FOOD MANUFACTURE
PRODUCTION & PROCESSING OF FOOD:
Quality & quantity control in the selection of raw materials for food processing! Food manufacturing organisations aim: add value or transform a product to sell for consumption
Company must source sufficient quantity of good quality raw materials
Then process product using suitable equipment to ensure safe, viable product for consumers
Raw materials: Raw materials: any product used in the manufacture or production of a processed good
Raw materials entering food manufacturing places undergo certain processing:
Herbs could be dried, ground, packaged
Flour ground from wheat
Fruits & veggies washed & sorted
Quality control of raw material entering manufacturing plant is essential due to prior
processing – undergo mandatory testing
4 categories of raw material:
Quality control of raw materials:
Quality reassurance: PROCESS oriented & focuses on defect PREVENTION
Quality control: PRODUCT oriented & focuses on defect IDENTIFICATION
Suppliers are investigated to ensure they can provide correct quantity of quality raw
materials – meet standards of the organisation
Raw materials supplied must be free of impurities, pollutants & contaminations
By law, all raw materials must be bought from reputable suppliers
Quality control carried out by specialised technicians
Goal: establish quality of raw materials & detect any problems & prevent contamination
Contaminated materials will result in an inferior end product – may result in discarding, resulting financial losses
Raw material specifications:
Packaging Material:
Plastic, paper, card,
metal, glass
Food Additives:
Colours, flavours,
antioxidants,
preservatives
Ingredients:
Milk, flour, sugar,
fruit, veggies, meat
Processing material:
Water
Physical Characteristic
s: Shape, size
Sensory Characteristics
: Colour, taste,
aroma
Biological Characteristics
: Microbial limits
Chemical Characteristics:
Moisture content, PH
levels
QR = PP
QC = PI
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CREATING RAW MATERIAL SPECIFICATIONS:
Comprehensive team of experts is required to source & set up raw material specification
Due to increased access to unique & complex materials, international sourcing, geographic locations
& strict regulations
Team responsible for selecting & setting up specifications for raw materials include specialist from:
R&D, quality assurance & production (receiving to shipping & sales)
Once team is assembled they discuss & agree upon key characteristics from the raw materials
Complexity of raw material specification sheets will differ depending upon size of the organisation & types of
products being made
All specifications must be able to be tested. As a minimum following should be included:
- Name & description of the product
- Presence of food allergen
- Organoleptic information
- Relevant physical, chemical &
microbiological information
- Shipping & storage information
- Shelf life
- Handling directions
Once results have been obtained from tests, manufacturers may:
1. Accept raw material if complies with set standards
2. Reject raw material if doesn’t comply with set standards
3. Start procedures to control problem if raw material isn’t outside specifications
but may deteriorate
Role of food additives in the manufacturing process!
Food Additives: FOOD ADDITIVES: substances added to food that are not normally consumed alone
- Ensure food is nutritious, safe to eat, convenient and meet needs of consumers
Could include: Food colouring: E.G. tartrazine (yellow), cochineal (red)
Flavour enhancers: E.G. monosodium glutamate 621
Preservatives: E.G. humectants, antioxidants
Not all processed foods have additives
Long life milk, frozen fruits are process but don’t contain additives
Some ingredients in product contain food additives without being mentioned
on the label
E.G. “margarine” is listed as an ingredient and that contains food additives
ADDITIVES: Raising agents Natural flavours Probiotics Acidity regulators Juice concentrate
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ADDITIVE FUNCTION E.G. FOUND IN
Acids/regulator/alkali Maintains acid level in food
Important for taste
Influences how other substances in food
function
E.G. acid can retard growth of some micro-
organism
Tartaric acid 334 Fruit juice, pasta sauce
Anti-caking agents Reduce tendency food particles sticking
together
Improve flowing characteristics
E.G. seasoning with anti-caking agent flows
freely - no clumps
Calcium
Carbonate 170
Salt
Flour
Antioxidants Prevent oxidation of food
^ food deteriorates
E.G. fat develops when exposed to oxygen.
