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©2005 National Restaurant Association Educational Foundation. This presentation may be reproduced on paper or overhead transparency FOR CLASSROOM USE ONLY. Notwithstanding the preceding exception, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without the prior written permission of the National Restaurant Association Educational Foundation.
Professional Baking, Fourth Editionby Wayne Gisslen
©2005 National Restaurant Association Educational Foundation.
Commonly Used Metric Prefixes
kilo = 1,000 deci = 1/10 centi = 1/100 milli = 1/1000
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Determining the Percentage of an Ingredient Using Baker’s Percentages
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(Total weight of ingredient ÷ Total weight of flour) × 100%
= Percentage of ingredient
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Converting a Formula to a New Yield
Change percentage yield to decimal form Divide desired yield by new decimal figure Round up Use weight of flour to calculate weights of
other ingredients (Please note: reprint the numbers in the
example on page 11)
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Four Factors That Affect Gluten Development
Selection of flour Shortening Liquids Mixing methods
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Techniques to Minimize Staling
Protect from air Add moisture retainers Freeze rather than refrigerate Reheat product just before serving
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Main Mixing Attachments
Paddle – for general mixing Wire whip – for beating eggs and cream Dough arm or hook – for mixing and kneading
yeast dough
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The Four Basic Types of Ovens
1. Deck oven
2. Rack oven
3. Mechanical oven
4. Convection oven
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Specialty Items for Baking Breads
Banneton – wood mold for shaping hearth breads
Loaf pan – rectangular pan with flared sides for loaf breads
Pullman pan – straight-sided pan with a removable lid
Muffin pan – has cup-shaped indentations for individual items
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Specialty Items for Baking Cakes
Cake pans – can be round, square, or specially shaped
Sheet pan – shallow, rectangular pan Spring-form pan – cake pan with
removable bottom Tart pan – shallow, with fluted sides Tube pan – deep cake pan with a tube
in the center
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Specialty Items for Molds
Baba mold – thimble-sized mold Bombe mold – dome-shaped mold for
frozen desserts Charlotte mold – round, tapered, flat-bottomed
mold with two handles Charlotte rings – molds of various diameters
and heights used for shaping layered desserts
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The Structure of Wheat
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Image courtesy the Wheat Foods Council
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Bakeshop Flours and Their Uses
Strong Flours Straight flour: Bread Patent flour: Best choice for bread Clear flour: Rye bread High-gluten flour: Pizza crusts, bagels, hard-
crusted breads
Weak Flours Cake flour: Cakes, delicate pastries Pastry flour: Pie dough, muffins, cookies, biscuits
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Bakeshop Shortenings and Their Uses
Regular shortenings: Flaky pastries and products mixed by the creaming method
Emulsified shortenings: High-ratio cakes, icings Butter: Cakes, icings, flaky pastries Cake margarine: Cakes, cookies Pastry margarine: Danish pastries, puff pastries,
napoleons
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Fat Content of Milk Products
Fresh, whole: 3.5% Evaporated and condensed, whole: 8% Dried, whole: 27% Fresh, evaporated and dried, skim: trace
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Functions of Eggs in Baking
1. Provide structure
2. Emulsify fats and liquids
3. Leaven
4. Aid in shortening
5. Provide moisture
6. Provide flavor, nutritional value, and color
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Twelve Steps for the Production of Yeast Breads
1. Scaling ingredients
2. Mixing
3. Fermentation
4. Punching
5. Scaling
6. Rounding
7. Benching
8. Makeup and panning
9. Proofing
10. Baking
11. Cooling
12. Storing
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Straight Dough Method
Dissolve yeast in some of the warm water (100˚F–110˚F, or 38˚C–43˚C)
Combine remaining ingredients in separate bowl
Add dissolved yeast Mix until it is smooth and the dough develops
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Modified Straight Dough Method
Soften yeast in some of the warm water Combine fat, sugar, salt, milk solids,
and flavorings Gradually add eggs Add liquids Add flour and dissolved yeast; mix until smooth
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Sponge Method
Combine liquids, yeast, and some of the flour Mix until soft Let ferment until double in size Punch down; add remaining ingredients Mix until uniform and smooth
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Procedure for Punching Dough
1. Pull up the dough on all sides
2. Fold it over the center, and press down
3. Turn dough upside-down in the container
