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Fig. 2.nativereptilesoftheturksandCaicos:(A)turksandCaicosRockIguana(Cyclura carinata),(b)turksandCaicosCurly-tailedlizard(Leiocephalus psam-modromus),(C)Caicosblindsnake(Typhlops platycephalus),(D)CaicosDwarfboa(Tropidophis greenwayi),(e)Antilleanskink(Mabuyasp.),(F)turksDwarfGecko(Sphaerodactylus underwoodi;female,left;male,right),(G)CaicosDwarfGecko(Sphaerodactylus caicosensis;male,bottom;female,top),(h)Caicos(hecht’s)barkingGecko(Aristelliger hechti),(I)turksIslandboa(Epicrates chrysogaster chryso-gaster),(J)southernbahamasAnole(Anolis scriptus scriptus).

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I n v a s I v e s P e c I e s

Island Invaders: Introduced amphibians and Reptiles in the Turks and caicos Islands

R.GrahamReynoldsandmatthewl.niemiller

Departmentofecologyandevolutionarybiology,Universityoftennessee,Knoxville,tennessee37996,UsA(rgraham@utk.edu,mniemill@utk.edu)

theterm“invasive”usuallyreferstonon-nativespeciesthatarehav-ingatleastsomenegativeimpactonlocalfloralorfaunalcommuni-

ties.Invasivespeciesareamongthetopthreecausesofglobalbiodiversitydecline(lockwoodetal.2007),andunderstandingtheirdistributionsandavenuesofintroductionisimportantforregionalconservationandmanage-ment.moreover,anunderstandingofthebiologyandnaturalhistoryofinvadersmighthelptosuggestmethodsfortheircontrolandalsopredicteffectsonnativewildlife. Recently,much attentionhasbeenpaid to invasive reptiles andamphibians(Kraus2009).Reptilesandamphibiansmaybeespeciallygoodcolonizers,asevidencedbythenearlycircumtropicaldistributionofcertainspecies,suchasthebrahminyblindsnake(Ramphotyphlops braminus)andtheCanetoad(Rhinella marina). Islandsseemtobeparticularlyvulnerabletoinvasivespecies,asthesespeciesoftenarefreedfromthepressuresofnaturalenemies(predatorsandparasites)andcompetition(WhittakerandFernández-palacios2007).many tropical and subtropical islands contain unique herpetofaunalassemblagesthatarevulnerabletodisruptionbytheintroductionofnon-nativepredatorsandcompetitors.theWestIndiesisconsideredoneoftheworld’smostimportantbiodiversityhotspotsandtheregion’snativereptilesandamphibiansareofparticularconservationconcern(myersetal.2000,smithetal.2005).Centuriesofhabitatmodificationandtheintro-ductionofdamagingmammalianpredatorssuchasferalcats(Felis catus),Indianmongoose(Urva auropunctata),andblackRats(Rattus rattus)havenegativelyaffectedmanyreptilianandamphibianpopulations(e.g.,Iverson1978,Corke1992,smithetal.2005,tolsonandhenderson2006).Assuch,documentingandreportingthespreadandimpactofintroducedher-petofaunaremainsanimportanttask.

Fig. 1.theturksandCaicosIslandsarelocatedatthesouthernterminusofthebahamianArchipelago~130kmfromhispaniola.majorislandsandislandsmen-tionedinthetextarelabeled.

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1988;leeandRoss2001).thisspeciesisbelievedtobeahumanintroduc-tiontotheCaicosCays(seidel1988,1996)fromGreatInagua.Weareunawareofanyspecimensreportedsince1997,althoughpersistenceofthispopulationfrom1973to1997wouldindicatethatreproductionmightbeoccurring,unlessthespeciesisbeingrecurrentlyintroduced,asituationthatseemsunlikelyonthisprivatelyownedresortisland.

