internet 19
Learning More About the Internet 19
XI
Contentsxii
~ :;\U U!l11\I6 TEI:HNDLD6Y
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Using the Inrernet co Facilitate Communication
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Using E-mail 20
20
-< G UIDELI NES: Writing to Communicate 36 U!iINIi
TEa:itNDLOIiY
GUIDELINES: Getting Started on E-mail 21
Measurement as a Tool of Research 21
Measuring Insubstantial Phenomena: All Example 22
Interpretation 01 the Data 24
Four Seales 01 Measurement 25
Validity and Reliability 01 Measurement 27
Statistics as a Tool of Research 29
The Lure 01 Statisties 30
Primary Funetions olStatisties 30
The Human Mind as a Tool of Research 31
Deduetive Logie 3]
Indlletive Reasoning 32
The Seientifie Method 33
Critieal Thinking 33
Collaboration with Others 34
Language as a Tool of Research 34
The Value 01 Knowing Two ar More Languages 35
The Impartanee olWriting 36
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Communicating Effectively Through Writing 36
GUIDELINES: Using a Word Processor 38
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Idenrifying Imporranr Tools in Your Discipline 40
CHECKLIST: Ioterviewing an Expert Researcher 40
Reflecrions on Significanr Research 41
For Further Reading 41
PART 11 FOCUSING YOUR RESEARCH EFFORTS
CHAPTER 3
THE PROBLEM: THE HEART OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS .. . 43
Finding Research Projecrs 43
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Idenrifying and Describing the Research Problem 45
Sttbpl'oblems Versus PseudoSubproblems 5 ]
Charaeteristies 01 Subproblems 5]
GUIDELINES: Finding a Legitimate Problem 45
GUIDELINES: Stating the Research Problem 47
CHECKLIST: Evaluating the Research Problem 50
Dividing the Research Problem ioto Subproblems 51
Contents xiii
Identilying SubproblenlJ 52o ~~ lJ!iIN6 Every Problem Needs Further Delineation 54 TEQtNDLDIiY
Stating the Hypotheses and/or Research Questions 54
Delimiting the Research 55
Defining the Terms 55
Stating the Assumptions 56
Importance 01 the Study 57
Ordering the Topics in a Research Proposal 57
A Sampie Research Proposal 57
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Writing the First Seetions of a Proposal 60
CHECKLIST: Evaluating Your Proposed Research Projeet 60
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Reappraising a Proposed Research Problem 62
GUIDELINES: Fine-Tuning Your Research Problem 62
For Further Reading 63
CHAPTER 4
REVIEW OF THE RElATED LITERATURE 64
2..;;,. ~~ LJ§11\l6 TECHNDLDIiY
/. Using Online Databases 67
lJ!iIN6 TEettNDLD6Y
2..0 Organizing the Information You Have Colleeted 75 ::'0 LJ§Il\lG TECHNDLD6Y
Understanding the Role of the Review 64
Sources and Strategies for Locaring Related Literature 65 Using the Library Catalog 65
Using Indexes, Abstracts, and Other General Relerences 66
Additional Strategies lor Zeroirlg in on Relevant Literature 69
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Conducting a Literature Search 71
GUIDELINES: Using Your Library Time Efficiently 72
Creating Computer Databases 75
Knowing When to Quit 76
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Beginning Your Review of the Related
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Writing the Seetion on the Related
Literature 76
Evaluating, Organizing, and Synthesizing the Literature 77
Literature 79
GUIDELINES: Writing a Clear and Cohesive Review 79
A Sampie Research Proposal 81
For Further Reading 84
CHAPTER 5
PlANNINC YOUR RESEARCH PROJECT 85 Planning a General Approach 85
The Basic Format 01 AI! Research 85
Research Planning VersttS Research Methodology 87
General Criteria lor a Research Pro}ect 88
Contentsxiv
The Nature and Role of Data in Research 88
What Are Data? 88
Data Are Transimt and Ever Changi17g 89
Primary Data Versus Secondary Data 89
Criteria for the Admissibility of Data 91
Identifying Appropriate Measurement Instruments 91
Linking Data and Research Methodology 93
Comparing Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches 94
Considering the Validity of Your Method 97
InternaI Validity 97
External Validity 99
Validity in Qualitative Research 100
Ethical 1ssues in Research 101
Protection from Harm 101
Informed Consent 101
Right to Privacy 102
Horzesty with Professional Co//eagues 102
InternaI Review Boards 102
Professional Codes ofEthics 104
Planning for Data Collection 104
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Choosing a Research Approach 105
GUIDELINES: Deciding Whether to Use a Quantitative or Qualitative Approach 105