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Formula for Determining the Water Temperature Needed to Control Fermentation
1. Multiply desired dough temperature by 3
2. Add the flour temperature and room temperature, plus 20˚F (7˚C) to account for friction during mixing
3. Subtract the results of Step 2 from that of Step 1
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Defining Artisan Bread
Handmade Uses pre-ferments and sourdough starters No chemical additives No preservatives Uses traditional production methods
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Yeast Pre-ferments
Poolish Biga Levain-levure Scrap dough
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Making a Sourdough Starter
Combine whole rye flour and water –or– Combine bread flour and water, and bury fresh
fruit/vegetables in mixture Cover and let sit at room temperature to ferment Refresh the starter Continue fermentation and refreshing procedures until
fully developed (about 2 weeks)
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During Autolyse:
Flour is fully hydrated Enzymes react with proteins before they are stretched
Results of autolyse: Gluten structure is improved Dough is easier to handle Mixing time is reduced Color and flavor is improved Texture of baked bread is improved
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Baking Artisan Bread
Preheat oven to 425˚F and 450˚F (218˚C and 232˚C)
Inject moisture during first 15 minutes Underbaking is a common mistake Final product has a well-browned, crisp crust
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Crisp-Crusted Breads
Italian Vienna French Hard rolls
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Soft-Crusted Breads
Soft rolls Braided bread Straight-dough rye Pan loaves
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Make-Up for Round Rolls
Scale and round dough Place 2 inches apart on prepared pans Proof and wash with water Bake with steam
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Make-Up for Elongated Loaves
Round and relax dough Flatten and shape into oval Roll up and tightly seal ends Use hands to roll into elongated oval Place seam-side down on prepared pan Proof, wash with water, and slash diagonally Bake with steam
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Make-Up for Pan Loaves
Round and bench loaf-size units Stretch into long rectangle Fold into thirds Roll dough to fit prepared pan Seal seam tightly Place seam-side down in pan and bake
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Sweet and Rich Dough Products
Sweet rolls Cinnamon rolls Brioche Stollen
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Rolled-in Dough Products
Croissants Danish pastries
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Pattern for Cutting Croissant Triangles
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a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
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Make-Up for Small Brioches
Roll dough into small round pieces Pinch, but do not detach, a small piece Round both parts on a bench Place large-end first into tin Press the smaller ball into the larger one
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Wreath Coffee Cake Make-Up
Use a sweet or Danish dough Bend roll into circle Slash sides and place on a greased sheet Proof, egg wash, and bake
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Common Quick Bread Mixtures
Soft doughs: Thick enough to roll out and cut
into shapes Pour batters: Thin enough to pour Drop batters: Thick enough to drop from
a spoon
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Quick Bread Dough and Batter Mixing Methods
Biscuit method: Used for scones and biscuits
Muffin method: Used for muffins, pancakes, waffles, and loaf- or sheet-type quick breads
Creaming method: Used for muffin-type products with high sugar and fat content
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Biscuit Method
1. Sift dry ingredients together in a mixing bowl2. Cut in shortening using paddle or pastry knife
attachment until mixture resembles cornmeal3. Add liquids to dry ingredients4. Mix until ingredients are just combined and
form a soft dough5. Bring dough to bench and knead lightly for
about 30 seconds
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Muffin Method
1. Sift dry ingredients together in mixing bowl
2. Combine all liquid ingredients, including melted fat or oil
3. Add liquids to dry ingredients. Mix until flour is just moistened. Batter will appear lumpy
4. Pan and bake immediately
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Creaming Method for Muffins, Loaves, and Coffee Cakes
1. Combine fat, sugar, salt, and milk powder in a bowl
2. Cream ingredients together until light3. Add eggs in two or three stages, creaming
well after each addition4. Add liquids and stir lightly5. Sift together the flour and baking powder;
add to the liquid and mix until just smooth
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Guidelines for Yeast-Raised Doughnuts
Mixing method: Modified straight dough
Proofing temperature: Room temperature
Frying temperature: 365˚F to 385˚F (185˚C to
195˚C)
Frying time: 2½ minutes
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Guidelines for Cake-Type Doughnuts