A.O prevents this
BHA – butylated
hydroxynsole 320
Margarine
Spreads
Walnuts
Salad dressings
Artificial sweeteners Replace sweetness provided by sugars in
foods without contributing majorly to their
available energy
Saccharines 954 Diet soft drinks
Diet yogurt
Bulking agents Increase volume of food
E.G. sugar bulks volume of lollies
Some low-joule foods need bulking agents to
replace bulk of sugar
Sorbitol 420 Chewing gum
Colours Add or restore Colour to foods
E.G. icing
Tartrazine 102 Jellies, jams
Confectionary
Emulsifiers Stop oil & water from separating into
layers
E.G. margarine (prevent oil on top)
Lecithin 322 Ice-cream
Margarine
Firming agents Maintain even dispersion of substances in
solid & semi-solid foods
Calcium chloride 509 Tofu
Cheesemaking
Flavour enhancers Enhance existing taste &/or odour of food Monosodium
glutamate 621
Stock powder
Instant noodles
Humectants Reduce moisture loss in food
E.G. glycerine added to icing to prevent
drying
Sorbitol 420 Pastries
Dried fruit
Preservatives Prevent deterioration of food by
microorganisms thus preventing food
spoilage
Sulfur dioxide 220 Wine
Dry cereal with semi-
moist raisons
Thickeners Increase viscosity of food
E.G. sauce
Dextrins 1400 Packet sauces
Gravy mix
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Domestic use of food additives: Some common food additives purchased in store is:
Food flavouring
Flavour essence
Food acids
Artificial sweeteners
Allergies & Intolerances: Usually additives don’t prose problem in the short term but some additives in Australia are linked to adverse reactions in
some consumers E.G:
Digestive disorders – diarrhoea
Nervous disorders – hyperactivity, insomnia
Respiratory problems – asthma, sinusitis
Skin problems – hives, rashes, swelling
Regulating food additives: FSANZ controls & regulates use of additives of processed foods in Australia
Website provides list of additives that have been approved for usage in
foods
Manufacturer choosing to use additive need to 1st apply to FSANZ for approval – process ensures consumer
safety
Code numbering system used in replacement of long names of additives
Made in 1986
Food identified by their class name and code number
Makes it easier for consumers who are intolerant or allergic to identify them
E.G. flavour enhancer 621 = monosodium glutamate
Characteristics of equipment used in different types of production & factors influencing their selection: Efficient, durable & sturdy: industrial equipment may run for 24/7. Energy efficiency is essential. Processing equipment
produces large quantities of food
Safe and hygienic: Cleaning manufacturing equipment carried out by a clean in place process (CIP)
Uses mix of chemicals, heat & water to clean & sanitise machinery, fittings, pipes without taking apart
equipment
Equipment must be fitted with safety guards to prevent staff being injured
Equipment must be constructed from non-reactive & non-corrosive materials (stainless steel)
Production systems: Can differ from manual labour to highly automated & computerised production systems
Types of production system used will depend on:
Type of product being made
Amount of product being produced
Cost and time involved
Role of food additives in
food:
1. Maintain quality
2. Extend shelf-life
3. Special dietary needs
4. Restore or improve foods
Specific food additives causing problems for
consumers:
Flavour enhancers (monosodium
glutamates MSG)
Food colourings
Artificial sweeteners (aspartame)
Preservatives (benzoates & sulphites)
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Production systems used in the manufacture of food:
5 categories of production systems:
Production system Description + features Food example
Small scale
Limited, domestic machinery
Less complex operated machinery
Piping bag for éclair
Kitchen aid mixer for
dough
Food processor
Manual
Employee physically adding ingredients or performing
certain operations by hand
Involves a lot of steps
Relies on skills & judgement of staff
High cost & efficiency – consistency reduced
Labour intensive
Hand dipping truffles
BBQ pork place
Pizza making
Pastry - fancy
Large scale
Used in large production operation
Can include production line
Produces large volumes of food over short period of time
Arnott’s biscuits
Tofu making factory
Automated
Machines handle & control processing of food from
receipt raw materials through final products
Systems have pre-set, predetermined specifications for
operation, mixing times, speed, temp control, cooking,
cooling times, cleaning, sterilisation
Process of fresh milk
Computerised
Automated equipment & machinery operated by
computerised sensors that can keep complex operations
running 24/7
Systems have ability to store complex data, keep record
of batch number, PH levels, production conditions, dates
& times
Cheese making
UNIT OPERATIONS: Process Description Equipment Domestic
Separation
Isolates, remove sections of a food
Skin from potatoes
Filtration: passes juice through filter
removing pulp & other fibrous parts
Centrifuging – using force to separate
particles from a solution
Potato rumbler – skin
from potato
Juice filtration system
Spinning salad to
remove water
Peeler, knife
Orange squeezer
Centrifuge
Size
reduction
Cutting
Slicing
Grating
Dicing
Pasta cutting system
^ Cuts pasta into desired
length using blade
Spice grinders
Salt + pepper mill
Knife to cut veggies
Mixing
Incorporate food ingredients into each
other
Bread kneading
machine
High pressure, mixers
Industrial mixers
Kitchen aid dough
hook mixer
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Heating
Destroys pathogenic microorganisms
High temp short time (HTST)
Canning + bottling: preserve food in
metal or glass containers & extend shelf
life
Baking: cook food & remove moisture
Blanching: low intensity heat-transfer –
destroy enzymes that cause food
spoilage
Plate heat exchangers
used to pasteurise milk
Tubular heat
exchangers – make
sauces
Saucepan/stove
Oven
Microwave
Cooling
Reduces temp of food
Slows activity of micro-organisms that can
cause food spoilage
Industrial refrigerator Refrigerator
Freezing Changes liquid into solid so it becomes
inaccessible to micro-organisms
Air blast freezer Freezer
Evaporation
Concentrates flavour of food by
evaporating portion of water content
Fruit juice evaporated
system
Reduction process on
stove top – boiling
Dehydration Removing moisture from food affecting
volume of food
Dried by heat or atmosphere
Sun drying: large mesh trays placed
outside in direct sunlight to dry tomatoes