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: ]udging the Feasibility of a Research Projecr 107
CHECKLIST: Determining Whether a Proposed Research Projecr 1s Realistic and Practical 107
When You Can't Anticipate Everything in Advance: The Value of a Pilot Study 110
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Establishing Research Criteria and ]ustifying Your Research Methodology 110
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Developing a Plan of Attack 1112:.~ ~CO LJ51N6 Using Project Memagernent Software emd Electronic Planners 113TECHI\lOLOIi'V
Keeping an Optimistic and Task-Oriented Outlook 113
For Further Reading 113
CHAPTER 6
WRITING THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL 11 5
Researcher and Archi tect: Planners in Common 115
Characteristics of a Proposal 116
A Proposalls a Straightforward Domment 117
A Proposal 1J Not a Literary Production 117
A Proposalls C/ear/y Organized 117
Organizing a Research Proposal 119
Forrnatting Headings and Subheadings 120
Con te nts xv
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Wriring Your Proposal 121
GUIDELINES: Wriring rhe Firsr Drafr 121
GUIDELINES: Revising Your Proposal 124
Common Weaknesses in Research Proposals 126
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Srrengthening Your Proposal 127
CHECKLIST: Featutes Detraeting from Proposal Effectiveness 127
Final Thoughts About Proposal Writing 128
A Sampie Research Proposal 129
For Further Reading 132
PART 111 QUALITATIVE RES EARCH M ETHODOLOG I ES
CHAPTER 7
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 133
The Nature of the Research Problem and Planning in Qualitative Research 134
When to Choose a QuaLitative Approach 134
Qualitative Research Designs 135
Case Study 135
Ethnography 137
PhenomenoLogicaL Study 139
GroundedTheoryStudy 140
Content AnaLysis 142
Collecting Data in Qualitative Reseatch 143
SampLing 144
Observations 145
lntel'views 146
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Conducting Interviews in a Qualitative Scudy 146
u. GUIDELINES: Condueting a Produetive Interview 147 . U!ill\l& Using TechnoLogy to PaciLitate Data CoLLection and Transcripti011 149TEI:HI\IOLD&Y
Organizing and Analyzing the Data from Qualitative Scudies 150o ~~U!ill\l& Using Computer Databases to PaciLitate Data Organization and lntelpretation 151 TEI:HI\IDLD6Y
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Planning a Qualitative Scudy 152
CHECKLIST: Planning a Qualitative Scudy 152
Ctiteria for Evaluating Qualitative Research 154
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Evaluating a Qualitative Scudy 155
C HECKLI ST: Evaluating Qualitative Reseatch Scudies 155
A Sampie Dissertation 156
For Further Reading 160
XVI Contents
CHAPTER 8
161H ISTORICAL RESEARCH
Data SOUtces in Historical Research 162
_~, Colleeting Historical Records 165 -:;:.'U U!i11\l6
TEl:HI\IDLDIiY Onlim Databases Abottt Historical El/ents ] 65
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Handling Historical Data Systematically 166
_C~ A Paperand-Pencil Approach ]66-:;:.Q:.) U!i11\l6 TECHI\IOLDIiY A Compttterized Approach to Colleetinf!. emd Organizing Your Data ]66
Internal Evidence ] 67
Historical Time ] 69
Evaluating and Interpreting Historical Data 167
External Evidence ] 67
Considering Historical Time and Historical Space 168
Historical Space 170
Psychological or Conceptual Historical Research 172
The Fascination of Searching for Roots 172
PRACTICAL APPLICATIOf\I: Historical Research Writing 172
CHECKLIST: Comparing Two Records of a Significant Event in History 173
GUIDELINES: Writing the Historical Research Report 174
A Sampie Dissertation 174
For Further Reading 177
PART IV QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES
CHAPTER 9
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH ............... .. 179
Descriptive Research Designs 179
Correlational Research ]80
Developmental Desigm ]82
Survey Research ] 83
An Example in Ittternational Relations ]88
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Constructing and Administering a
Observation Studies ] 79
Using Checklists and Rating Scales 185
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Planning and Conducting Interviews 187
GUIDELINES: Conducting Interviews in a Quantitative Study 187
Questionnaire 190
GUIDELINES: Constructing a Questionnaire 190
GUIDELINES: Maximizing YOUt Return Rate for a Mailed Questionnaire 192 "/
Using DatabaseJ, Word ProceJJing, and Mail Merge in Developing Questionnaire:::~ USI1\I6 TECHIIIDLD6Y Materials ] 96
Contents xvii
Using Scanners to Faci/itate Data Tablllation 197 v