Mixing method: Creaming Frying temperature: 375˚F to 385˚F (190˚C
to 195˚C)
Frying time: 1½ to 2 minutes
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Guidelines for Preparing and Storing Fat
Use high-quality, flavorless fat Keep fat and equipment clean Strain cooled fat after each use Discard spent fat Keep fat covered when not in use
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Guidelines for Preparing Fritters
Mixing method: Muffin Frying temperature: 375˚F (190˚C) Frying time: Until golden brown on
all sides
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Advance Volume Preparation of Pancake and Waffle Batter
Leavened only with baking powder – make the day before and refrigerate
Leavened with baking soda – premix dry and liquid ingredients and combine right before cooking
Leavened with beaten egg whites – incorporate the egg whites just before cooking
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Preventing Crystallization of Sugar Syrups
1. Cover saucepan and boil syrup for several minutes
2. Carefully wash sides of pan with brush dipped in water
3. Add cream of tartar or lemon juice
4. Add corn syrup or glucose
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Basic Ratios for Whipped Cream
Heavy cream 1 quart Sugar 2–4 ounces Flavorings:
– Vanilla ½ ounces– Liquors 2–4 ounces
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Guidelines for Whipping Cream
Use day-old cream Chill cream and all utensils Use a wire whip (hand) or whip attachment (machine) Sweeten with extra-fine or confectioners’ sugar Add sugar when whip marks are visible Stop beating when peaks hold their shape Add flavorings last Cover and refrigerate when not using
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Basic Meringue Types
Common meringue: Egg whites and sugar beaten together
Least stable Swiss meringue: Egg whites and sugar
beaten over hot-water bath
More stable Italian meringue: Hot sugar syrup beaten
into egg whitesMost stable
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Guidelines for Making Meringues
Fat prevents foaming Egg whites foam best at room temperature Do not overbeat Sugar improves stability of egg white foams Cream of tartar and lemon juice facilitate
foaming
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Procedure for Making Vanilla Custard
Quickly whip eggs and sugar together Scald milk Slowly beat hot milk into egg mixture Heat mixture slowly in double boiler Sauce is cooked when it reaches 185˚F (85˚C) Cool immediately
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Pie Dough Ingredients
1. Flour
2. Fat
3. Liquid
4. Salt
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Pie Dough Mixing Consistencies
Mealy pie dough:Coarse corn meal Flaky pie dough: Thin layers
– Short-flake: Peas– Long-flake: Walnuts
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Guidelines for Rolling Pie Dough
1. Dust bench and rolling pin lightly with flour
2. Rough dough to a uniform ⅛ inch (3 mm)
3. Roll from center outward in all directions
4. Finished dough should be a nearly perfect circle
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Fruit Filling Cooking Methods and Their Uses
Cooked juice method: Canned or frozen fruit
Cooked fruit method: Fresh fruit (except berries)Dried fruits (rehydrated)
Old-fashioned method: Homemade pies made with fresh apples or peaches
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Guidelines for Using Gelatin
1. Measure gelatin accurately2. Stir gelatin into cold water; heat until dissolved3. Stir chiffon base occasionally to prevent gelatin from
setting along the outside edges4. If gelatin sets before egg whites can be added, warm
base slightly5. When folding in egg whites and whipped cream, work
rapidly without pausing6. Fill pie shells immediately
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Procedure for One Four-Fold
Roll dough into a rectangle ½ inch thick Spot butter over ⅔ of the dough Fold unbuttered third over the center Fold remaining third on top Turn one quarter and place on bench Roll into new ½ inch rectangle Fold two ends to the center, and then fold in
half again
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Makeup of Puff Dough Products
Use sharp cutting tools Avoid touching sides with fingers Place units upside-down on baking sheet Refrigerate and rest 30 minutes before baking Keep egg wash from running down edges
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Mixing Procedure for Éclair Paste
Bring liquid, fat, salt, and sugar to a rapid boil Add flour and stir until paste forms Remove from heat, and let cool to
140˚F (60˚C) Beat in eggs a little at a time Paste should be smooth and moist
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Makeup for Strudel
Place dough on cloth Sprinkle or brush butter over dough Sprinkle dough with crumb mixture Spread filling 1½ inch thick Leave 2-inch band empty along edges Use cloth to roll up dough like a jelly roll Brush with butter or egg wash Bake at 375˚F (191˚C) until brown
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Guidelines for Handling Commercial Phyllo Dough
Thaw frozen phyllo completely before opening package
After opening, keep leaves covered Remove only one sheet at a time
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Procedure for Making Tart Shells