Wood slave, Hemidactylus mabouia. Established.Woodslaves(Fig.6)arerapidlyexpandingtheirrangeintheWesternhemisphere,andarefirmlyestablishedintheturksandCaicosIslands.theselizardsareexceptionallygoodcolonizersand,ashumancommensals,areaffordedfrequentopportunitiestostowawayincargo,whichisprob-ablyhowtheyarrivedintheturksandCaicos.theyarewidelydistributedintheturksandCaicosandarecurrentlyknownfromsixlargeislands:providenciales,northandmiddleCaicos,southCaicos,Grandturk,andsaltCay(Reynoldsandniemiller2009),althoughtheylikelyoccuronmanymore.WehavediscoverednestsonsaltCay(Fig.7)andhaverecordedjuvenilesandhatchlingsonallsixislands.thesegeckosprobablydonotrepresentagreatthreattomostofthelocalherpetofauna,exceptontheislandsofnorthCaicos,FrenchCay,andbigAmbergris,wheretheendemichecht’s(orCaicos)barkingGecko(Aristelliger hechti)occurs.thesenativegeckosareecologicallysimilartotheintroducedWoodslave,

occupyingverticalsurfacesoftrees,rockwalls,andbuildingsandfeedingonsmallflyingorclimbinginsects.Colorphotovouchers,ApsU18047,18945,18946,and18949.

Mayaguana dwarf gecko, Sphaerodactylus mariguanae. Established?mayaguanaDwarfGeckosarenativetothebahamianislandsofmayaguanaandboobyCay,locatedabout65kmtothenorthwestoftheturksandCaicos.Althoughsmall(sVlto41mm;schwartzandhenderson1991),theyaremuchlargerthanthenativeS. caicosensis (sVlto32mm)and S. underwoodi(sVlto32mm).Dwarfgeckoslikelymovebetweenislandsquiteeasilybecauseoftheirsmallsize,highfecundity,andproclivityforinhabitingstacksofbuildingsupplies,suchascinderblocksandlumber,aswellaspottedplants,soil,andmulch.moleculardatasuggestthatnativeS. underwoodimovebetweentheislandsofGrandturkandsaltCayoncargo(ReynoldsandKoneczny,inreview). schwartz(1968)andschwartzandhenderson(1991)reportedS. mariguanaefromGrandturk.toourknowledge,thisspecieshasnotbeenseenthereinquitesometime,buttherecordstandsinhendersonandpowell(2009).thisrecordlikelydoesnotrepresentamisidentification,as40individualswerecollected(AlbertschwartzFieldseries[AsFs]10766)andcomparedtootherpopulationsandtoS. underwoodi(schwartz1968);however,whether theseS. mariguanae individuals represent ahumanintroductionoranextensionofthespecies’nativedistributionisunclear.Also,thatthisspecieshasapparentlynotbeenrecordedsinceschwartz(1968)andwasneverfoundonotherislandsontheturksbankisnotable.schwartz(1968)speculatedthattheseGrandturkS. mariguanaerepre-sentedanintroducedpopulation,andevidencecurrentlyavailablecertainlyweighsinfavorofthispostulate,henceweincludethisspecieshereasanintroducedspecies.Grandturkisaheavilydevelopedisland,yetendemicS. underwoodiappearstobefairlycommon,andthusS. mariguanaemayyetpersistthere.

green iguana, Iguana iguana. Established?Aspopularpets,GreenIguanas(Fig.8)havebecomeestablishedinmanyareasoutsideoftheirnativerangeinCentralandsouthAmerica,perhapsmostnotablyinsouthernFlorida,wheretheyoccurinveryhighdensi-tiesnearresidentialareas.IntheturksandCaicos,afewGreenIguanashavebeenfoundonGrandturkandprovidenciales.theylikelyrepresentreleasedorescapedpets.Reproductionhasnotbeendocumented,butthisseemsalikelypossibilityifseveralmatureadultsoccurinthesamearea.Colorphotovoucher,ApsU19019.Fig 6.Woodslave(Hemidactylus mabouia)fromsaltCay,turksandCaicosIslands.

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Fig. 5.Red-earedslider(Trachemys scripta elegans)capturedneartheprovoGolfClubonprovidenciales,turksandCaicosIslandsandbeingheldatthenationalenvironmentalCentre.

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Fig. 7.hatchednestoftheWoodslave(Hemidactylus mabouia)underarockonsaltCay,turksandCaicosIslands.