Tunnel drying: food moves through
heated tunnel removing moisture content
from food
Cabinet drying: food placed on trays in
enclosed place where hot air circulates
Spray drying: liquidised food forced
through spray nozzle into hot air – liquid
instantly dries into powder
Large mesh trays in
direct sunlight
Tunnel drying conveyor
belt
Laying food in the sun
Domestic food
dehydrator
Flow Process Charts Graphic representation of a production process relating to production &
manufacture of a specific product
Represents all steps raw material go through to become a finished
product
Closely linked to quality assurance and HACCP
New staff become quickly aware of each step of production
process
Steps: receiving raw materials, storing ingredients, preparing,
cooking, cooling, packaging, labelling, storing, distribution
Run vertically down page
Joined by vertical lines
Demonstrates entire production process
Can be used to identify critical control points that could pose
risk to public health
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Name Symbol Description
Operation
Raw material purposely changed in any way, shape, form
Microbial or chemical change – item put together or separated
from other materials
Requires labour with use of equipment
Relate to process of preparing R.M to undergo another
operation, inspection, transportation, storage, distribution
Inspection
R.M or final product examined, tested, sampled, manufactured
Requires form of labour with sophisticated equipments
machines designed to determine if product meets
specification determined by process
ensure process is being performed correctly & … quality &
quantity of foods produced
E.G. recording temp
Transportation
Human labour & equipment used to transport product from one
place make to another
Production line to warehouse or other production plant
for another operation
Must occur without altering product or packaging material
E.G. pumping tomato paste from tank to production line
Delay
Momentary halt in production & processing of product
Occurs when internal systems don’t allow next process step to
take place
Rarely occurs as they’re costly for organisation – time + money
Storage
Raw material or finished product held in controlled environment
Temporary storage where finished product is held in
warehouse or other materials & ingredients are stored
prior to use
E.G. perishable items in refrigeration, foods in freezer
2 procedures at
once
2 procedures occur at the same time – Opera + Inspec, etc
Corresponding symbols used together
Represented with one shape within another
E.G. adding R.M into mixing bowl that’s mixed into other ingredients
Decision
Decide which path the raw material should go in
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Quality management considerations in industrial practices to achieve safe foods for public
consumption:
Quality Management Considerations & Systems:
Quality management systems: set of policies, processes & procedures required to plan & execute safe and reliable food
supply for consumer
Enables easier identification & control of potential quality issues
Essential for improves business performance & “better” end products
Quality assurance = managing high-quality standards & systems
4 main quality assurance systems:
1. GMP: Good Manufacturing Processes – used in factories for staff
2. HACCP: Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points – international standards
3. ISO: International Organisation for Standardisation – international standards
4. WHS: Workplace Health & Safety – used in the workplace
Procedures for quality assurance programs:
1. Creation of final product specification
2. Establishing procedures for assessing & evaluating quality against the specifications
3. Establishing specifications for the manufacturing plant
4. Food sampling + testing
HACCP- Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point: Quality assurance & food safety system identifying potential food hazards & their control points at all stages in
production of food
Basis for ensuring all food is prepared, manufactured & handled safely
Employees trained in 7 steps + responsible for its implementation & monitoring when working in production lines
7 steps in HACCP system:
1. Conduct a hazard analysis:
Personal, environmental hygiene & food production hazards are identified
E.G. eggs, cooking for food, chemical cleaning agents in production process
2. Identification of CCP during manufacturing stage:
Stages which problems may arise
Prevent, eliminate, reduce hazard/s – reduce risk of food-borne illnesses
Could be related to temp control, cross-contamination, safety/sanitation issues, etc
3. Establish ‘critical limits’ for each CCP:
C.L very depending on nature of business
Max or min value to which a food safety hazard must be controlled to prevent, eliminate, reduce
hazard – E.G. acceptable temp in which foods should be cooked or chilled
4. Monitoring systems:
Identify steps that will be taken to prevent hazardous food entering food chain + steps needed to
correct the process
C.A used immediately to avoid injury or illness to humans from hazard
5. Corrective actions:
Organisation must identify actions to be taken if a problem occurs – actions intended as a precaution
& may require more than 1 corrective task
E.G. discarding food, staff being restrained
6. Establish verification procedures:
Quality assurance = everyone’s
responsibilities – important all
staff trained and aware of its
importance
Staff must be able to identify &
react quickly to problems that
arise during production
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HACCP system must be reviewed regularly and amended and updated if required
Activities that determine the validity of the HACCP plan & that the system is operating to the plan
7. Record system:
Detailed records of results must be kept for inspecting purposes and ideas for improvements
Include info on HACCP team, product description, flow diagrams, hazard analysis, etc
WHS: Work Health & Safety:
Involves management of risks to the health & safety of staff in the workplace
WHS committee is formed when there is 20+ employees to: (4 main principles of WHS)
Secure the health, safety & welfare of employees and other workers
Protect public from health & safety risks of business activities
Eliminate workplace risks at the source
Involve employers, employees and organisations that represent them in the formulation &
implementation of health, safety & welfare standards.