Remove refrigerated dough and let rest until pliable Roll out dough on floured canvas Pick up dough using rolling pin Drape dough over tart pan Press dough into corners without stretching Flute edges and trim excess dough Fill and bakeIf baking empty: Line with parchment paper and dry beans Bake until light brown
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Making Tartlet Shells
Roll dough as for tart shells Drape dough over all shells Let dough settle into tins Run rolling pin over dough to cut Press dough firmly into shells Bake as for larger tarts
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Assembly for Unbaked Tarts
Prepare fruit; drain well Spread a layer of pastry cream Arrange fruit on pastry cream Brush fruit tops with glaze Refrigerate until sold or served
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Unbaked Tart Variations
1. Sprinkle bottom of shell with chopped nuts, cake crumbs, cookie crumbs, or breadcrumbs
2. Spread frangipane cream or pastry cream on the bottom of the shell
3. For hard fruits, poach fruits in syrup or sauté them in butter or syrup
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Cake Mixing Methods
High-fat or shortened cakes:
Creaming method Two-stage method Flour-batter method
Low-fat or foam-type cakes:
Sponge method Angel food method Chiffon method
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Three Goals of Cake Batter Mixing
1. Combine all ingredients into a smooth, uniform batter
2. Form and incorporate air cells into the batter
3. Develop the proper texture in the finished product
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Causes of Curdling in Cake Batters
Using the wrong type of fat Using ingredients that are too cold Mixing the first stage of the procedure
too quickly Adding the liquids too quickly Adding too much liquid
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Developing Proper Cake Texture
Use cake flour: low gluten levels help create a fine, light product
Strictly observe all mixing times Add flour toward the end of the creaming,
sponge, and angel food mixing methods Add flour in the first step of the two-step mixing
method Always scale ingredients accurately
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The Function of Cake Batter Ingredients
Tougheners: Flour Eggs
Tenderizers: Sugar Fats Chemical leaveners
Moisteners: Water Liquid milk Syrup and liquid sugars Eggs
Driers: Flour Starches Cocoa Milk solids
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Cakes are done when:
Center of top springs back when touched lightly
Wooden pick inserted into center comes out clean
Shortened cakes pull away slightly from the sides of the pan
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Seven Types of Icings
Fondants Buttercreams Foam-type icings Fudge-type icings Flat-type icings Royal, or decorator’s, icings Glazes
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Guidelines for Frosting Cakes
Cool cakes completely Trim ragged edges and large bumps Brush all crumbs from cake Place bottom cake upside-down on cake circle Spread filling on bottom layer Place top layer right-side up on bottom layer Ice exterior of cake Push, do not pull, icing from center out to edges
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Paper Cone Falling Method
Used to make lines of even thickness on horizontal surfacesHold cone vertically.Touch tip to cake’s surface to attachLift cone 1 inchTrace pattern
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Paper Cone Contact Method
Used to vary the thickness of lines and to decorate vertical surfaces.
Hold cone as if holding a pen Touch tip to surface at a 30- to 45-degree
angle Draw lines as though writing Control thickness by squeezing
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Pastry Bag Decorating Technique
Fit desired tip into pastry bag Roll down top of bag to create a collar Hold under collar with thumb and forefinger Fill bag ½ to ¾ full Turn bag over and gather top together Force icing out by squeezing top with palm
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Components in a European-Style Layer Cake
Optional bottom layer Cake layers Additional specialty layers Dessert syrup Fillings Icings and coatings
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Common European-Style Tortes
Black Forest torte Moch! torte Fruit torte Dobos torte Napoleon gâteau Kirsch torte Sachertorte
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Procedure for Making Swiss Rolls
Similar, though more delicate than American jelly rolls
Use Swiss roll sponge formula Fill with jam, jelly, buttercream, or other dessert
cream Roll as for jelly rolls Ice with fondant or other sweet topping
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Common Forms of French Pastries
Slices: chilled portion sizes of layer cakes, Swiss rolls, or other rolls
Triangles: layered sponge cake filled with contrasting colors of buttercream
Squares: layered sheet cake filled with icing in contrasting colors
Othellos: sponge roll batter mounded, baked, and sandwiched together, then coated
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Versions of Othellos
Othellos: filled with chocolate pastry cream, iced with chocolate fondant
Iagos: filled with coffee-flavored pastry cream, iced with coffee-flavored fondant