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WehavespentthelastfouryearsworkingintheturksandCaicosIslands(Fig.1)andhavemadeanefforttodocumentthepresenceanddis-tributionofnon-nativespeciesofthisarchipelago.theturksandCaicosIslands,locatedatthesouthernterminusofthebahamianArchipelago,containtenspeciesofnativereptiles,eightofwhichareendemicatthespeciesorsubspecies level (Fig.2).theremainingtwospecies (Anolis scriptusandMabuyasp.)arewidelydistributedinthesouthernbahamasandthroughouttheWestIndies.noamphibianspeciesisnativetotheturksandCaicos.Asofoctober2009,sevennon-nativereptilianandtwoamphibianspecieshavebeendiscoveredintheturksandCaicos,nearlydoublingthenumberofreptilesandaddingamphibiansinaregionwherepreviouslytheyhadnotbeendocumented.tourismandlargeinternationalinvestmentshaveresultedinexplosivedevelopmentoftheseislandsandasurgeinthenumberofimmigrantsfillingjobsintheconstructionandserviceindustries.Combinedwiththerapidincreaseinimports,thelistofinvadersmightcontinuetogrow.belowwediscussthedistributionandabundanceoftheknowninvasivereptilesandamphibiansintheturksandCaicos,andencourageotherresearcherstodocumentsimilarinvasionsinotherregionsthatsupportauniquenativeherpetofauna.

Cuban treefrog, Osteopilus septentrionalis. Established.Cubantreefrogs(Fig.3)arewidely introducedintheCaribbeanandsoutheasternUnitedstates,withpopulations onpuertoRico, in theVirginIslands,upperlesserAntilles,Florida,andelsewhere(hendersonandpowell2009).thesefrogsappearabletotoleratexericconditionsthatwouldpreventmostotheramphibiancolonistsfrombecomingestablished.Aslongastheyhaveaccesstoephemeralorpermanentsourcesoffresh-water,thesefrogscanbreedprolificallyandbecomeabundant.Cuban

treefrogsareofparticularconcernbecauseoftheirvoraciousappetites,highdensities,andnoxiousskinsecretions.AlthoughthisspeciesisnativetothelittleandGreatbahamabanks,itisgenerallyconsideredarecentarrivaltotheturksandCaicos,whereitisfirmlyestablishedontheislandsofprovidenciales,Grandturk,northCaicos,andmiddleCaicos,andwilllikelybefoundonseveralotherislandswiththeexpansionofirrigationfordevelopment.onnorthandmiddleCaicos,thesefrogsreachexcep-tionaldensities,oftencoveringtheroadafteraheavyautumnrain.endemicCaicosDwarfboas(Tropidophis greenwayi)haveevenshiftedtheirbehaviortofeedonthesefrogs,occupyingtheinteriorwallsofoldstonewaterwellstocapturemetamorphsastheyclimbupthesidesfromthewaterbelow(RGR,C.Deal,andn.manco,unpubl.data).Colorphotovouchers,AustinpeaystateUniversity(ApsU)19024,19027.

greenhouse Frog, Eleutherodactylus planirostris. Established.GreenhouseFrogs(Fig.4)aresmallterrestrialfrogsthatstowawayinsoilandplants,andhavebeenintroducedtoJamaica,Florida,andtheturksandCaicosIslandsfromtheirnativerangeinCuba,theCaymans,andthebahamas(hendersonandpowell2009).thisspeciesisadirect-developer,meaningthatthelarvalstageiscompletedintheegg.eggsarelaidinmoistleaflitter,andhatchlingsemergeasminiatureadults.GreenhouseFrogsoccurintheturksandCaicosontheislandsofprovidenciales,Grandturk,northCaicos,andmiddleCaicos,andwilllikelybediscoveredonotherislands.Colorphotovoucher,ApsU19023.

Red-Eared slider, Trachemys scripta elegans. Not established.Red-earedsliders(Fig.5)arepopularpetswithlonglifespans,andoftenarereleasedwhenownersgrowtiredofthem.nativetotheeasternandmid-westernUnitedstates,thesefreshwateraquaticturtleshavebeenintroducedtomanyislandsintheWestIndies,frompuertoRicoandhispaniolatoGuadeloupeandmartinique(hendersonandpowell2009).theyrequireaconsistentsourceoffreshwaterand,althoughthistypeofhabitatisrareintheturksandCaicos,severalpondsbuiltfortheleewardgolfcourseonprovidencialeslikelyprovidethemainrefugeforthisspecies.onlyafewadultRed-earedslidershavebeencapturedandremoved,althoughafewmoreprobablyoccurinthesemanmadeponds.nohatchlingsorjuvenileshavebeenobserved;hencewedonotconsiderthisspeciestobereproduc-ing.Colorphotovoucher,ApsU19021.