Responsibilities that WHS rules specify for employees:
Use PPE
Undertake training and correct equipment use
Report WHS issues
Committee & management must consult when:
Identifying hazards and assessing risks
Making decisions about ways to eliminate or control risks
Proposing changes that may affect the health & safety of workers
Making decisions about consulting procedures, resolving safety issues, monitoring workers’ health & conditions,
& providing information for training
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PERSERVATION:
Food preservation: processing of food to reduce conditions of factors that may cause food to spoil
Preservation techniques help maintain nutritive value of food & reduce waste
Reasons for preserving food - safety, acceptability, nutritive value, availability &
economical viability
Consumers demand seasonal food to be available all year round
But high density living in cities, = little space available to harvest own produce – led to need to preserve &
process food, allowing for earlier distribution and transport
Reasons for preserving food:
Prevent food from spoiling
Prevent loss of quality
Retain nutritional quality
Imparts flavour & unique characteristics to food +
beverages
Provide longer shelf-life for food
Prevent wastage
Ensures safe transportation
Make foods easy to prepare & more convenient
Causes of food deterioration and spoilage
Cause Explanation Example
Chemical
Caused by chemical breakdown of food
When food chemically contaminated by other substance
Cheese going rancid
Residual pesticides on fruit
Microbial
Yeast, moulds, bacteria, viruses
When conditions are favourable, micro-organisms multiply
very quickly
Mould on bread
Slimy milk
Sour milk
Physical
Caused by exposure to oxygen/light/water can alter
structure of food
Surface damage = bruising
Colour change = freezer
burn
Infestation
Rodents, cockroaches, mealworms can cause spoilage
through infestation
Rats knowing at packaging
Fruit flies
Pantry moths that infest dry
cereal
Enzymatic
Chemical substances that act as catalyst to speed up
chemical reactions to food
After fruit is harvested, it
continues to ripen
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Difference between food poisoning & food spoilage:
Food spoilage occurs when the quality of a food deteriorates:
Generally due to activity of yeast, moulds, enzymes
Results in a change in physical appearance
Can see and taste it
Spiled food may not necessarily make you sick
How microorganisms grow:
When conditions are favourable – they multiply very quickly& divide every 20 minutes
By process of binary fusion (splitting into 2)
Make lag phase as long as possible when preserving food – maintain hygienic work practices, equipment, tools,
utensils
4 phases bacteria go through: 1. Lag phase: adjustment period, micro-organisms are adjusting to their new environment
2. Exponential phase: rapid growth and multiplication
3. Stationery phase: bacteria remains relatively constant
4. death phase: lack of nutrients, build up of toxic waste products leads to rapid death of microbes
Food poisoning is an illness caused by consuming contaminated foods:
Affected by bacteria, chemicals, biological contaminants
Often can’t see, taste or smell it Some micro-organisms are pathogenic
Growth of bacteria
Oxygen
Nutrients
Warm temps Sufficient time
Moisture
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Preserving food safely: Outer layers of food need to be removed before preserving as these harbours most of the bacteria
Skin, fat on meat, apple + potato peel
When protective layer is damaged, bacteria can spread internally
Therefore, essential to work quickly to protect the tissue from bacteria & enzymatic browning when
preserving food
Hygienic handling, appropriate storage & sterilised packaging essential to minimise spoilage
Washing, preparing & trimming can remove soil, spores, insects that may cause damage
Removing bruises, spots or blemishes can extend shelf-life of food
Principles behinds food preservation techniques, including temperature control &
restriction of moisture, exclusion of air & PH
Principles of Preservation:
1. Temperature control:
Pathogens grow best at 5*C-60*C (danger zone) – enzymes & microbes are damaged when temps exceed
60*C
Cooking/heating – most common way to preserve food
Enzymatic reaction rates increase then reduce when food is warmed – optimum temp for growth &
reproduction is exceeded
Reaction will stop when enzyme (protein) has denatured
Holding food at 100*C for few minutes is enough to kill all enzymes and most bacteria
High acidity food requires less time and lower temps to destroy bacteria present
All food parts must receive sufficient & even exposure to heat to prevent food spoilage
2. Restricting moisture:
Bacteria need more moisture than yeast or mould to grow
Microbes grow best in clean, pure water Microbes slow/cease growth in ice BUT enzymes still active when frozen
Decreasing water levels in food = reduced ability to multiply & grow Foods with high moisture content likely to be perishable
When substances such as:
- Salt (brine solutions for cured meats & some cheeses)
- Sugar (sugar syrups for canned fruit or sugar in jam)
- Acid (vinegar & lemon juice for preserved vegetables)
4 main principles: Temperature