Desdemonas: filled with vanilla pastry cream, iced with kirsch-flavored fondant
Rosalinds: filled with rose water-flavored whipped cream, iced with rose water-flavored pink fondant
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Factors That Contribute to Crispness
Low moisture content High sugar and fat content Long baking periods Small size or thin shape Storing in a cool, dry place
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Factors that Contribute to Softness
Low sugar and fat content Honey, molasses, or corn syrup in formulas Underbaking Large or thick shapes Storing tightly covered or wrapped
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Factors That Contribute to Chewiness
High sugar and liquid content, but low fat content
High proportion of eggs Strong gluten development
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Factors That Encourage Spread
High sugar content High baking soda or baking ammonia content Well-creamed fat and sugar Low oven temperatures Slack butter (butter with high liquid content)
in formula Strong flour Heavily greased pans
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Eight Basic Cookie Types
Bagged Dropped Rolled Molded Icebox Bar Sheet Stencil
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Custard Types
Rangetop custards: Cooked on stove top Stirred while cooking Remain pourable
once cooked
Baked custards: Baked in an oven Not stirred during
cooking Hold firm when done
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Guidelines for Baked Puddings
Scald milk before adding to eggs Remove foam Bake in a water bath at 325˚F (163˚C) Pudding is done when a knife comes out clean
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Baking Puddings in a Water Bath
Set pudding mold in a large, deep pan Fill pan halfway up sides of molds
with hot water Bring water to a boil Lower heat, cover, and simmer gently Add hot water as needed
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Procedure for Preparing Bavarians
Soften gelatin in cold liquid Stir gelatin into hot custard sauce
until dissolved Chill until almost set Fold in whipped cream Pour into molds
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Guidelines for Successful Mousses
Fold in egg whites before adding whipped cream
Egg whites folded into a hot base will coagulate and make the mousse firmer and more stable
Never add whipped cream to a hot base
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Popular Frozen Desserts
Ice cream: milk, cream, sugar, flavorings, and sometimes eggs
Ice milk: ice cream with a lower butterfat content Frozen yogurt: ice cream with added yogurt Sherbet: fruit juice, water, sugar, and sometimes milk and/or
egg whites Ices: fruit juice, water, sugar, sometimes egg whites, but
never any dairy Granite: coarse crystallized ices with no egg whites Sorbetto: Italian ice Gelato: Italian ice cream
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Ice Cream Quality Factors
Smoothness: size of crystals in the product Overrun: percentage of air incorporated
while freezing product Mouth feel: should be smooth, but not too
heavy as it melts
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Guidelines for Storing and Serving Ice Cream and Sherbets
1. Store below 0˚F (-18˚C)
2. To prepare for serving, temper between 8˚F and 15˚F (-13˚C and -9˚C) for 24 hours before serving
3. To serve, draw scoop across top of product so the product rolls into a ball inside the scoop
4. Use standard scoops and ladles for portioning ice creams and toppings
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Still-Frozen Desserts
Frozen mousses Frozen soufflés Original parfaits Bombes
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Assembling a Bombe
Line a chilled mold with ice cream or sherbet and freeze
Fill center with bombe mixture, cover, and freeze again
Remove from mold and turn out onto a sheet of genoise
Decorate with whipped cream Serve immediately
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Fresh Fruit Desserts
Uncooked and plain Uncooked with cream Uncooked with sabayon Uncooked with flavored syrup, liqueurs, or wine
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Fruit Storage
Fruits that ripen after purchase:
Bananas Kiwi fruit Mangoes Papayas Pears Peaches Pineapples
Fruits to refrigerate immediately:
Blueberries Strawberries Raspberries Grapes Cherries
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Traditional American Fruit Desserts
Cobblers: large fruit pies without a bottom crust Crisps: no bottom crust with a crumbly
streusel topping Betties: alternate rich cake crumbs and fruit Compote: small slices of cooked fruit served
in its own liquid
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Fruit Garnish Examples
Jams and jellies Marmalades Compotes Candied citrus zest
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Simple Dessert Presentations
Dessert alone Dessert plus garnish Dessert plus sauce Dessert plus garnish and sauce
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Dessert Garnishes
Fresh or poached fruit Ice cream or sorbet Whipped cream dollop Petits fours sec Chocolate curls Confections
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Complex Dessert Presentations