Antillean slider, Trachemys stejnegeri malonei. Established?AsingleAntilleansliderwascollectedin1975frompineCayontheCaicosbank(W.Auffenberg,UF49423),althoughseveralotherindividualswerereportedin1997fromafreshwaterpondonthesameisland(seidel1986,Fig. 3.Cubantreefrog(Osteopilus septentrionalis)fromnorthCaicos.

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Fig. 4.GreenhouseFrog(Eleutherodactylus planirostris)fromnorthCaicos.

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Clout(eds.),Turning the Tide: The Eradication of Invasive Species.IUCnssC Invasivespecies specialistGroup, IUCn,Gland,switzerland andCambridge,UnitedKingdom.

myers,n.,R.A.mittermeier,C.G.mittermeier,G.A.deFonseca,andJ.Ke.2000.biodiversityhotspotsforconservationpriorities.Nature403:853–858.

Reynolds,R.G.andG.p.Gerber.Inprep.ecologyandconservationoftheendemicturksIslandboa(serpentes:boidae)onasmallsatelliteisland.

Reynolds,R.G.andn.Koneczny.Inreview.moleculardivergenceintwospeciesofbahamiandwarfgeckoes.Herpetologica.

Reynolds,R.G.andm.l.niemiller.2009.Hemidactylus mabouia.(Woodslave).Distribution.Herpetological Review40:452.

schwartz,A.1968.thegeckoes(Sphaerodactylus)ofthesouthernbahamaislands.Annals of the Carnegie Museum39:227–271.

schwartz,A.andR.W.henderson.1991.Amphibians and Reptiles of the West Indies: Descriptions, Distributions, and Natural History.UniversityofFloridapress,Gainesville.

seidel,m.e.1988.Revisionof theWest Indianemydid turtles (testudines).American Museum Novitates(2918):1–41.

seidel,m.e.1996.CurrentstatusofbiogeographyoftheWestIndianturtlesinthegenusTrachemys (emydidae),pp.169–174.In:R.powellandR.W.henderson(eds.),Contributions to West Indian Herpetology: A Tribute to Albert Schwartz.societyforthestudyofAmphibiansandReptiles,Ithaca,newYork.

smith,m.l.,s.b.hedges,W.buck,A.hemphill,s.Incháustegui,m.A.Ivie,D.martina,m.maunder,andJ.F.ortega.2005.CaribbeanIslands,pp.112–118. In:R.A.mittermeier,p.R.Gill,m.hoffman, J.pilgrim,t.brooks,C.G.mittermeier,J.lamoreaux,andG.A.b.daFonseca(eds.),Hotspots Revisited: Earth’s Biologically Richest and Most Endangered Terrestrial Ecoregions.CemeX,s.A.deC.V.,mexicoCity.

tolson,p.J.andR.W.henderson.2006.AnoverviewofsnakeconservationintheWestIndies.Applied Herpetology3:345–356.

Whittaker,R.J.andJ.m.Fernández-palacios.2007.Island Biogeography.2nded.oxfordUniversitypress,newYork.

cuban brown anoles (Anolis sagrei) in st. maarten

AxelFläschendrägerhalle,Germany(Axel.Flaeschendraeger@t-online.de)

photographsbytheauthor.