control Restricting moisture Exclusion of air Control of PH levels
Controlling: Moisture levels Nutrients Oxygen Time Temperature PH levels
Helps ensure safe & reliable food supply that will remain shelf stable for a long time
Conditions that support/encourage microbial growth
Dehydration & evaporation are
effective ways to prevent enzyme & microbial activity
Are added to water, they chemically change the way water acts & makes it
unsuitable for microbes to grow & reproduce
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3. Exclusion of air: Aerobes: microbes that require oxygen to grow
Grow on exposed surfaces of foods + liquids
Aerobes become inactive when air exposure is restricted
Anaerobes: microbes that can survive WITHOUT air
Most common is clostridia – can grow inside meats, gravies, etc if food is not processed
properly
Facultative microbes: able to grow with & without air
E.G. salmonella & staphylococcus aureus can grow on surface of foods & deep in cuts &
crevices
Methods used to exclude air from food and packaging include:
- Canning (soups, fruits, vegetables)
- Bottling (hot air fill containers which acts as vacuum when product cools)
- Vacuum packaging/cryovacing (popular for meats – stored in fridge to prevent anerobes from growing)
- Gas flushing (inserting gases other than oxygen into packaging)
4. Control of PH levels: Scale ranges from 0-14
Below 7 = acidic, above 7 = alkaline
Low PH means food is safer from microbial growth
Foods with PH higher than 4.6 = more prone to microbial growth
Other additives like food acids & smoke can be used (e.g. smoked salmon)
Adding acids to food can:
- Denature enzymes & destroy micro-organisms
- Decrease time & temp required for preservation
Preservation processes! Food can be preserved by removing 1+ factors that bacteria/fungi need to survive e.g. moisture & oxygen
Preservation methods prevent, delay, reduce food spoilage while maintaining nutritional value, texture &
flavour of food
Preservation
Processes
Pasteurisation
Canning
Chilling Freezing
Drying
Fermentation
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Pasteurisation: Pasteurisation: method of heat-treating foods to significantly reduce number of micro-organisms in food item
Does not completely sterilise food
Method of pasteurisation:
Holder process method
Product quickly heated to 65*C & held there for 30min before cooling quickly
HTST (high temp, short time)
Most common method used to pasteurise
Uses plate or tubular heat exchangers
Product quickly heated to 72*C & held there for 15sec then cooled quickly
below 5*C
UHT (ultra-heat treated)
Almost sterilises liquid food by heating it above 135*C
Held there for few seconds as a means of sterilising milk
It changes flavour of milk – long life milk tastes “cooked”
Can be stored at room temp until opened
Canning: Canning – food sealed in a tin can then heated to a temperature that destroys harmful micro-organisms that can grow
in the can
How food was preserved before canning:
- Bottling: fruits and veggies were cooked in brine, vinegar, brandy or oil then sealed in bottles (pasteurisation)
Vinegar was used for pickles, chutney, pickled onions + eggs
- Salt: was essential for drawing all moisture from meat & fish before drying and/or smoking
After salting meat & fish, they were dried in the sun, air or oven
Salt slows growth of bacteria & aids in dehydration process
- Potting: method to preserve meat
“coffyn” of pastry in pie that kept filling of cooked meats fresh for several days
Canning method combines of cooking (heat treatment) & vacuum packaging (exclusion of air) as micro-
organisms & enzymes are destroyed by heat of V.P
Aseptic canning: involves heating food to the correct temperature THEN placing it into a sterile can
Advantages:
Kills specific
pathogenic micro-
organisms like listeria
& salmonella
Suitable foods:
Milk, cream
Grapefruit
Cheese, yogurt
Disadvantages:
Flavour change
Enzymes with desirable
characteristics may be
destroyed
Steps to canning:
1. Can filled with food and liquid – filled to top forcing the air
out
2. Excess air removed with vacuum chamber
3. Lid placed on can & sealed
4. Filled cans heated in retorts (pressure cookers) to kill micro-
organisms for specific time
5. Can quickly cooled & labelled
Reasons for can bulging:
Chemical swelling: food reacts with can & corrodes
Cans used for high acid foods should have lacquer
Poor can-choosing procedures: bacteria can enter can after
processing which creates gases – causing it to bulge
Over filling can: if occurs at low temp, then it can cause
permanent bulging after heating ‘ “physically induced bulging”
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Chilling: Lowering temp to 0*C-5*C which slows microbial growth & enzyme activity
Important for storage of perishable foods on short-term basis
Lower the temp = slower microbial growth
Some moulds can withstand cold conditions – chilling doesn’t destroy all microbes
Therefore, once returned to room temp, microbes become active again
E.G. low storage temps of F+V slow down ripening process – fruits & veggies still living
Freezing: Retards activity of micro-organisms & enzymes as food is stored in temps of -18*C
Low temps turn moisture & liquids into solids - prevents microbial growth