::1(.) U§11\I6 PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Computerizing Data Colleccion in Descriptive Research 197
Choosing a Sample in a Descriptive Study 198
TECHI\IOL06Y
Sampling Designs 199
Sampling in Surve)'s ofVery Large Populations 206
Identifying a SlIfficient Sampie Size 207
Bias in Research Sampling 208
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Population Analysis for a Descriptive Survey 210
CHECKLIST: Analyzing a Population 211
Interpreting Data in Descriptive Research 212
Some Final Suggestions 212
A SampIe Dissertation 212
For Further Reading 216
CHAPTER 10
EXPERIMENTAL AND Ex POST FACTa DESIGNS 217
Independent and Dependent Variables 218
The Importance ofControl 219
Overview of Experimental and Ex POSt Facro Designs 222
Pre-Experimental Designs 223
Design 1: One-Shot Experimental Case Study 223
Design 2: One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design 224
Design 3: Static GrQ1.fp Comparison 224
True Experimental Designs 225
Design 4: Pretest-Posttest Control Grotlp Design 225
Design 5: Solomon Four-Grotlp Design 225
Design 6: POStlest-Onl)' Control Group Design 226
Design 7: W/ithin-Subjects Design 226
Quasi-Experimental Designs 227
Design 8: Nonrandomized Control G1'OUP Pretest-Posttest Design 227
Design 9: Simple Time-Series Design 228
Design 10: Control Grollp, Time-Series Design 228
Design 11: Reversal Time-Series Design 229
Design 12: Alternating Treatment Design 229
Design 13: Multiple Base/ine Design 229
Using Designs 11, 12, and 13 in Single-Subject Studies 231
Ex Post Facro Designs 232
Design 14: Simple Ex Post Facto Design 232
Facrorial Designs 233
Design 15: Randomized Two-Factor Design 233
Design 16: Combined Experimental and Ex Post Faeto Design 233
Meta-Analyses 238
xviii Contents
c.~ Condueting Experimenrs on rhe Inrerner 239
Tesring Your Hyporheses, and Beyond 239~US11\I6 TEl:HI\IOL06Y
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Idenrifying Research Designs 239
A Sampie Disserration 240
For Furrher Reading 244
CHAPTER 11
STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES FOR ANALYZINC
QUANTITATIVE DATA 245 Exploring and Organizing a Data Set 245
Organizing Data to Make The7ll Easier to Think About and Interpret 248b7;<0 LJ!!i11\l6 Using Computer SpreadJheets to Organize and Analyze Data 249TEl:HI\IOLOliY
Choosing Appropriate Statistics 251
Functions ofStatistics 252
Considering the Nature of the Data 253
Descriptive Statistics 257
Points ofCentral Tendency 257
Measures ofVariability: Dispersion and Deviation 261
Meamres of Relationship: Correlation 265
Inferenrial Statistics 267
Estimatillg PojN.lation Parameters 267
Testing Hypotheses 270
v. Meta-Analysis 273 ':;;"'-1 USI1\I6 Using Statistical Software Packages 275TEl:HI\IOL06Y
Inrerpreting the Data 276
A Sampie Disserration 277
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Analyzing Data in a Quanritative Srudy 279
CHECKLIST: Questions co Consider When Choosing a Statistical Procedure 280
For Furrher Reading 281
PART V PREPARINC THE RESEARCH REPORT
CHAPTER 12
TECHNICAL DETAILS: STYLE, FORMAT, AND ORCANIZATION
OF THE RESEARCH REPORT 282 ;/'. Gerring Starred 282
~'U U!il1\I6 "Surfing" the Internet for Writing Assistance 283TEOII\IOUJGY
Learn by Looking 283
Planning a Research Reporr 284
Descriptiort of the Research Problenz 284
Description of the Method 285
Contents xix
Presentation of the Data 285
Interpretation of the Data 286
Concluding the Report 287
AGraphie Organizer for the Research Report 288
Front Matter and End Matter 289
Pre!iminary Pages 289
Endnotes and Footnotes 290
Reference List 290
2..~';.0 U§II\I& TEl:HI\IOL06Y
,. Appendix Content 292 i)
Organizing the Research Report 292
Preparing the Report 295
Style of Prose 295
Principles of Writing 295
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Developing a Writing Schedule 296
GUIDELIN ES: Developing a Workable Schedule 297
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Critiquing a Research Report 298
CHECKLIST: Criteria for Critiquing a Research Report 298
Beyond the Unpublished Research Report: Presenting and Publishing 300
Paper Presentations 300
Journal Articles 300
Sharing Authorship 301
A Closing Thought 301
For Further Reading 301
Appendix Using SPSS
Creating a Data Set 303
Computing Basic Descriptive Statistics 305
Computing Inferential Statistics 306
References 309
Index 313
NOTE: Every effort has been made to provide accurate and current Internet information in this book. However, the Internet and information pos ted on it are constantly changing, so it is inevitable that some of the Internet addresses listed in this textbook will change.