CubanbrownAnoles(Anolis sagrei)arenativetothebahamaIslands(Caysal,Conception,Crooked,Acklins,Grandbahama,little

bahama,RumCay,andsansalvadorislandbanks),Cubaandassociatedcays,IsladelaJuventud,andlittleCayman,includingmostsatellitesandcayswithevenrudimentaryvegetation.thespeciesalsohasbecomeestablishedinJamaica,eithernaturallyorthroughhumanmediation.morerecentlyintroducedpopulationsareknowninGrandCayman,swanIsland,Grenada,st.Vincent,theGrenadines(Canouan),barbados,theAtlanticCoastofméxicoasfarasbelize,theIslasdelabahía(offhonduras),Aruba,hawaii(oahuandCoconutIsland,Kauai),taiwan,thesoutheast-ernUnitedstates,andCalifornia(orangeCounty;hendersonandpowell2009andreferencestherein).Atleastsomeintroducedpopulationsorigi-natedinthesoutheasternUnitedstates. Within a30-minuteperiodon2march2010, I observed threemaleandtwofemaleAnolis sagrei inandaroundthephilipsburgharborinst.maarten.st.maartenisamajorcommercialcenterintheeasternCaribbean;anumberofexoticspecieshavebeenrecordedthere,andsev-eral(e.g.,Cubantreefrogs,Osteopilus septentrionalis;GreenIguanas,Iguana iguana)havebecomeestablished(powelletal.2005). AlthoughIdidnotobserveanyjuveniles,theabundanceofobserva-tionsinsuchashortperiodissuggestiveofabreedingpopulation.IdidobservenativeAnguillabankAnoles(Anolis gingivinus)associatedwithornamentalvegetationinandaroundtheharbor.Isawnoevidenceofcompetitiveinteractions,buttheapparentlyrestrictedrangeofA. sagreiissuggestiveofarecentarrival.Whetherthenewlyestablishedpopulationremainslargelyrestrictedtoseverelyalteredhabitats,ashasbeendescribedonGrenada(Greeneetal.2002,Germanoetal.2003)andst.Vincent(hendersonandpowell2005,treglia2006,tregliaetal.2008)remainstobedetermined.theoriginofthepopulationonst.maartenisunknown.

Literature CitedGermano,J.m.,J.m.sander,R.W.henderson,andR.powell.2003.herpetofaunal

communitiesinGrenada:Acomparisonofalteredsites,withanannotatedchecklistofGrenadianamphibiansandreptiles.Caribbean Journal of Science39:68–76.

Cuban Knight Anole, Anolis equestris. Not established.likelyreleasedpets,fourCubanKnightAnoleshavebeencollectedandseveralmoresightedataGracebayresortonprovidencialesIsland.likeGreenIguanas,theselargearboreallizardsappeartothriveinappropriatehabitat,astheyalsoarequitecommonwheretheyhavebeenintroducedinsouthernFlorida(meshakaetal.2004).theyapparentlyarenotreproduc-ingintheturksandCaicos,althoughthatcannotyetberuledout,giventheabundanceoflushandirrigatedvegetationintheGracebayresortcom-plexes.Colorphotovouchers,ApsU19025,19026.

Brahminy Blind snake, Ramphotyphlops braminus. Established.essentiallyacircumtropicalspecies,thebrahminyblindsnake,whichisnativetotheIndiansubcontinent,hasproventobeanexceptionalcolo-nizerbecauseofitshabitofsequesteringitselfinpottedplantsanditspar-thenogeneticmodeofreproduction.thisspecieshasbeenfoundonbothprovidencialesandGrandturkandislikelytofinditswaytomanyoftheotherislandsinthearchipelago.Wecurrentlydonotknowwhetherbrahminyblindsnakescompetewiththeecologicallysimilarnativeblindsnakes(Typhlopssp.,sensus.b.hedges,in litt.),whicharemoreabun-dantonislandsotherthanGrandturkandprovidenciales.Colorphotovoucher,ApsU19022.

Corn snake, Pantherophis [Elaphe] guttatus. Not established.theCornsnake(Fig.9)isnativetothesoutheasternUnitedstatesandhasbeenintroducedelsewhereintheCaribbean,althoughitissuccessfullyestablishedonlyontheislandsofGrandCayman(schwartzandhenderson1991)andst.thomas(U.s.V.I.,hendersonandpowell2009).thesesnakesmighthavearrivedonislandsaseggslaidinthesoiloflargepot-tedtreesfromFlorida;however,escapedpetsalsoareapossiblemeansofconveyance.thusfar,threeadultshavebeenfoundonGrandturk,oneofwhichlaidaclutchofnon-viableeggsaftercapture(b.n.mancoandb.Riggs,pers.comm.).Colorphotovoucher,ApsU19020.