Micro-organisms that survive freezing process will recover rapidly after thawing & begin multiplying when
conditions are favourable
Foods should be thawed SLOWLY in fridge or microwave rather than danger zone on bench for long periods
Drying: Dehydration is removal of moisture
Sun drying foods
Advantages:
Long life storage
Easy to store & transport
Products available all year
Disadvantages:
Heavy
Expensive equipment used in
production
Unable to view contents
Some nutrients destroyed
Suitable foods:
Fruits
Vegetables
Meat, poultry
Fish
Commercial freezing steps:
1. Use high quality raw materials
2. Pre-treat raw ingredients (peel, wash, blanch, etc)
3. Can occur in blast tunnel (ultra-cooled air freezes food) or loaded onto belt (brings them into contact with metal plates cooled
by chilled ammonia below
4. Food packaged (with suitable packaging to prevent drying or freezer burn)
5. Store at -18*C to -25*C
Advantages:
Keeps food longer
Help reduce waste
Products available all year round
Disadvantages:
Texture of food altered when
defrosted
Doesn’t destroy all micro-organisms
Slow freezing can damage cell
structure
Suitable foods:
Fruits + veggies
Meats, poultry
Seafood, dairy
Cooked foods
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Dried foods still contain some moisture which allows for enzymatic action, leading to potential food spoilage
Salt & sugar can be used to preserve dry foods
How does SALT act as preservative?
1. Dries food
2. Draws water out of food & dehydrates it through process of osmosis
Osmosis: a process by which molecules of a solvent tend to pass through a semipermeable membrane from a less
concentrated solution into a more concentrated one
How does sugar act as a preservative?
High sugar concentration cause bacterium to lose water by osmosis (sugar attracts & hold water)
Without enough water, the bacteria can’t grow or divide
Mould is more tolerant & can grow on some jams
Reconstituted food: process of rehydrating dried foods in a liquid or water to bring them back to their original form –
resemble the appearance, texture, size
Moulds & bacteria will continue in grow foods with moisture levels as low as 13-20%
Manufacturers aim to dry foods until they contain 5-6% moisture to combat potential growth
Methods of drying:
Method Explanation
Airdrying
Temps between 10*C-100*C
Water inside food evaporates, increasing the solute concentration of food item
Can cause physical damage, loss of structure & proteins denatures
Reconstituted foods will not regain their original shape
Drum drying
Made from stainless steel 1-2m
Drums heated with steam – food is thinly spread onto surface of
drum
Drum rotates
Once food is dried, its scraped off the surface & may be ground into powder
Kiln drying
Thin layers of food placed on narrow stats & then hot air rises from below, drying food above
Spray drying
Used to dry liquid products
Food sprayed in very small droplets from a height & is hanged by hot air rising from below
As droplets settle, they dry
Packaged as a powder
Tunnel drying
Mainly used for fruits & veggies
Food moves slowly through a 10-15m long tunnel as hot air is blasted down to dry food
Some sun-dried foods “finished off” in tunnel driers
Freeze drying
Mainly used for instant coffee
Complex process
Food Is frozen then THEN moisture is removed from food by allowing ice-crystals to sublime
under vacuum.
Advantage: food avoids heat damage, retain volume, become highly porous (can be
rehydrated easily)
Disadvantage: food can still be damaged during freezing process
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Sublime: change directly into vapour when heated – solid to gas – direct conversion of ice crystals to vapour without
going through the liquid stage
Fermentation: Fermentation of foods caused by activities of micro-organisms
Process involves biochemical breakdown of particular food components
Changes the food’s chemical composition & altering physical nature
Occurs when carbs are converted to acids & alcohol through action of
micro-organisms
CO2 created during fermentation which aids in bread rising
All alcohol produced during process od bread making is killed when baked
Sourdough breads use lactic acid-producing bacteria
Fermentation can take hours (yogurt) or months (salami)
Alcoholic beverages are
created when yeasts act
upon the sugars in honey
grapes, grains or fruits
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PACAKGING, STORAGE, DISTRIBUTION:
Food packaging: provides correct environmental conditions for food while it is stored to be distributed to consumer
Designed to enhance product’s appeal by promoting & informing consumers of its contents whilst being
convenient & user friendly
Can be made from glass, cardboard, metal, plastic, etc
Functions of packaging and types of material available:
Functions of packaging: 1. Contain
2. Convenience
3. Preserve
4. Protect
5. Inform
Protection: Packaging needs to protect food from physical, mechanical, environmental (sunlight, moisture, heat),
microbial damage
Packaging must withstand damage from storage – stacked on top one another
Must be able to withstand vibrations from transportations & heavy loads against vertical impact (weight from
stacking)
Tamper evidence devices: designed to show consumers that product is in original form, unopened, & safe to consume
E.G.