Contain one or more dessert items, sauce, garnish, or both
Use small portions, but combined to create an appearance of abundance
Desserts must complement and harmonize with each other
Use large dinner plates to avoid overcrowding desserts
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Examples of Matching Dessert Elements
Chocolate soufflé with chocolate sauce Medley of chocolate desserts Fruit dessert with matching fruit sherbet
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Examples of Contrasting Dessert Elements
Poached pears with vanilla ice cream and chocolate sauce
Hot desserts served with frozen desserts Creamy desserts with a slightly tart sauce
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Chocolate
True chocolate couverture:
Cocoa solids Sugar Cocoa butter
Chocolate coating: Some cocoa butter
replaced by other fats While easier to handle
and less expensive, it lacks the shine, texture, and flavor of genuine couverture
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Chocolate Tempering Temperatures
115˚F to 118˚F (46˚C to 48˚C) – melting temperature
78˚F to 79˚F (26˚C) – cooling or tempering temperature
86˚F to 88˚F (30˚C to 31˚C) – reheating temperature
Do not reheat above 88˚F (31˚C)
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Procedure for Tempering Chocolate
Chop chocolate into small pieces and place in a dry saucepan
Set pan in a bowl of warm water Stir constantly until chocolate melts and reaches
115˚F (46˚C) Remove pan from warm water Continue stirring until chocolate cools to 78˚F (26˚C) Reset pan in warm-water bath Stir until it reaches 86˚F (30˚C)
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Making Filled Chocolate
Fill molds as if for solid chocolates After a few moments, pour out liquid chocolate,
leaving a thin coating Let set Fill molds ¾ full with desired filling Pour tempered chocolate on top of filling
and let set
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Making Chocolate from Two-Part Molds
Paint inside surface with tempered chocolate Clip open-bottom molds together Pour in chocolate until almost full
and tap the sides After a few moments, pour out excess
chocolate Leave to cool
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Working with Marzipan
To color, add tinted paste or food dye while mixing
Use stainless steel bowls, as aluminum discolors marzipan
When molding, keep unused portion in a bowl covered with a damp cloth
Store in an airtight container
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Molding Marzipan Fruits
Divide marzipan into equal portions Roll by hand into perfectly smooth balls Using real fruit models, shape marzipan Let dry overnight Color by applying food colors with a brush
or a sprayer
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Working with Pastillage
Make certain all equipment is perfectly clean and dry
Use stainless steel bowls, as aluminum discolors pastillage
Roll paste to a thickness of ⅛ inch (3mm) Turn objects occasionally so they dry evenly
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Working with Nougatine
Pour cooked nougatine onto a marble slab As it sets, flip with a spatula so it cools evenly Flatten with oiled rolling pin Place patterns on nougatine and cut with
heavy, oiled knife
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Basic Procedure for Boiling Sugar Syrup
Slowly stir sugar and water in heavy pan over low heat When sugar dissolves, raise heat to medium high Stop stirring, place sugar thermometer tip in liquid If coloring, add food dye at 260˚F (125˚C) At 275˚F (135˚C), add dissolved cream of tartar Boil rapidly until desired temperature is reached
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Procedure for Spinning Sugar
Lightly oil two wooden rods Spread out paper on floor Bring boiling sugar syrup to 300˚F (149˚C) Remove from heat and plunge pan bottom
into cold water Remove from water and let stand to thicken slightly Dip wire whip with cut ends into hot sugar Wave solution over rods to catch long threads Lift mass off rod and coil or shape as desired
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Procedure for Poured/Cast Sugar
Place oiled mold on oiled marble slab Heat boiling sugar syrup to 330˚F (165˚C) Plunge base of pan into cold water Remove and let stand to thicken slightly Pour syrup into mold to desired thickness Cool for five minutes Remove mold When fully cooled, remove from marble
with palette knife
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Procedure for Pulled Sugar
Heat boiling sugar syrup to 320˚F (160˚C) Plunge base of pan into cold water Remove and let stand to thicken slightly Pour onto oiled marble slab; let cool Before hardening, begin folding edges into center When cool, lift up, and stretch and fold until it crackles Cut into pieces and place under sugar lamp Stretch and fold pieces 12–20 times
until they are pearled
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Procedure for Blown Sugar
Roll hot pulled sugar into ball. Indent with wooden rod. Replace rod with blowpipe and seal. Inflate slowly, shaping object as it grows. Heat end to detach, shape stem with fingers. To make round objects, hold pipe upwards. To make long objects, point pipe downwards.
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