ConclusionstheturksandCaicoscontainauniqueassemblageofnativereptilespe-cies.threatsfromhabitatmodificationanddirectpersecution(i.e.,killingsnakes)aretakingatollonspeciessuchastheturksIslandboa(Epicrates chrysogaster)andtheturksandCaicosRockIguana(Cyclura carinata)(G.Gerber,unpubl.data;ReynoldsandGerber,inreview).threatsfrominva-sivemammalianspecies,suchascats,arewellestablished,andlocalreptilianpopulationshavesufferedtremendouslyfromtheirintroduction(Iverson1978,mitchelletal.2000).thedegreeofthreattolocalwildlifeposed

byintroducedreptilesandamphibiansislargelyunknownatthistime,however,thefirststepistodocumentsuccessfulinvasions.WeencouragefellowbiologistsandamateurherpetologistsintheWestIndiestotakenoteofintroducedspeciesandreportthemtolocalauthorities.

AcknowledgmentsWethankb.n.mancoandC.Dealforassistanceinthefield,andb.n.manco,b.Riggs,G.Gerber,m.hibbert,ande.salamancaforvaluableinformationregardingbothintroducedspeciesandreptilesintheturksandCaicos.thanksaswelltoA.F.scottforaccessioningphotovouch-erstotheAustinpeaystateUniversityCenterforFieldbiologymuseumin Clarksville, tennessee. We are grateful to W. Clerveaux and theDepartmentofenvironmentandCostalResources,turksandCaicosIslands,forscientificresearchpermits(#’s1-4RGReynolds),andtheturksandCaicosnationaltrustforlogisticalsupport.FinancialsupportfortheauthorswasprovidedbytheDepartmentofecologyandevolutionarybiology,Universityoftennessee,KnoxvillesummerResearchGrantprogram (RGR and mln), and the University of tennessee W.K.mcClurescholarshipforthestudyofWorldAffairs(RGR).thankstoR.W.henderson,R.powell,andG.perryforreviewsandhelpfulcom-mentsonthismanuscript.

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oftheWindwardIslands(WestIndies).Biological Conservation62:47–58.

henderson,R.W.andR.powell.2009.Natural History of West Indian Reptiles and Amphibians.theUniversitypressofFlorida,Gainesville.

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Kraus,F.2009.Alien Reptiles and Amphibians: A Scientific Compendium and Analysis.springer,newYork.

lee,D.s.andJ.p.Ross.2001.theCatIslandturtle,areptileofproblematicorigin,includingabibliographicreviewofthegenusTrachemysintheWestIndianregion,pp.36-47.In:C.Clark-simpsonandG.W.smith(eds.),Proceedings of the 8th Symposium on the Natural History of the Bahamas.GeraceResearchCenter,sansalvador,bahamas

lockwood, J.l., m.F. hoopes, and m.p. marchetti. 2007. Invasion Ecology.blackwellpublishing,malden,massachusetts.

meshaka,W.e.,Jr.,R.D.bartlett,andh.t.smith.2004.ColonizationsuccessbygreeniguanasinFlorida.Iguana11:155-161.

mitchell,n.,R.haeffner,V.Veer,m.Fulford-Gardner,W.Clerveaux,C.R.Veitch,andG.mitchell.2000.Cateradicationandtherestorationofendan-gered iguanas (Cyclura carinata)onlongCay,Caicosbank,turksandCaicosIslands,britishWestIndies,pp.206–212.In:C.R.Veitchandm.n.

Fig. 8.GreenIguana(Iguana iguana)capturednearlongbayonprovidencialesandbeingheldatthenationalenvironmentalCentre.

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Fig. 9.Cornsnake(Pantherophis guttatus)capturedonGrandturk,turksandCaicosIslands,andbeingheldatthenationalenvironmentalCentre.

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male(top)andfemaleCubanbrownAnoles(Anolis sagrei)fromthephilipsburghar-boronst.maarten.photographicvouchershavebeendepositedinthemilwaukeepublicmuseum:mpmp745(male)andmpmp746(female).theidentityoftheselizardswasconfirmedfromphotographsbyRobertW.henderson.