Containment: Purpose of packaging – to hold food products to allow for easy distribution & storage E.G.
- Rice contained in larger plastic bags
- Juice contained in bottles
- Cereal contained in plastic bag THEN cardboard box
Preservation: Packaging prevents contamination, food spoilage, food poisoning cause by micro-organisms
Type of packaging can lengthen shelf life:
Fruits + veggies better preserved with breathable packaging material to allow them to breathe
Dry products better preserved with packaging that prevents moisture from entering
Sometimes necessary for packaging material to prevent moisture loss
High fat products need to be protected from light + oxygen to prevent rancidity
Rancid: oxidation of fats + oils when exposed to air, light, moisture resulting in unpleasant taste + odour
Convenience: Allowing consumers to eat straight from packaging
Yogurt, baby
Baby food in squeezable pouches
Food packaging can be incorporated into the food’s preparation:
Microwavable meal
Packaging may have built in handles:
Juice bottles, milk
- Plastic shrink wraps around lid
- Jars that have pop-tops
- Plastic lids that have collar
- Cellophane around products – chewing gum
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Information: Conveys and advertise information between & from manufacturer to consumer
Important for manufacturer’s “image” & branding – identified through trademark & logo
Must display (by law)
1. Ingredients list
2. Storage information
3. Quantity
4. Country of origin
5. Nutrition information
6. Use by data
7. Declaration of allergens
8. Name & address of manufacturer
9. Brief description of product
Food labelling: provide range of information to help consumers make food choices & protect their health
Any products not weighed & packaged in front of consumer must include all relevant information
Must be written in English
Barcodes aren’t compulsory
Serving suggestions not mandatory although common
No misleading or false information like:
- Picture of fresh banana when flavouring is used
- No claims to cure illness or disease
- No claims like vitamin enriched
Types of packaging:
Primary packaging:
Layer of packaging that comes into direct contact with food product
Main aim: protect food from handling damage during storage & ensure product isn’t exposed to outside air
E.G. paper wrapping on chewing gum, wrapper on muesli bar, jar for jam
Secondary packaging: Layer surrounding primary packaged food product
It’s EXTERNAL, visible face of product
Designed to protect primary packaging by keeping it safe & ease for handling
Helps primary packaging retain its shape & structure for transportation
E.G. cardboard box holding 12 pieces of gum
Tertiary packaging: Secure multiples of secondary packaging for bulk handling & distribution
Can add another layer of protection to maintain freshness of product
E.G. plastic wrap around cardboard box of chewing gum
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Current developments in packaging:
MODIFIED ATMOSPHERE PACKAGING:
Extends shelf life of fresh produce
Substitutes air/gas with protective gas mix inside packaging
Nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide used to ensure food reaches consumers in optimum conditions
Packaging MUST NOT allow gases to pass through once sealed – effective MAP
Barrier specific packaging:
Purpose: allow SOME gases in at different rates & exclude others
Moisture from respiration (breathe)of fresh produce can cause changes to gases
inside packaging
Packaging material must be transparent & have anti-fogging properties (prevent
condensation inside)
E.G. fresh pre-cut fruits + veggies – salad mix
Vacuum packaging: Known as cryovacing
Removes air from inside packaging to create vacuum – seals food
Cost effective – no additional gases need to be sourced
E.G. cheeses, ham, fresh noodles, coffee, olives
Gas packaging: gases specifically formulated to extend shelf life of product
Replace air/’headspace’ in packaging with gases before it’s sealed
Packaging mustn’t be porous or permeable (material allowing gases or liquid to pass through)
E.G. fresh pasta, snack foods (chips, etc) – nitrogen replaces oxygen to keep inflated and
protected
Active packaging: Purpose: modify environment within package as it changes during storage
A.P films are used to hold food & provide a barrier to outside influences
Small reactive pouches placed inside to control internal environment
Pouches known as ‘scavengers’ – removes/add gases or remove odours
produced by food
E.G. fresh meat in trays w/absorbent pad, pouches in naan, seaweed, tortilla wraps
Gas helps retard
growth of microbes
& enzymes that may
cause food spoilage
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SOUS VIDE: Cook-chill process
Extensively used in hospitals, nursing homes, restaurants chains as it allows food to be cooked ahead of
time & reheated when needed
Foods can be cooked, frozen then reheated in polyester film
Vacuum packed in film & blast chilled to 3*C – enables product to be shelf stable for 6wks
Advantages:
MICROWAVE PACKAGING: Used for cooking/heating food in microwave oven
Thermal conductivity of package can affect heat transfer between food and oven
Package alters heating pattern of contained food (releases or tapping water vapours inside
package, thereby cooking product under controlled pressure and temp)
2 types of microwave packaging:
Microwave transparent materials: allows microwaves to pass through the material (e.g. glass)
Microwave active package: use of packaging material that directly affects cooking of product inside pack
(frozen veggies “steam” pouches, Uncle Ben’s microwavable rice pouches)
Innovations in package design:
Edible
packaging
Purpose: reduce amount of non-recyclable & non-biodegradable waste
New inventions: film package made of seaweed, milk proteins, potatoes, kombucha, etc
Milk protein-based films are powerful oxygen blockers that can prevent food spoilage
500x better than plastic at keeping oxygen away from food
Coating can be sprayed onto food – cereal keeping them crunchy when milk is
added
Also to coat pizza box to prevent grease stains
Intelligent &
smart
packaging
Informs consumer about some aspects of the packaged food - quality, nature, production,
history
Can indicate whether a product is:
Warm or cold enough to maximise flavour
Still safe to eat
Ripe enough
Provide info to traceability, tracking & record keeping from paddock to plate
Innovative barrier materials (polymer & coatings) help impede harmful elements like light &
moisture in food
E.G. aqueous barrier (waterproof) coatings ideal for cardboard food containers
Device indicators: provide product info about conditions – freshness, humidity, leakage,
temperature
Moulded fibre: hold delicate items – eggs. New printing tech allows for high quality printing
straight onto the packaging, increasing sustainability & reducing need for secondary
packaging
E.G. RIPESENSE: world’s first intelligent sensor label that changes Colour to indicate ripeness of fruit
- Lightweight
- Colour, flavour, texture retained during cooking
- Inexpensive
- Easy to use
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QR code
readers:
Quick read codes
20 computer generated images that can be scanned by smartphones or tablets to
generate info or perform an action
Popular method of communication from manufacturers to consumers
Aim camera at code – software deciphers the code – connects you to a webpage
Provides extra info to consumer without taking up label space
Enables consumers to enter competitions, provide feedback, follow them on socials, etc
Biodegradable
& plant-based
packaging:
Scientists have been developing bioplastic trays and films from corn and wheat starch.
E.G.
Plant technologies
Bio-pac
Plant-sterol PET bottles
Micro – fibrillated cellulose (MFC)
Storage conditions and distribution systems at various stages of food manufacture.
Storage: known as the delay stage
Perishable + non-perishable R.M need to be stored in when they initially arrive at processing point
Require controlled-atmosphere storage – refrigerators, freezers, dry storage - to ensure they’re optimal condition
when required
E.G. not holding product prior to canning, dough needing to rise before being baked into bread
JIT production (just in time production) doesn’t require products to spend much time in warehouse storage
E.G. gourmet cupcakes, strawberry dipped in chocolate
Distribution: Method used to take raw materials from farm or processing plant to the food service, catering industry, food
retailer, or consumer
Involve transporting food once or several stages – E.G. farm to farmer’s market (once)
Manufacturer must consider suitable packaging to distribution method
Size, shape of finished product’s important
Secondary & tertiary packaging important to prevent damage to a product’s primary package or contents
Quality management procedures are important because contamination & loss of quality can occur
Refrigerated food left on loading dock for extended period in warm weather = contamination or loss of quality
Fresh produce may become contaminated if it is loaded into a truck that was not cleaned after transporting
animal or animal products
Transport and distribution: often referred to as logistics
Transportation can occur by road, rail, air or sea
Food can travel interstate of overseas, requiring specialised logistic
companies to be used
Manufacturing plants use laser guided vehicles & RORO (roll on roll off)
machines to quickly & efficiently load food items onto trucks to be
transported
Cold storage: 0*C – 5*C
Freezer: -18*C to -30*C
Dry storage areas must be well ventilated, have controlled humidity levels & temperature shouldn’t exceed 24*C –
avoid exposure to sunlight
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Automated systems reduce need for human labour & are easy to use – eliminates need for forklifts and double
handling of products
Efficient loading & unloading can be completed with fat turnaround vehicles
Packaging must be durable to withstand handling & movement while still being lightweight – reduce damage
during transit
Cartons removed from their pallets & arranged into large aisles or sections – products then stored ready for
orders to be transported into individual stores
Once delivered retail items removed from transport, checked off then placed onto shelves ready for purchase
Selling directly to consumers:
Manufacturer ----------------------> consumer
Selling through retailers:
Manufacturer -----------> Retailer -----------> Consumer
Selling through wholesalers
Manufacturer -----------> Wholesaler -----------> Retailer -----------> Consumer